Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.

net/scps)

Farm and Forestry

Production and Marketing Profile for

Black pepper (Piper nigrum)

By Scot C. Nelson and K. T. Cannon-Eger

USES AND PRODUCTS
Aside from salt, pepper is the world’s most important and
valued spice. It is used as an important component of many
recipes and to flavor foods. From the berries of Piper nigrum
are produced several condiments: black pepper, white pep-
per, green pepper, and “Tellicherry” pepper. Many grades of
these peppers are recognized in the spice trade.
Other important commercial products derived from the
pepper plant are:
• Pepper oil (the vapor or steam distillation process
widely used in fragrances or condiments; black pepper
yields about 1–2.4% essential oil)
• Cookies and crackers
• Tea (pepper leaves combined with tea leaves)
• Perfumes (made from dried parts of the pepper plant)
• Candy, sweets (contain pepper oil/resin)
• Sausage preservation
Commercial production of pepper worldwide in 2000
was approximately 230,000 metric tons (MT) (254,000 T).
Countries in the International Pepper Community, an inter-
governmental organization of pepper producing countries,
produce 84% of the world’s crop (FAO 2000). Other coun-
tries such as Vietnam, China, and Madagascar produce the
remaining 16%. Pacific island production probably com-
prises less than 1% of world production.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cluster of ripening peppercorns.
Preferred scientific name
Piper nigrum L. Brief botanical description
Pepper is a woody, climbing vine growing to 9 m (30 ft) or
Family more in length. The grayish stem may reach 1.2 cm (0.5 in)
Pepper family (Piperaceae). The family name, Piperaceae, is diameter. Numerous rootlets grow from swollen stem nodes.
derived from piper, the Latin word for pepper. Most of the These stem roots allow the vine to attach to other surfaces
European names for pepper were derived from the Sanskrit, for support, such as other plants or structures, and to climb
pippali, a word used for this plant at least 3,000 years ago in them.
India.
Leaves, dark green above and pale green beneath, are glossy,
Common names ovate and acutely tipped, and range in size from 13–25 cm
English: pepper, black pepper, white pepper (5–10 in) in length.
Elongated, slender spikes or catkins (1.6–2 cm [4–5 in] in
International names length) bear minute, white flowers. The flower spikes, each
Chinese: hu jiao (hu chiao), hei hu jiao (medicinal name), producing from 50–60 single-seeded berries, always appear
bai hu jiao, woo jiu on stems opposite the leaves. Therefore yield of the berries
French: poivre commun, poivre blanc, poivre noir (i.e., the peppercorns) depends upon leaf number.
German: Pfeffer, Grüner Pfeffer, Schwarzer Pfeffer; Weißer
True pepper is distinguished from the following different
Pfeffer
spices, which are sometimes designated as peppers:
Japanese: burakku peppaa, koshou, peppaa, pepaa
Spanish: pimienta • The capsicum group (paprika, cayenne pepper, chili
pepper, red pepper, bell pepper, and other pod-like
fruit of the nightshade family).

Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Black Pepper by Scot C. Nelson and K. T. Cannon-Eger 2
 land. Soils rich in humus with acidic pH (5.5–6.0) and good
drainage and aeration are preferred. Light shade is also ben-
eficial

Soils
Maximum production occurs in deep soils rich in organic
matter and medium texture. Pepper can grow well in wet
soils and is therefore suitable for planting near a pond.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Pepper is a woody, climbing liana or vine. In cultivation, the
plant is grown on a support such as a trellis. It may grow to
a length of 10 m (33 ft) or more in length. During the third
year after planting, a small crop can be harvested, with full
production realized 7–8 years after planting. Plants are most
Green pepper berries and leaves. productive at 8–20 years of age, but can continue bearing for
30 years. Ripe berries may be picked about 9 months after
• Jamaican pepper (pimento or allspice, which are the flowering. Berries ripen over a period of 2–6 months de-
berries of Pimenta dioica). pending on climate or latitude. Berries are usually harvested
• Melegueta pepper (“grains of paradise,” which are the every 7–14 days during the harvesting period. The harvest-
small, darkly aromatic seeds of Amomum melegueta) ing calendar months vary throughout the world. For exam-
• Indian long pepper (Piper longum L.) ple, in India, pepper is harvested from November through
• Javanese long pepper (Piper officinarum L.) March, whereas in Madagascar the crop is harvested from
June through October. There is potential for two crops per
The long peppers, not widely used in Western countries, still year in some regions. In Papaikou, Hawai‘i, harvest occurs
comprise condiments and medicines in Eastern lands. in February/March and in May/June.
There is significant intraspecific variation in the genus, such
as the names of variants provided in Mathew et al. (2006). AGROFORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
SERVICES
DISTRIBUTION Trees may be used to support pepper vines. Any tree or palm
Native range with rough bark that does not peel or slough off periodically,
such as coconut, can be used to support black pepper plants.
Piper nigrum is native to the humid jungles of the Malabar
The plant grows well under light shade and thrives in soils
Coast of southwestern India.

