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PIG IRON
DEFINITION:

 Pig iron is the product of smelting iron ore. It is the first or basic form in which iron is prepared as a metal
from its ores.
 It is therefore, impure and crude and requires subsequent processing to develop cast Iron, wrought Iron
and steel which are common ferrous metals used in Industry and Construction.
MANUFACTURING:

 Pig iron is produced by smelting or iron ore in blast furnaces or by smelting ilmenite in electric furnaces.
 Pig Iron is Manufactured in the following Stages:
 • Selection of Ore • Dressing of Ore • Calcinations, Roasting, and Smelting.
 Iron Occurs in nature in Combined form as Oxide, Sulphates, Carbonates, and Silicates etc., such natural
raw sources from which iron can be extracted economically are called iron ores. Primarily, most of the
Iron is produced in the world either from Hematite or from Magnetite. •
 The selection of Suitable Ore is Controlled by two major factors: Its occurrence in abundance at a suitable
place and its Quality (Purity).
 The Ore, as it is extracted from the earth, is in big lumps containing many other useless or gangue
minerals. • The Size of the ore must be reduced to that within required limits and also the useless
association must be separated. • The combined Process of reduction in size and removal of impurities is
called ore dressing. This is achieved by passing the ore through a series of crushers and washing mills.
The latter wash away clay and other impurities from the crushed ore.
 Calcination and Roasting: After the iron ores are dressed, they are calcined and roasted. The calcination
consists in heating ores in presence of air so that they are oxidized. The water and carbon dioxide are
removed from ores by calcination. The roasting consists of making the ores hot and very dry. It is adopted
to dissipate the volatile parts, especially sulphur, by heat. Hence the roasting will not be necessary, if
ore is an oxide.
 Smelting: The melting so as to separate metal from ore is known as the smelting. It is carried oi t in a
special type of furnace, known as the blast furnace. It is in the form of a vertical steel cylinder.
PROPERTIES:
 Pig iron has a high carbon content, typically 3.5% - 4.5% along with small percentages of silicon, sulphur,
manganese and phosphorous. This makes it brittle.
 It is hard and brittle as such it is neither ductile nor malleable. It is difficult to bend. It melts easily. The
fusion temperature is 1200 o C.
 It can be hardened but not tempered. It can be magnetized. It has very high compressive strength but
very weak in tension. It does not rust. It cannot be welded.
USES:
 cast iron, wrought iron and mild steel are obtained by refining the pig iron. Because of its high
compressive strength, it is used in columns, base plates, door brackets, wheel and pipe work.
 Pig iron can also be used to produce grey iron.
COLOURED GLASS

 The glass we use which is made in specific colors called coloured glass. It is “stained” through the
manufacturing process, not by colouring it afterwards. Clear glass is made from silica sand and other
ingredients to give it the proper clarity, melting temperature and strength. Glass is colored by adding
metal oxides or metal powders to molten glass. Depending on the metal, the glass takes on a
particular color.
 Glass is made by fusing together some form of silica such as sand, an alkali such as potash or soda,
and lime or lead oxide. The color is produced by adding a metallic oxide to the raw materials.
 Metals used to impart colour
 Copper oxide, under different conditions, produces ruby, blue, or green colors in glass.
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 Cobalt is usually used to produce most shades of blues.

 Green - chromium and iron oxide.
 Golden - uranium, cadmium sulphide, or titanium
 Ruby - gold.
 Reds - Selenium Oxide
 White - Antimony Oxides, Tin Compounds
 Yellow - Lead Compounds
 Manufacturing: glass raw materials such as sand, potash, and lime are mixed together. A metallic
oxide is added for colour.
 A furnace heats materials to 2500 degree Celsius to create molten glass
 The molten glass is then rolled into thin sheets. These sheets are then cooled, trimmed to different
sizes, and packaged for craftsman.
 Use: architectural projects, entertainment lighting and landscape lighting,
 The soda-lime or borofloat based glass can be heat strengthened for additional resistance to thermal
shock. The glass can be machined, screen printed, sandblasted and fabricated to virtually any shape
or size.
 Coloured glass can be incredibly beautiful and is often used for aesthetic purposes, like the glass
seen in old stained-glass windows, antiques, and home décor, but some glass colours and colourants
provide additional, cost-saving benefits like UV protection.
IMPORTANCE OF GLASS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
1. Unlike any other material, glass can transmit, absorb or refract light. As a result, it can be both translucent
and transparent. Such characteristics add extraordinary beauty to your building.
2. Glass can transmit 80% of daylight in all directions. It can do so without any weathering, clouding or yellowing.
3. It is weather resistant. Glass can withstand effects of rain, wind and the sun without losing its integrity and
appearance.
4. Glass is also rust resistant. Unlike any other, it won’t degrade by chemical and the surrounding environmental
effects.
5. It has a smooth and glossy surface. As a result, glass is dust-proof and thus easy to clean.
6. It is economic. Consider the fact that glass saves energy by allowing in natural light even when you close your
windows and doors. It also saves you on the electricity bill cost.
7. You are much safer from electric hazards. The glass is a very excellent insulator. It is thus impossible for it to
conduct electric current.
8. Variety of colors. When you combine the glass in insulated or laminated units, it changes in color and
appearance.
9. Glass can be pressed, blown and drawn to any shape. Consequently, it is used in buildings, shop fronts,
windows and doors. After lamination with plywood or a metal sheet, you can also use it for furniture.
10. It is especially excellent for showrooms and showcases. Glass provides the means to showcase a product.
 Representation of Faith:
 Window Pane
 Lightweight Structural Wall (External Surface)
 Roofing Material
 Partition, In the interiors of a Building
PARQUET FLOORING