Current distribution worldwide

Elevation, rainfall, and temperature requirements for
Pepper is currently cultivated in the tropics worldwide. In cultivation
the Pacific, it is an important cash crop in the Federated
lower: sea level
States of Micronesia (the island of Pohnpei). Although the Elevation range
upper: 600 m (1,970 ft)
plant grows well in Hawai‘i and many other Pacific islands, it
is not widely cultivated there. Worldwide leaders in pepper lower: 600 mm (24 in)
Mean annual rainfall
upper: 2,000 mm (80 in)
production are India, Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand,
Black pepper prefers uniform
Sri Lanka, Madagascar, Mexico, and some other countries. Rainfall pattern
rainfall.
Dry season duration (consecutive Avoid areas with long dry peri-
ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND months with <40 mm [1.6 in] ods, short dry periods favor fruit
TOLERANCES rainfall) ripening and harvesting.
lower: 22°C (72°F)
Mean annual temperature
Climate upper: 30°C (86°F)
Pepper vines thrive in moist, hot, tropical climates from sea Mean maximum temperature of
unknown
hottest month
level up to approximately 600 m (1,970 ft) elevation. It re-
Mean minimum temperature of
quires evenly distributed annual rainfall of about 2,500 mm coldest month
unknown
(100 in) or more and grows best on flat or gently sloping Minimum temperature tolerated 12°C (54°F)

Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps) 3

Top left: Preparing stolon cuttings for planting. Pohnpei. Top right: Vines climbing on fern stem support. Pohnpei. Bottom left: Pep-
per plants being established on fern stem posts. Pohnpei. Bottom right: Pepper plants growing on concrete posts. Thailand.

rich in humus, making it an excellent agroforestry crop- spacing. The stakes are set in place before planting rooted
ping plant. However, too much shade reduces yield. Pepper cuttings. Several cuttings may be planted adjacent to each
plants also respond well to organic fertilization from mulch support. Occasional pruning encourages lateral branching
materials collected in or near forests. and a dense growth habit, and also keeps plants to the height
of their support stakes. One recommended interplant spac-
PROPAGATION AND PLANTING ing practiced in locations such as Malaysia and Sri Lanka is
2.5 m × 2.0 m (8.2 ft × 6.6 ft), which results in a population
There are at least three propagation methods for black pep-
of 2,000 pepper plants/ha (810 plants/ac).
per: 1) multiplication by seeds; 2) rooted stolon cuttings;
and 3) grafted plants. Propagation is usually accomplished
by stolon cuttings selected from the upper portions of CULTIVATION
young, vigorous, high-yielding, healthy vines. A stolon is a Variability of species and known varieties
horizontal branch that produces new plants from buds at its
tips. These cuttings are rooted and grown in shaded nurser- More than 40 pepper varieties are grown worldwide. Most
ies; plants are well watered and may be heavily fertilized. of the varieties derive from India: ‘Panniyur 1’, ‘Karimunda’,
‘Lampng’, ‘Bangka’, ‘Belontoeng’, and ‘Cers’. The varieties dif-
Outplanting techniques fer in raceme length, leaf size, berry attributes (size, color,
Pepper is usually cultivated on 4 m (13 ft) high support etc.), pest and disease resistance, quality parameters, and
stakes (timber or concrete posts, harvested stems of tree yield. The varieties also differ in suitability to various cli-
ferns, or young, living trees) at 2.4 m × 2.4 m (8 ft × 8 ft) mates, such as wet conditions or well defined dry periods.

Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Black Pepper by Scot C. Nelson and K. T. Cannon-Eger 4
Basic crop management plant, and harvests and income can be generated in a field
Basic crop management after planting for pepper crops in- where other crops are simultaneously planted, grown, and
cludes weed control, pest and disease management, fertiliz- harvested.
ing and/or mulching, irrigation during dry periods, training
of vines, and pruning. Pruning the tips or stems of young PESTS AND DISEASES
plants promotes the development of dense canopies, where-
as pruning of the vines near the top the stake (stakes should Susceptibility to pests/pathogens
be about 3.7 m [12 ft tall]) keeps them trained to a man- Major diseases
ageable height. Protect young vines from direct sun during Perhaps the primary disease problem with black pepper
summer by shading with vegetation or other means such as cultivation in some areas of the world is root rot and foot
coconut fronds or shade cloth. Applying mulch to the base rot caused by Phytophthora capsici and some other Phy-
of vines can be very beneficial to plant growth and health. tophthora species. These pathogens thrive in wet and poorly
About 9 months after flowering, the berries are ready for drained soils. Symptoms of root rot include wilting of leaves
harvest. Black pepper is made from the nearly ripe green and discoloration of stems near the soil line. However, these
berries and consists of pulp plus seed. White pepper derives pathogens may also attack the foliage, causing blights of
from fully ripened, greenish-yellow berries that are almost leaves and berries. These diseases may rapidly kill pepper
turning red in color. White pepper is the peppercorn seed plants (within 10 days).
from which the outer, fleshy pulp is removed by fermenta- A stem rot and wilt disease of pepper has caused extensive
tion followed by peeling away the softened skin. Green pep- damage to some pepper plantations. The fungal pathogen,
per is obtained from unripe pepper berries that are dried Fusarium solani f. sp. piperis, is soilborne.
or preserved in vinegar or citric acid. Tellicherry pepper is
produced from fully ripened, dried berries. This product Cucumber mosaic virus can cause a severe mosaic disease
has reddish brown color and a rather complex flavor profile. of pepper in some locations. This plant pathogen has an ex-
Tellicherry pepper production presents more risk to farm- tremely wide host range, attacking a large number of alter-
ers due to potential loss of crop to feeding birds, molds, or nate host species around the world.
spoilage before processing. Plant-parasitic nematodes may also cause damage to pepper
plants, including root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
Advantages and disadvantages of polycultures and burrowing nematodes (Radopholus simils), and others.
One advantage of pepper cultivation is that the vines may be These parasites cause root galls and rots, foliar yellowing,
supported on the trunks or stems of young or small living and slow plant decline.
trees, while not negatively impacting the trees or compet- There are also some nursery diseases caused by fungi such
ing with them. Pepper can also benefit from moderate shade as Rhizoctonia sp. that, when established and conditions are
levels. Plants may also be trained to occupy vertical space, wet and warm, can cause loss of leaves or young plants.
rendering them good crops to combine in polycultures with
plants growing at ground level. Pepper is also a perennial

Left: Shading young pepper vines with palm fronds. Thailand. Right: Mulch applied at base of a young pepper vine. Pohnpei.

Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps) 5

 well fertilized and irrigated. Scout fields regularly for disease
symptoms and pest incidence. If necessary, remove severely
diseased pepper plants from fields and use appropriate in-
sect control measures when necessary. Practice sanitation
in nurseries and fields by removing severely infected leaves
and clean up fallen plant debris. Plant a leguminous ground
cover in fields to provide nitrogen and to prevent splashing
of pathogen-infested soil onto foliage. Thin out pepper plant
canopies by pruning if foliar blight diseases are a threat; this
practice reduces relative humidity and leaf wetness in the
canopy. Use chemical pesticides to manage diseases where
possible and necessary. Intercrop pepper with non-hosts of
the major diseases present in the area, and eliminate alter-
nate hosts such as weeds from the area. Apply green ma-
nures and organic matter to control plant-parasitic nema-
todes. Avoid outplanting of diseased pepper plants; inspect
their roots and foliage for disease symptoms before planting.
Avoid very close spacing among pepper plants.