 Parquet is a geometric mosaic of wood pieces used for decorative effect in flooring.
 Parquet patterns are often entirely geometrical and angular—squares, triangles, lozenges—but may
contain curves. The most popular parquet flooring pattern is herringbone.
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 Parquet is the term for floors made of inlaid wood, arranged in a geometric pattern. The most common
patterns are various riffs on square motifs, though more unconventional takes, like sunbursts or
medallions, also count.
 Since it's essentially a wood mosaic, parquet can come in virtually any pattern imaginable. Popular
designs include herringbone, Versailles (named for the original), Chantilly (named for yet another French
château), checkerboard, mosaic, and basket.
 Timber contrasting in color and grain, such as oak, walnut, cherry, lime, pine, maple, etc. are sometime
employed; and in the more expensive kinds, and in the more expensive kinds the richly colored
mahogany, teak and sometimes other tropical hardwoods are also used. While not technically a wood,
bamboo is also a popular material for modern floors.
 Parquet floors were formerly usually adhered with hot bitumen. Today modern cold adhesives are
usually used.
 Parquet floors are often found in bedrooms and hallways. They are considered better than regular floor
tiles since they feel warmer underfoot. However, they do little to absorb sounds.
 Parquet flooring can be made from both solid, and engineered wood nowadays, although originally it
would have been made from 100% solid wood. Solid wood parquet flooring, as the name suggests is
parquet flooring made from solid pieces of timber. Engineered parquet flooring on the other hand is
made from layers of different types of wood, topped by hardwood. No matter whether you choose solid
or engineered parquet flooring, the end look will be the same.
 When it comes to installing parquet flooring, without a doubt, this is a job for the professionals. At one
time laid with hot bitumen, today, parquet flooring is installed using a cold adhesive which gives a very
stable result. Easy to clean and pleasing to the eye, parquet flooring is typically laid in hallways and
bedrooms because it is a great alternative to tiles and is much warmer under foot.
 Like most other wooden floors, parquet flooring should be regularly cleaned using your vacuum cleaner
and a damp, but not wet mop. For deep cleaning, you may find that you require a specialist wood
flooring detergent solution, but if so, your floor supplier will be able to advise you of the most
appropriate.
STONE FLOORING
 Common natural stone flooring includes slate, marble, limestone, travertine, granite, and sandstone.
 Benefits of Using Natural Stone Flooring
 There are many aesthetic and practical reasons why natural stone flooring can be a good choice:
 Each piece of stone is a unique creation of the earth, making every flooring application one of a kind.
Every floor is entirely unique.
 The mountain-born qualities of the stone can help to give living spaces a direct and eternal connection
to the natural world, unlike any other building material.
 Stone tiles are natural, non-polluting, eco-friendly pieces. Purchasing stones which were acquired locally
can cut down on the environmental impact of transport.
 Stone Flooring Pros – Stone flooring can tolerate heavy foot traffic, creates a naturally elegant look,
doesn't attract dust, and can increase your home value. Stone Flooring Cons – Stone flooring costs
more, can scratch easily, is harder to replace.
TYPOLOGIES OF GLASS
1. Flat glass
 Flat glass is the basic first product from the float process of making glass. It has a uniform thickness and
makes the base for more advanced types of glass through further processing. This glass tends to break
into long shards, and will commonly be used in double-glazing following further treatment.
 This glass type is the base material of many common products we see today, including: windscreens,
home windows, bus stops, electronics, appliances, and much more.
2. Annealed glass or float glass

 Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten metal, typically tin,
although lead and other various low-melting-point alloys were used in the past. This method gives the
sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces
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 Float glass is made by pouring the molten glass from a furnace into a chamber that contains a bed of
molten tin. The process is sometimes call the Pilkington Process. The atmosphere inside the chamber is
carefully controlled. The glass floats on the tin and forms itself in the shape of the container. It spreads
90 to 140 inches wide at a thickness determined at the time of manufacture.
 Float glass manufactured from sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also called as soda-lime glass.
It is clear and flat, so it causes glare. Thickness of the float glass is available from 2mm to 20mm, and its
weight range from 6 to 36 kg/m2. The application of float glass includes shop fronts, public places, etc.

 Annealed glass or float glass is the most basic form of manufactured glass that lacks the toughness or
impact resistance of processed glass. Annealed glass is a basic product formed from the annealing
stage of the float process. The molten glass is allowed to cool slowly in a controlled way until it reaches
room temperature, relieving any internal stresses in the glass. Without this controlled slow cooling, glass
would crack with relatively little change in temperature or slight mechanical shock. Annealed glass is
used as a base product to form more advanced glass types.
 USE: Today, float glass is the most widely used form of glass in consumer products. Due to both its high
quality with no additional polishing required and its structural flexibility during production, it can easily
be shaped and bent into a variety of forms while in a heated, syrupy state. This makes it ideal for a
variety of applications such as
 Automobile glass (e.g. windshields, windows, mirrors)
 Mirrors
 Furniture (e.g. in tables and shelves)
 Insulated glass
 Windows and doors
 Most forms of specialized glass such as toughened glass, frosted glass, laminated safety glass and
soundproof glass consist of standard float glass that has been further processed.
a) Clear Glass
 Clear glass is a kind of float glass which offers extreme transparency and clarity.
b) Tinted Glass
 Tinted glass is annealed glass that has a coating or a film that imparts it colour and reduces its light
transmission. If privacy is your priority, then tinted glass is the ideal choice for any doors or windows in
your home or business. Though tinted glass keeps out prying eyes, it still allows plenty of natural sunlight
to filter through, whilst reducing the discomfort of the sun’s glare.
 Tinted glass can also lessen the amount of harmful UV filtering through, which will have health benefits
for all the family. Small amounts of metal oxides are added to the glass composition to give tinted glass
its characteristic darker hue.
c) Frosted Glass
 Frosted glass is a translucent glass made by the process of sandblasting or acid etching. Its pitted, rough
surface gives it a foggy appearance, thus making it the perfect solution for privacy.
3. Coated glass
 When certain coatings are applied to processed glass, they change its optical and heat transmission
properties. Other enhancements due to glass coatings include changes in solar insulation, anti-
reflection, water resistance, etc.
a) Soft Coat
 Low-E Solar Control Glass
 This is a high performance glass with a low-E (low emissivity) coating which allows the glass to be energy
efficient by cutting down on heat transmission.
 Heat Reflective Glass
 Heat reflective glass such as AIS Sunshield is another high performance product which has advanced
solar control technology to reduce heat and glare from entering the building.
b) Hard Coat
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 Exterior solar control glass