DISADVANTAGES
Some drawbacks or problems associated with pepper pro-
duction are:
• Lengthy time required between planting and first prof-
itable harvests
• Large labor requirements for harvesting and processing
• Establishing effective quality control and appropriate
markets
• High expense of establishing appropriate growth trel-
Algal leaf spot of pepper caused by a Cephaleuros species. Pohn- lises or stakes
pei.
Potential for invasiveness
Nutritional deficiencies for pepper plants may appear in Pepper is not invasive, although it can naturalize and grow
fields with inadequate irrigation or insufficient amendments wild.
of fertilizers or mulches.
In some areas, other plant viruses cause severe disease in COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION
pepper fields. One, known as “stunted disease,” can result in
Postharvest handling and processing
severe leaf malformation and plant stunting.
Anthracnose, caused by the fungal plant pathogens in the Black pepper
genus Colletotrichum, can cause leaf spotting and blights. Berries are harvested when their color is greenish yellow. In
some places, the berries are dipped in boiling water for 10
A number of insect pests attack pepper, but usually do not
minutes after harvest. This provides a surface disinfestation
pose production constraints for plants. In Hawai‘i, ants may
and starts the fermentation process, which turns the berries
build nests among developing peppercorns, creating a nui-
black. Berries are dried in the sun after the hot water treat-
sance in cleaning them during processing.
ment. About 14 days are required for sun drying in order
Sustainable methods for pest and disease to reach a moisture content of approximately 12%. Strive
prevention to produce berries that have uniform color (dark brown to
black), have pungent aroma, and are free of mold. About
Avoid planting pepper in heavy or poorly drained soils.
100 kg (220 lb) of green pepper can produce approximately
Mulch pepper plants to help provide nutrition and increase
35 kg (77 lb) of black pepper.
soil aeration. Do not take cuttings from diseased pepper
plants. Avoid rooting pepper stem cuttings in media that
are infested with plant-parasitic nematodes. Keep plants

Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Black Pepper by Scot C. Nelson and K. T. Cannon-Eger 6
White pepper Dehydration and heat treatment
Berries are harvested when about 75% of them have a red Heat treatment lends a uniform, black luster to the pep-
or reddish-orange color. The ripe berries are placed in wa- percorns. Collect separated peppercorns using a perforated
ter for about 8 days, which softens the skin enough for it basket or coarse fabric. Dip the berries along with the con-
to be peeled away easily. Thereafter, they are dried in the tainer into boiling water for one minute. Then drain and
sun to a white-beige color. These berries are sun dried as are spread the heated berries onto a clean surface for sun drying.
the black berries, but are re-submerged in water if weather
becomes rainy or cloudy. Strive to produce berries of a uni- Oil/resin extraction (bulk, fragrance, sausage
form buff color and free of mold. The aroma is mild. About preservative)
100 kg (220 lb) of green berries can produce approximately The geographic origin of black pepper berries and the meth-
25 kg (55 lb) of white pepper. The discarded hulls can be od of their preparation determine the chemical composition
processed for pepper oil. of pepper oil. The oil and/or oleoresins are produced from
imported black pepper berries principally in North Ameri-
Green pepper ca or Western Europe. But small amounts of oil from black
This product is obtained from unripe (green) pepper berries pepper are produced elsewhere using various methods such
that are dried or preserved in vinegar or citric acid. as fractionation, distillation, or extraction by solvents (i.e.,
ethanol, acetone, or dichloroethane). Oleoresins (used in
Tellicherry pickles, canned meats, and dressings) may be produced us-
Berries are harvested when fully ripe (orange to red in color) ing solvent extraction, and have similar pungency, odor, and
and processed. flavor. The essential oils can also be obtained by cold press-
ing.
Value-added processing
There are a number of methods that may be employed to Milling or grinding
add value to pepper at a community or farm level without Ground black pepper is stored in sealed containers and
large, expensive, highly technological industrial processes. shipped promptly to minimize loss of quality.

Left: About 1 kg (2.2 lb) freshly harvested peppercorns. Right: A 10-minute soak of berries in near-boiling water.

Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps) 7

Left to right: Green berries that have been soaked in near-boiling water for 10 minutes; Dry green berries that have fermented and
turned black; dry Tellicherry berries; Ripe berries that have been soaked in near-boiling water for 10 minutes and will become Telli-
cherry. A colander is helpful for sorting out small peppercorns and debris after drying.