 This type of hard coated glass, such as the AIS Opal, is used in the exterior of buildings for providing
optimum solar control.
c) Mirrored glass
 There are many types of glass available and another type is mirrored glass. Mirrored glass is quite simply
a mirror – and can be produced in all sizes, from small bathroom mirrors to full-length wardrobe doors.
It is made by applied a metal coating to one side of the glass, typically made of silver, chrome, gold or
aluminium.
d) Lacquered Glass
 Lacquered glass is a type of decorative glass which has a colour coating on one of its surfaces. AIS Décor
has a coloured opaque appearance achieved with oven-cured high quality paint.
PROCESSED GLASS
 Processed glass is a type of glass made by subjecting annealed or float glass to thermal or chemical
treatment in order to change its properties. There are various processing techniques such as lamination,
toughening, sandblasting, acid etching, lacquering, enamelling, glazing, etc. The two main types of
processed glass are laminated glass and toughened/tempered glass.
a) Laminated Glass
 Laminated glass is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered. In the event of breaking, it
is held in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB), ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), or
Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU), between its two or more layers of glass. The interlayer keeps the
layers of glass bonded even when broken, and its high strength prevents the glass from breaking up into
large sharp pieces. This produces a characteristic "spider web" cracking pattern when the impact is not
enough to completely pierce the glass. In the case of the EVA, the thermoset EVA, offers a complete
bounding (cross-linking) with the material whether it is glass, polycarbonate, PET, or other types of
products. TPU is the best choice for Bullet-Resistant Glass (BRG) and for so called E-Glass (Smart Glass).
 Laminated glass is normally used when there is a possibility of human impact or where the glass could
fall if shattered and also for architectural applications. Skylight glazing and automobile windshields
typically use laminated glass. In geographical areas requiring hurricane-resistant construction, laminated
glass is often used in exterior storefronts, curtain walls and windows.
 Laminated glass is also used to increase the sound insulation rating of a window, where it significantly
improves sound attenuation compared to monolithic glass panes of the same thickness. For this purpose
a special "acoustic PVB" compound is used for the interlayer. In the case of the EVA material, no
additional acoustic material is required, since the EVA provides sound insulation.[1][2] TPU is an elastic
material, so sound absortion is intrinsic to its nature. An additional property of laminated glass for
windows is that an adequate TPU, PVB or EVA interlayer can block nearly all ultraviolet radiation. A
thermoset EVA, for example, can block up to 99.9% of all UV rays.
 Laminated glass is a type of security glass manufactured by sandwiching a layer of plastic such as PVB in
between two sheets of glass. This insulator layer makes the glass impact resistant and sound resistant.
Laminated glass, upon breakage, remains intact as the broken pieces stick to the interlayer. Any one of
the above types of glass can be laminated. The most commonly used finished product is two sheets of
toughened glass, laminated together with a 1.52mm thick Polyiynil Butyral (PVB) interlayer.
 Laminated glass offers many advantages. Safety and security are the best known of these, so rather than
shattering on impact, laminated glass is held together by the interlayer. This reduces the safety hazard
associated with shattered glass fragments, as well as, to some degree, the security risks associated with
easy penetration.
 If a glass panel breaks or shatters it is highly unlikely that both laminated panels will break at the same
time, which means that the remaining panel and interlayer will support the broken glass and keep it in
place as edge protection until it is replaced or secured suitably.
 Laminated glass is a common option where increased security may be needed, for example, for front
doors, store window fronts or car windscreens. Laminated glass is held together by an interlayer,
meaning that it will not shatter on impact, reducing the risk of break-ins and any hazards caused by
shards of shattered glass.
 Laminate glass is designed to remain intact in the event of impact or trauma to the surface, making it
ideal for a range of safety installations such as bulletproof glass, burglar-proof shop fronts and
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balustrades. It made using multiple layers to reinforce the structure and to ensure that any cracked or
disjointed pieces will stay in place should any damage occur.
 There are several laminated glass manufacturing processes:
 using two or more pieces of glass bonded between one or more pieces of adhesives; such as PVB or EVA,
using heat and pressure.
 using two or more pieces of glass and polycarbonate, bonded together with aliphatic polyurethane
(TPU), or EVA, interlayer under heat and pressure.
 interlaid with a cured resin or EVA.
b) Tempered Glass
 Heat Strengthened Glass is semi tempered or semi toughened glass. The heat strengthening process
involves heating annealed glass back up to about 650 to 700 degrees Celsius and then cooling it quickly,
although not as fast as with toughened glass. The heat strengthening process increases the mechanical
and thermal strength of annealed glass, making it twice as tough as annealed glass.
 When it breaks the fragments are similar in size to annealed glass, but with a greater likelihood of staying
together.
 This glass is not often used in balustrades or similar structural applications because of its limited strength
compared to tempered or toughened glass, although is sometimes specified when there is concern
about tempered glass fracturing into thousands of small pieces.
 Tempered glass or toughened glass is formed by heating annealed glass in order to develop opposite
stresses on its surfaces. This makes toughened glass much stronger than regular glass. This is the most
common type of glass used in balustrades or similar structural applications. Annealed glass is heated to
about 700 degrees Celsius by conduction, convection and radiation. The cooling process is accelerated
by a uniform and simultaneous blast of air on both surfaces. The different cooling rates between the
surface and the inside of the glass produces different physical properties, resulting in compressive
stresses in the surface balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass.
 This process makes the glass four to five times stronger and safer than annealed or untreated glass.
 The counteracting stresses or surface compression gives toughened glass its increased mechanical
resistance to breakage, and when it does break, causes it to produce small, regular, typically square
fragments rather than long, dangerous shards that are far more likely to lead to injuries.
 Toughened glass can be used in a range of ways; for shower doors, glass furniture, shelves etc., and
holds the advantage of being far more resistant to breaks. The cooling process in toughened glass
creates counteracting stresses meaning that if it does break, the glass will shatter into small, square
fragments rather than shards, decreasing the risk of injury.
 Blasting the surface of glass with sand gives it a translucent milky-white appearance, making it a popular
technique used for shower doors or front doors where privacy is required, but also some light. This
technique can be used against a whole sheet of glass, or can be used to create patterns using a sand-
resistant mask.
c) Fire-resistant Glass
 Fire-resistant glass, is a multi-laminated glass with an intumescent layer which can withstand extreme
levels of heat, smokes and flames.
Retrofitting glass
 This type of glass, has a low-E interlayer and is applied above old windows in order to make them more
energy efficient.
4. SOLAR GLASS
 Solar glass is a type of glass that has applications in the solar energy manufacturing industry. Solar glass
is used in various components such as solar minors, solar panels, solar cells, etc. in order to harness the
energy of the sun. Adding solar control glass to a home or commercial building can be a great way to
improve energy efficiency by minimising the need for air conditioning or heating and therefore reducing
energy bills. This glass is designed to work with the weather outside, so that it keeps heat out during
periods of hot weather, but keeps heat inside during colder weather. This means that more natural light
can be allowed into a building using skylights, conservatory structures and French windows without
compromising energy efficiency or increasing the need for climate control.
ADDITIVES
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 (in construction materials), natural or synthetic materials that are mixed into binding agents, concretes,
and mortars to impart the required properties to the finished product and reduce its cost. Additives are
classified in a number of groups depending on their purpose and characteristics.

 Active mineral additives. Active mineral additives are finely ground materials that contain hydrated
silica or metakaolinite in a chemically active form. They are used extensively in the production of cement
and lime-pozzolana binding agents, as well as for increasing the strength, water resistance, and salt
resistance of concretes and mortars.
 Filler additives. Filler additives are finely ground limestones, dolomites, sands, low-active slags, and ash.
They are introduced to replace large particles of clinker and lime that are not completely hydrated during
the hardening process.
 Acid-resistant, alkali-resistant, and heat-resistant additives. Additives for acid-resistant, alkali-
resistant, and heat-resistant concretes and mortars are finely ground inorganic materials that are
characterized by high resistance to the action of acids, alkalies, or high temperatures. alkali-resistant
additives include compact limestones, dolomite, magnesite, calcareous sandstone, and varieties of these
rocks. Finely ground chromite, magnesite, fire clay, crushed material from semiacidic refractory
products, and metallurgical magnesite are used as additives for heat-resistant concretes and mortars.
 Surface-active additives. Surface-active additives are organic substances that can be adsorbed into
particles of cement and can change their surface properties. Surface-active additives are used to
produce plasticized and hydrophobic Portland cements, as well as to reduce water requirements of the
mixes and to increase the strength of concretes in aggressive mediums.
 Foaming and blowing additives. Foaming and blowing additives are materials used in making cellular
concretes (foam concretes and gas concretes).
 Additives to accelerate or retard setting and hardening. Additives to accelerate or retard the setting
and hardening of binding agents are substances that affect the speed of hydration of the binding agents.
Calcium chloride and sodium chloride, as well as sodium sulphate and potash, are used to accelerate the
setting and hardening of Portland cement and its varieties
 Cold-resistant additives. Cold-resistant additives include sodium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium
nitrate, and potash. They are added to lower the freezing point of the water in concrete or mortar mix
and to ensure their hardening at a temperature below 0°C.
IPS flooring
IPS flooring stands for Indian patent stone flooring, it is a basic type of flooring which provides good wearing
properties. It is generally used for all types of floors and mix of concrete used for IPS flooring specification is
1:1.5:3 (cement, sand and stone aggregates). Normally used thickness is 50 mm.
Indian Patent Stone or IPS flooring can be grey or coloured. When red, it is also referred to commonly as "red
oxide flooring" and was used extensively in old houses. It is a basic but beautiful flooring which provides good
wearing properties. It can be used for all types of floors – industrial commercial or residential. You can decide
the thickness of the IPS flooring as per the requirement of work; In residential floor 75 mm floor thickness is
sufficient whereas industrial floor thickness should be kept 150 mm. IPS can be coloured and given either a wax
coat or a sealer coat to help preserve the colour and prevent stains. Bharat Floorings offers IPS in 30 colours,
and with either a smooth or a rough finish.
Construction procedure for 50 mm thick IPS flooring:
1. clean floor by water wash and application of brush
2. after cleaning, level mark are done by spirit levelling at 2-3 meter interval on surrounding wall
3. after proper level setting, concrete dummy dote are constructed at a 2 to 3 square meter area.
4. now concrete in specified mixed should be pour in panel.
5. after pouring of concrete, surface to be leveled with A straight edge and surface with wooden float or
trowel.
6. cement punning 2 to 3 mm thicker is spread over IPS flooring to archive glossy look of floor.
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7. curing period of minimum 15 days is required after construction.

8. other fiber may be use to prevent cracks.
9. sometime vacuum dewatering machine also use to get very hard surface of concrete floor.
PLASTICIZERS
 Nowadays many water reducing admixtures are available in the market. These admixtures are known as
plasticizers. The combination of organic substances or combinations of organic and inorganic substances
which cause reduction in water content for a given workability or give a higher workability at the same
water content are known or termed as plasticizer admixtures.
 These are used for the following proposes:
 1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water/cement ratio at the same workability as that of
an admixture free mix.
 2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement and to reduce the heat of hydration in the
mass concrete.
 3. To increase the workability to provide ease in placing concrete in inaccessible locations.
 The use of plasticizer is found to improve the desirable qualities of the plastic or green concrete. For
making reinforced concrete or mass concrete of higher workability nowadays it has become a standard
practice to use plasticizer or super plasticizer. Nowadays the use of super plasticizer has become a
universal practice to reduce the water/cement ratio for the given workability. The reduction in
water/cement ratio increases the strength and improves durability of the concrete. Sometimes
plasticizers are used to reduce the cement content and heat of hydration in mass concrete.
 Generally following materials are used as plasticizers:
 1. Ligno sulphates and their derivatives and modifications, salts of sulphonates hydrocarbons.
 2. Polyglycol esters, acid of hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their derivatives and modifications.
 3. Carbohydrates.
HARDENERS: In some mixtures a hardener is used simply to increase the resilience of the mixture once it sets.
In other mixtures a hardener is used as a curing component. A hardener can be either a reactant or a catalyst in
the chemical reaction that occurs during the mixing process. A hardener may also be known as an accelerator.
Polyamine hardeners are made up of an organic molecule containing two or more amine groups. Other types
of hardeners include polyamide hardeners and anhydride hardeners, although these types react only with heat.
Hardener molecules enable the resin molecules to connect to each other to form a three-dimensional network.
There are many types of hardeners, but the most important ones are classified into aliphatic and aromatic
amines, anhydrides, and polyamides.
CHINA MOSAIC WATER PROOFING: China mosaic tile is waterproofing material in which China chips inserted in
it in some proportion. China mosaic is a type of terrazzo flooring. It is used in floor as well as roof. Flooring which
has a mixture of stones and glass chips with an attractive finish and multicolour flooring called as a China mosaic
flooring. China mosaic is also available in tiles most of the people are used for the terrace as a waterproofing
material. But nowadays it is not used because of its short lifespan and becomes useless within three to four
years because of losing the bond between binding materials and stones or glass chips. China mosaic tiles are
about 6 to 8 mm thick. Around 60 rupees per box which contain 8 ceramic tiles. It is much commonly as purpose
water-proofing used for terrace surface because of stone and glass chips set inside it. These look very attractive
and unique finish. But because of weathering in 3 to 5 yrs., the joints between stones and glass chips begin to
expand.
Advantages
 It can’t be easy break
 Higher strength and durability
 Waterproofing Building Construction Material used in a floor and roof
 Low permeability property.
 Highly fire resistive property.
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FIRE RESISTANT COATINGS: This is like a paint material which provide the same finish as that of normal paint. It
is widely used in buildings requiring fire resistance for 30 minutes to 2 hours. These Intumescent coatings are
inert at low temperature and provide insulation at a temperature of about 200 to 250 degree Celsius. It is
designed to insulate the steel substrate, and prevent the temperature of the steel from rising above the point
where it will start to fail. It is used to protect the steel substrate. This protective layering keeps the properties of
steel unaffected even at higher temperature.
This fire resistant coating is perfectly inert at normal temperature. The coating expands at the time of fire and a
chemical reaction takes place which provides an insulating ‘foam like’ barrier which protects the steel substrate.
This fire resistant coating can also be used with stainless steel and galvanized substrate. However, it is very
important to degrease the galvanization with the primer before applying the Intumescent coating.
•This coating can be applied by roller, brush or airless spray. •It can also be applied off-site. This takes the
application of fire protection off the critical path and helps to reduce the overall construction program. •A range
of fully tested topcoats can be specified for use with Intumescent coatings that offer a wide choice of finish in
terms of colour and level of gloss. •Top coats can easily be repaired and redecorated. •Intumescent coatings can
be applied onto a galvanised or stainless substrate.
Fire resistant coatings provides protection for structural steel so that buildings do not collapse in a fire. flame-
resistant coatings help protect drapes and other fabrics from a fire. Fire resistant and flame resistant paint and
coatings are used to provide additional time in a fire situation to exit a building and extra time for a fire-fighter
to do their job before the fire spreads. paint comes in both coatings and varnish types. The fire resistant paints
are available in white, black and different pastel colours and sheens. Features of Fire resistant paint and coating:
 Longer layer life  Coated surfaces prevent flame spreading  Resistance to high temperature  Excellent
weathering properties  Air dry coating  Coated surfaces do not catch fire. Fire resistant paint recommended
for:  Petroleum storage tanks, vehicles, petrol pumps etc.  Oil refineries, Oil drilling platforms and machinery
 Firefighting equipment  Building materials like plywood, wood, panels etc.  Kitchens, hotels, homes, offices,
shopping malls etc.
 10