Product quality standards should be easy to open and easy to close, which ensures that
International phytosanitary requirements for pepper in- pepper always remains fresh.
clude the following parameters: The best containers are made from glass and have screw caps.
Black pepper must be free of whole insects, alive or dead, Thin plastic bags may be used (polyethylene or polypropyl-
be almost free of fecal matter from mammals or other ani- ene), or paper bags with treated or coated surfaces, but these
mals, have a maximum of 1% by weight of berries damaged may allow water vapor to pass through and degrade quality.
by insects, berries with rustiness, and non-pepper materials. Labeling should include information specific to the product.
Additionally, there must be a maximum of 2% by weight of Labeling of pepper products can follow the coffee model: us-
light berries, a minimum of 500 pepper berries per liter, no ing terms that add value, such as single estate, hand-picked,
black-grey berries, and no more than 12% moisture. sun-dried, and organic (if certified by a third party). A men-
White pepper has the same quality parameters as black pep- tion of the pepper variety or location could be made on the
per, except that there must be a minimum of 600 pepper label.
berries per liter, a maximum of 1% black-grey ber-
ries, and no more than 14% moisture.

Product storage requirements

Shelf life for properly stored pepper is 12–18
months. At temperatures higher than 15–20°C
(59–68°F) and relative humidity of over 60%,
harmful molds or aflatoxins (harmful substances
produced by some molds) may form on pepper-
corns.

Recommended labeling for products

Packaging pepper properly ensures protection
against aroma loss and absorption of undesirable
flavors and odors. Packaging should occur in the
country of origin. The packaging should prevent or
minimize humidity loss or absorption. Packages
Jars of dried black pepper packed for shipping. Hawai‘i.

Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Black Pepper by Scot C. Nelson and K. T. Cannon-Eger 8
SMALL SCALE PRODUCTION Nutrition
A commercial pepper crop may be readily grown in urban Black pepper is an excellent source of manganese, a very
gardens, home gardens, or farms of less than 0.5 hectare good source of iron and vitamin K, and a good source of
(1.2 ac). The primary requirements are level, fertile soil and dietary fiber.
growth supports or stakes for the vines.
Basic nutrients in 2 tsp (4.28 g)
Live trees can also be used as supports. Examples include
calories 10.88
coral tree (Erythrina indica, E. variegata, or E. lithosperma),
calories from fat 1.24
Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, and Garuga pin-
calories from saturated fat 0.36
nata. In some regions, Ailanthus malabarica is used at lower
protein 0.48 g
altitudes and Grevillia robusta at higher elevations.
carbohydrates 2.76 g
The fruit may be dried on a small scale to produce common- dietary fiber 1.12 g
ly used spices (black and white pepper). Essential oils can be fat—total 0.12 g
extracted by steam vapor.
saturated fat 0.04 g
mono fat 0.04 g
poly fat 0.04 g

Left: A polyculture of black pepper and dragon fruit growing on a trellis of tamarind. Right: Pepper plants trellised on Leucaena trees.

Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps) 9

Vitamins in 2 tsp (4.28 g) Import replacement
vitamin A IU 8.12 IU The crop is widely used in households in the Pacific where
vitamin A RE 0.80 RE the crop is grown. A family that grows a small number of
A—carotenoid 0.80 RE few pepper plants can completely replace their retail pur-
A—beta carotene 4.88 mcg chases of this spice. Off-island imports can be reduced sig-
thiamin—B1 0.00 mg nificantly where pepper is farmed successfully.
riboflavin—B2 0.00 mg
niacin—B3 0.04 mg YIELDS
niacin equiv 0.04 mg
Expected range of yields per plant
vitamin C 0.88 mg
vitamin E alpha equiv 0.04 mg Yields per plant: a full-grown (7–8 years old), well developed
vitamin E IU 0.08 IU mature vine can yield about 1.8–2.3 kg (4–5 lb) of dried ber-
vitamin E mg 0.04 mg
ries each harvest season. About 11,230 kg/ha (10,000 lb/
acre) of green berries can be produced, which converts to
folate 0.44 mcg
3,140 kg/ha (2,800 lb/ac) of dried white pepper or about
vitamin K 6.88 mcg
3,930 kg/ha (3,500 lb/ac) of dried black pepper. There are
Other components (per 100 g)
Black pepper-
Component White pepper
corns (dried)
Water 9.5–12.0 g 9.5–13.7 g
Protein 10.9–12.7 g 10.7–12.4 g
Starch 25.8–44.8 g 53.9–60.4 g
Fiber 9.7–17.2 g 3.5–4.5 g
Ash 3.4–6.0 g 1.0–2.8 g
Piperine (pungent) C17H19O3N 4.9–7.7% 5.5–5.9%
Essential oils (odiferous)
Note: mainly monoterpene and 1.0–1.8% 0.5–0.9%
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
Source: de Waard and Anunciado 1999