ALUMINIUM SLIDING WIDOW

FALSE CEILING PATTERN

 11

DOUBLE GLAZED UNITS

 Double Glazing Units Double glazing units, also known as insulating glass units, are extensively used in
doors and windows for residential and commercial buildings, and architectural applications. Double
glazing units incur higher initial cost than single glazed windows, as they are designed to provide superior
performance with the ability to modify how the environment is perceived from indoors. Double glazing
units retain views and natural lights and at the same time provide better energy and thermal
performance than single glazing units do. Double glazed units save money on energy bills and reduce
outside noise drastically. A variety of styles and colours are available in these units, which can be custom
made to suit customer’s requirements.
 A double glazing unit is a combination of two panes of glass spaced apart with a spacer bar and sealed
with a primary and secondary sealant to form a single airtight unit with an air space in between.
 Components of double glazing
 The double glazed unit (DGU), which fits within a window frame, is comprised of seven components:
 A Spacer Bar – a frame that separates the two panels of glass, creating a cavity. The spacer bar can be
aluminium or warm-edge.
 Desiccant – a silicon material used in the spacer bar to dry up moisture trapped within the cavity
 A primary seal – the main barrier to air or moisture migration into the double glazed unit (DGU)
 The glass – clear, solar control, Low E, self-cleaning, acoustic, toughened, laminated or a combination
 The secondary seal – the main structural adhesive around the outside edge of the unit, holding all the
elements together
 The cavity – the void formed between the component parts
 The gas filling the cavity – dehydrated air, argon, krypton or xenon.
 12

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF FLOAT GLASS

Stage 1: Melting and refining

Fine-grained ingredients, closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make batch, which flows as a blanket on to
molten glass at 1,500°C in the melter.
Float makes glass of near optical quality. Several processes – melting, refining, homogenising – take place
simultaneously in the 2,000 tonnes of molten glass in the furnace. They occur in separate zones in a complex
glass flow driven by high temperatures. It adds up to a continuous melting process, lasting as long as 50 hours,
that delivers glass at 1,100°C, free from inclusions and bubbles, smoothly and continuously to the float bath. The
melting process is key to glass quality; and compositions can be modified to change the properties of the finished
product.

Stage 2: Float bath

Glass from the melter flows gently over a refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of molten tin, starting at
1,100°C and leaving the float bath as a solid ribbon at 600°C.
The principle of float glass is unchanged from the 1950s. But the product has changed dramatically: from a single
equilibrium thickness of 6.8 mm to a range from sub-millimetre to 25 mm; from a ribbon frequently marred by
inclusions, bubbles and striations to almost optical perfection. Float delivers what is known as fire finish, the
lustre of new chinaware.

Stage 3: Coating
Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by advanced high temperature
technology to the cooling ribbon of glass.
On-line chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of coatings is the most significant advance in the float process since it
was invented. CVD can be used to lay down a variety of coatings, less than a micron thick, to reflect visible and
infrared wavelengths, for instance. Multiple coatings can be deposited in the few seconds available as the glass
ribbon flows beneath the coaters. Further development of the CVD process may well replace changes in
composition as the principal way of varying the optical properties of float glass.

Stage 4: Annealing: Despite the tranquillity with which float glass is formed, considerable stresses are developed
in the ribbon as it cools.
Too much stress and the glass will break beneath the cutter. To relieve these stresses, the ribbon undergoes
heat-treatment in a long furnace known as a lehr. Temperatures are closely controlled both along and across
the ribbon. Pilkington has developed technology which automatically feeds back stress levels in the glass to
control the temperatures in the lehr.
Stage 5: Inspection: The float process is renowned for making perfectly flat, flaw-free glass. But to ensure the
highest quality, inspection takes place at every stage.
Occasionally a bubble is not removed during refining, a sand grain refuses to melt, a tremor in the tin puts ripples
into the glass ribbon. Automated on-line inspection does two things. It reveals process faults upstream that can
be corrected. And it enables computers downstream to steer cutters round flaws. Flaws imply wastage; while
customers press constantly for greater perfection. Inspection technology now allows more than 100 million
measurements a second to be made across the ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see.
The data drives ‘intelligent’ cutters, further improving product quality to the customer.Stage 6: Cutting to order
Diamond wheels trim off selvedge - stressed edges - and cut the ribbon to size dictated by computer.
 13

What Is Shoring in Construction?

Shoring is the process of temporarily supporting a building, vessel, structure, or trench with shores (props) when
in danger of collapse or during repairs or alterations. Shoring comes from shore, a timber or metal prop.
Shoring can be utilized when walls bulge out when walls crack due to unequal settlement of foundation and
repairs must be carried out to the cracked wall, when an adjacent structure needs pulling down when openings
must be newly enlarged or made into a wall.
Type of Shoring.
 Dead Shoring
 Raking Shoring
 Flying Shoring
Dead Shoring
This type of shoring is used to support dead loads that act vertically downwards. In its simplest form, it consists
of a vertical prop or shore leg with a head plate, sole-plate, and some means of adjustment for tightening and
easing the shore.

Raking Shoring.
This shoring arrangement transfers the floor and wall
loads to the ground by means of sloping struts or rakers.
It is very important that the rakers are positioned
correctly so that they are capable of receiving maximum
wall and floor loads. The centreline of the raker should
intersect with the centrelines of the wall or floor
bearing; common situations are detailed in the below
figure. A four-story building can be shored by this
method if an extra member, called a rider, is added (see
below figure).
 14

Typical Multiple Raking Shore

Flying Shoring
These shores fulfil the same functions as a raking shore but have the advantage of providing a clear working
space under the shoring. They can be used between any parallel wall surfaces provided the span is not in excess
of 12.000 m when the arrangement would become uneconomic. Short spans up to 9.000 m usually have a single
horizontal member,

Typical Single Flying Shore Typical Double Flying Shore

It is possible with all forms of shoring to build up the principal members from smaller sections by using bolts and
timber connectors, ensuring all butt joints are well staggered to give adequate rigidity.
LOW-E GLASS
 Low-E Glass full name Low-Emissivity Glass, glass was created to minimize the amount of infrared and
ultraviolet light that comes through your glass, without minimizing the amount of light that enters .Low-
E glass windows have a microscopically thin coating that is transparent and reflects heat. The coating is
even thinner than a human hair.
 There are two types of Low-E glass:
 Hard coat Low-E glass
 Hard coat Low-E glass is made by coating the glass during production with a thin metallic oxide layer,
effectively welding it to the glass surface.
 15

 Soft coat Low-E glass

 Soft coat Low-E glass, or sputter coating, is applied to glass that has already been formed.