Medicinal qualities
Black pepper has a number of medicinal uses, including
the ability to control worm infestations, and may have the
ability to provide relief for a number of ailments including
asthma, cough, heart diseases, throat inflammations, night
blindness, urinary disorders, tooth and muscle aches, in-
flammations, snake bites, eye diseases, cholera, and swoons.
It is regarded as a purgative, an antidote for poisons, and an
aphrodisiac. Pepper can enhance digestion of food because
after its ingestion, secretions of the pancreas and gastric
system increase. The roots of pepper also have medicinal
qualities, as a stomach anesthetic (causes loss of feeling or
awareness), analgesic (relieves pain without causing a com-
plete loss of sensation), muscle relaxant, digestive stimulant,
antiseptic, diuretic (increases urine flow), sudorific (diapho-
retic, promotion of sweating), anxiolytic (reduces anxiety),
and as a hypnotic.

Insecticidal use
Piperine, one of the alkaloids in pepper, is effective against
houseflies, and gardeners use pepper sprays against several
kinds of pests. Home garden production. Pohnpei.

Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Black Pepper by Scot C. Nelson and K. T. Cannon-Eger 10
about 17,600 dried black peppercorns per kg (8,000/lb), and Specialty markets
24,200 dried white peppercorns per kg (11,000/lb). Specialty markets for pepper include organic, rainforest,
Yield can vary significantly among regions. For example, in bird friendly, fair trade, health and nutrition, and cosmet-
2000 the yields of black and white pepper in Brazil, India, ics. Pepper products can carry a local brand name or loca-
and Mexico ranged from approximately 3,053–29,034 kg/ha tion identity to distinguish them from other peppers. For
(2,720–25,860 lb/ac) (Corpei–CBI 2001). example, black and white pepper products from Pohnpei
are highly regarded by consumers and demanded very high
Recommended interplant spacing prices in the late 1990s. Tellicherry pepper from single es-
Recommended planting density is up to 2,000 plants/ha tates in India is highly regarded by professional and amateur
(800 plants/ac) for monocrops of black pepper. Standard in- gourmet chefs and commanded very high prices in the early
terplant spacing is 2.4 m × 2.4 m (8 ft × 8 ft). Polycultures 2000s.
could range to any density below this, depending on the
polyculture system employed. Potential for Internet sales
Different companion crops allow somewhat different plant- Pepper products are well suited for Internet sales by small or
ing densities or configurations of black pepper. Possible in- large growers or processors. The products are light in weight
terplanting species that have proven successful are jackfruit relative to their value and therefore ship inexpensively, have
(Artocarpus heterophyllus), areca palm (Areca catechu), and long shelf life, and can fetch high process for high quality
kapok (Ceipa pentandra). In the year a pepper plantation is material.
established, it can be intercropped successfully with short-
term crops such as beans, fodder crops, peanut, and soybean. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Since these other crops take up space, the density of pepper
Production expenses
plants would be somewhat less than in a monoculture.
Production expenses are incurred at each step of the pepper
production process. Labor costs vary among locales. Plant-
MARKETS ing stakes may possibly be harvested inexpensively or free of
Local markets charge from a forested area nearby.
Pepper products are highly valued by tourists where the Year 1
crop is cultivated in the Pacific. They may be found in at-
Labor maintenance costs for first 24 months (no peppercorn
tractive packages in small shops in some Pacific island loca-
production) consist of one permanent worker per hectare.
tions, such as Pohnpei. Packaged pepper products, locally
Total site development and planting costs include
grown and produced, are well suited for sale at farmers mar-
kets, retailers, various aspects of the visitor industry, and for • Site/ground selection
use by local chefs and restaurants in preparation of menus • Stake acquisition and establishment
and recipes. • Generation of planting material (usually from cuttings)
Export market • Outplanting
Worldwide pepper production was about 254,000 metric All years
tons in 2000, with 376,000 ha (928,000 ac) under cultiva-
Crop management (weeding, fertilizing, composting, irriga-
tion. World pepper production in 2003 was estimated to be
tion, pruning, disease or insect pest management)
327,250 metric tons (Corpei–CPI 2001). The export mar-
ket for pepper is significant. The major world importers of Years 3–15
pepper are (1993–1997 average) the United States (46,616 Beginning in the third year, a hectare of pepper produces
MT), Singapore (35,042 MT), Germany (17,518 MT), Hol- approximately 1,820 kg (1,620 lb/ac) of black pepper. In the
land (12,772 MT), France, (8,847 MT), Japan, (7,464 MT), fourth year, one hectare produces about 2,730 kg (2,430 lb/
the United Kingdom (6,458 MT), Russia (5,820 MT), Spain ac) of black pepper. Production costs involve the following
(4,315 MT), Canada (4,036 MT) and others (68,300 MT). activities
IThe worldwide demand for pepper increases 2.5% annually.
The consumption of pepper by importing countries in 1997 • Harvesting
was an estimated 400,000–450,000 MT. Approximately 60% • Transportation and receipt
of the pepper produced worldwide is consumed in food and • Weighing
service industries (Corpei–CPI 2001).
• Pre-drying treatment
• Drying

Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps) 11

 • Threshing
• Cleaning, selection and classification
• Packing
• Transportation
Expected income per plant
Wholesale. Pepper prices fluctuate yearly and there has been
much price volatility in past years. The black pepper whole-
sale price in New York in 2009 ranged from $2.53 to $3.34
per kg ($1.15–1.52/lb) (Business Day 2009). Black pepper
prices may be substantially higher in specialty markets or
where only limited quantities of high quality product are
available. Profitability of a farm at the wholesale level will
depend on keeping production costs low and yields high.
A retail, value-added market is best for small farmers, who
should be encouraged to process and market their own pep-
per.
Retail. Prices for pepper vary considerably in the retail
market, with rarer or higher quality pepper products hav-
ing very high values. For example, pepper from Pohnpei is
regarded to be of exceptionally high quality and a relatively
rare commodity which was absent from the market for the
early part of the 2000s. Dried peppercorns currently sell for
$150/kg ($68.00/lb) from a Pohnpei source (PPC 2009).

FURTHER RESEARCH
Potential for crop improvement
Through plant breeding and selection, varieties of pepper
have been improved in recent decades for pest and disease Variety trials. Thailand.
resistance (e.g., resistance to Phytophthora) and for drought
tolerance. There is more room for variety improvement in lections of P. nigrum germplasm exist in Brazil, Indonesia
many horticultural aspects. and Sarawak.
For example, it is important to select and develop germ-
plasm that is well suited for growing conditions in the Pa- CITED REFERENCES AND FURTHER
cific islands region. READING
Bloomberg. 2009. Black-pepper prices to jump 12%. http://
Improving potential for family or community www.businessday.co.za/articles/Content.aspx?id=80421
farming [accessed October 29, 2009]
Pepper is a valuable, healthful commodity and is highly de- de Waard, P.W.F. and I.S. Anunciado. 1999. Piper nigrum
sired for cuisines throughout the world. The potential for L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. de Guzman, C.C.
specialty pepper production on small farms in the Ameri- and Siemonsma, J.S. (eds.). PROSEA (Plant Resources of
can-affiliated Pacific should be strengthened through exten- South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://
sion education, awareness building, and disseminating plant www.proseanet.org. [accessed October 29, 2009]
materials.
Dobelis, I.N. 1986. Magic and Medicine of Plants. The Read-
Genetic resources where collections exist er’s Digest Association. Pleasantville, NY.
The primary center for germplasm of P. nigrum is India, International Trading Companies. United Nations Confer-
where large collections are grown at various sites associated ence on Trade & Development, United Nations, New
with the Institute of Spices Research. Other important col- York and Geneva. 308 pp.

Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Black Pepper by Scot C. Nelson and K. T. Cannon-Eger 12
Mathew, P.J., P.M. Mathew, V. Kumar. 2006. Multivari- Indian Department of Agriculture, Andaman & Nicobar:
ate analysis in fifty cultivars/landraces of ‘black pep- http://agri.and.nic.in/farmpractices.htm#BLACK%20PEP-
per’ (Piper nigrum L.) occurring in Kerala, India. Rev. PER
Bras. Pl. Med., Botucatu, v.8, n.esp. p.180–185. http://
www.ibb.unesp.br/servicos/publicacoes/rbpm/pdf_v8_
esp/8esp_180_185.pdf [accessed October 29, 2009]
Nair, K.P.P. 2004. The agronomy and economy of black
pepper (Piper nigrum L.)—the “King of Spices.” In: D.E.
Sparks (ed.). Advances in Agronomy, 82:271–389.
Pohnpei Pepper Company (PPC). 2009. http://www.pohn-
peipepper.com [accessed October 29, 2009]
Ravindran (ed.). 2000. Black pepper: Piper nigrum. Har-
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Rosengarten, F. 1969. The Book of Spices. Livingston Pub-
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Weiss, E.A. 1997. Essential oil crops. CABI Publishing, New
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Weiss, E.A. 2002. Spice crops. CABI Publishing, New York,
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OTHER RESOURCES
Internet
Kew Gardens black pepper: http://www.plantcultures.org/
plants/black_pepper_grow_it.html
International Pepper Community: http://www.ipcnet.
org/?p=about&sp=his&act=
FAO Spices Processing Toolkit (Black pepper): http://www.
fao.org/inpho/content/fpt/SPICES/infBP.htm
Gernot Katzer’s Spice Pages – Black pepper: http://www.
uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Pipe_nig.html
Cultivation of pepper (South Africa): http://www.nda.agric.
za/docs/pepper/pepper.htm
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pepper: http://web.archive.org/web/20040811103656/www.
spizes.com/spiceonline/CategoryList/Peppercat.asp
Product profile – pepper (2001), Corpei – CBI project “Ex-
pansion of Ecuador’s Export Commodities” http://www.sica.
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PEI/pimienta.pdf
Sorting pepper names—Piper nigrum: http://www.plant-
names.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Piper.html#nigrum
The World’s Healthiest Foods: http://whfoods.org/genpage.
php?tname=foodspice&dbid=74#nutritionalprofile

Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps) 13

 Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps)
Farm and Forestry
Production and Marketing profile for
Black pepper (Piper nigrum)

Authors: Scot C. Nelson, PhD, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Cooperative Extension Service, 3050 Maile Way, Gilmore 402, Honolulu,
HI 96822; Tel: 808-956-2000; Email: snelson@hawaii.edu; Web: http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu
K.T. Cannon-Eger, HCR 1 Box 5164, Keaau, HI 96749
Recommended citation: Nelson, S.C., and K.T. Eger. 2011 (revised). Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Black
Pepper (Piper nigrum). In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources
(PAR), Holualoa, Hawai‘i. http://agroforestry.net/scps
Version history: November 2009, February 2011
Series editor: Craig R. Elevitch
Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808-324-4129;
Email: par@agroforestry.net; Web: http://www.agroforestry.net. This institution is an equal opportunity provider.
Acknowledgments: Many thanks to Marty Parisien of pohnpeipepper.com for providing background information on pepper production
in Pohnpei. Photos contributed by Bill Eger and Dwight Sato are gratefully acknowledged.
Reproduction: Copies of this publication can be downloaded from http://agroforestry.net/scps. Except for electronic archiving with
public access (such as web sites, library databases, etc.), reproduction and dissemination of this publication in its entire, unaltered form
(including this page) for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from
the copyright holder. Use of photographs or reproduction of material in this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is
permitted only with written permission of the publisher. © 2009–11 Permanent Agriculture Resources. All rights reserved.
Sponsors: Publication was made possible by generous support of the United States Department of Agriculture Western Region
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE) Program. This material is based upon work supported by the
Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Station,
Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement 2007-47001-03798.   

Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Black Pepper by Scot C. Nelson and K. T. Cannon-Eger 14