Advantages of Low E Glass

 Low E Glass Reduce Energy Costs: Low-E glass has an invisible coating that reflects long-wave infra-red
radiations towards the interior of the building. They keep the interiors cooler in summer and warmer in
winter months; effectively decreasing the use of energy appliances by controlling the indoor
temperature.
 Low E Glass Reduce Destructive UV Rays: Because it resists ultraviolet light, low-E glass prevents sunlight
exposure from damaging carpets, draperies, sofas and other furnishings. And, low-E glass reduces
sunlight glare in a room. The coatings reduce glare and reflect the sun’s heat away from the structure.
 Low E Glass Do Not Block All Natural Light: Low E windows block infrared light and UV light, but one
other vital component makes up the solar spectrum, visible light. Of course, they will reduce visible light
slightly, compared to a clear glass pane. However, plenty of natural light will brighten your room.
 Low E Glass Reducing Electricity: They help in reducing electricity bills, as they maintain the temperature
of the room at the desired level.
 Low E Glass Compared to Normal Glass: Low e glass provides better performance as compared to single
glazing glass and double glazing glass. So it is extensively used in glass facade in cold climates.
ALUMINIUM COMPOSITE PANEL
 Aluminium Composite Panel (ACP) is a general term for panels constructed from two sheets of
aluminium bonded to a core. Also known as Sandwich panel, it is a structure made of three layers: ▪ Low
density core inserted in between two relatively thin skin layers. ▪ This sandwich setup allows to achieve
excellent mechanical performance at minimal weight. ▪ The very high rigidity of a sandwich panel is
achieved thanks to interaction of its components under flexural load applied to the panel. ▪ Core takes
the shear loads and creates a distance between the skins which take the in-plane stresses, one skin in
tension, the other in compression.
 PROPERTIES OF ACP ▪ Aesthetically pleasing: Other means of making a structure cannot deliver the result
as Aluminum Composite Panel does. ▪ Good Insulation Material: Thermal and acoustical ▪ Dead weight
of the Composite material is very low. ▪ Is resistant to heat up to a temperature as high as of 113 degrees
Celsius after which it starts deforming in the first place and then fails.
 ▪ Aluminum can be painted in any kind of color, and ACPs are produced in a wide range of metallic and
non-metallic colors as well as patterns that imitate other materials, such as wood or marble. Adding true
beauty to a structure an economical option Easily and quickly processed Long lasting durability Excellent
weather resistance Outstanding thermal comfort Improved sound dampening Least maintenance
required
 COMPOSITION: Two sheets of aluminum sandwiching a solid core of extruded Non- combustible mineral
core material formed in a continuous co extrusion process with no glues or adhesives between dissimilar
materials. The core material shall be free of voids and/or air spaces and not contain foamed insulation
material. Exterior / Face panel is Aluminum Sheet Coated with PVDF and interior / Rear side of Panel will
be available Mill Finish / Polyester Service Coat / Chromate.
 INSTALLATION OF ACP ▪ Aluminium composite panel are installed on aluminium by rivet or screw Or
Cutting. Panel can be cut by suitable kinds of saws and lathes.
 SALIENT FEATURES OF ACP • Very light reducing the dead weight of the building and frame loading. •
Resistant to extremes of weather exposure and temperature. • Excellent UV characteristics retaining
colour after long exposure. • High impact resistance • 100% maintenance free • Good sound insulation.
• World renowned 3M tape is used for fixing the ACP to the aluminium frame. • Anti-Fungal protection
• Lightweight, reducing frame loading and installation costs • Capable of being shaped and formed
without loss of surface integrity • High strength and rigidity - outstanding deflection and bending
strength• Short time for Mounting : as result cuts down construction time • Good Sound insulation -
reduces unwanted vibrational noise • Ease of installation - can be bent, cut, drilled, punched & stamped
• Resistant to extremes of weather exposure and temperature • Excellent UV characteristics retaining
colour after long exposure • Smooth paint finish and lacquering - - 500 • Superior flatness - ideal of
 16

creating smooth, monolithic surfaces • High impact resistance • Pollution, acid, alkali, and self-spray
resistant finish • Very low coefficient of expansion • Minimal maintenance • Wide range of choice
available.
 MARKET SURVEY PANEL DIMENSIONS Standard sizes - 1220mm x 3660mm 1220mm x 3050mm 1220mm
x 2440mm PANEL OPTIONS LENGTH upon request WIDTH up to1550m (on order) PANEL 1mm to 4mm
THICKNESS Special thickness & sizes are also available on request. The Cost of panels vary from Rs. 40 to
125 per sq. feet (depending upon the thickness of panels) ACP COLOURS Standard colours are available
& different textures are available on request (approx. - 100 colours). Standard colours
 Aluminium can be painted in any kind of colour, and ACPs are produced in a wide range of metallic and
non- metallic colours as well as patterns that imitate other materials, such as wood or marble. ACPs are
frequently used for external cladding or facades of buildings, insulation & signage
ROLLING SHUTTERS
1.  A roller shutter, roller door or sectional overhead door is a type of door or window shutter consisting
of many horizontal slats (or sometimes bars or web systems) hinged together.  The door is raised to
open it and lowered to close it.  On large doors, the action may be motorized.  It provides protection
against wind and rain.  In shutter form, it is used in front of a window and protects the window from
vandalism and burglary attempts. Door rolling shutter
2. Application  Roller shutters have many applications, including doors for vans, garages, kitchens,
schools, prisons and warehouses.  In some parts of the world, roller shutters are subsidized by local
governments due to the inherent security benefits.  In areas that are frequently exposed to inclement
weather, roller shutters are used as a method of insulation and can protect windows against hail
damage. Window rolling shutter Door rolling shutter
3. Components  Lath :- Steel, aluminium, single or multi wall.  Roller (or roller tube): - Steel, aluminium
tube supported at either end by an end plate.  Shutter box: - Formed steel or aluminium extrusions
designed to protect the roller assembly. Laths Roller (or roller tube) Shutter box
4.  Shutter spring:-  1. Spring wire. Made from the spring wire, it also called torsion spring.  2. Flat
spring. Formed by hardened and tempered steel strips in coils. Common steel grades C67, CK67,
SAE1070, etc.  Guide rail (or track) :- Steel or aluminium to retain the shutter curtain. Rubbing strips to
reduce rattle and draught strips can be added. Shutter spring Guide rail
 Bottom lath:- Steel, aluminium or PVC to match the lath. Rubber tubes to reduce draught can be
added.  Lock: - Important part of shutter lock to secure shutter in place, can be locked with Bullet Lock
or Shutter lock with arms that lock shutter to frame Locks Bottom lath
Dry Wall Cladding

 Dry installation method which is also known as mechanical installation method uses embedded metal
anchors and ties for the connection purpose. The stone required for this method must be thick because
the method requires drilling which could increase the occurrence of cracks.
 Dry Wall Cladding system provides a means of cladding external and internal walls, quickly and cost
effectively with a veneer of genuine clay brick to produce a traditional brick finish to buildings of all
types. • Facade cladding systems: Aluminium Composite Panels (ACP), glass, metal cladding panels, GRC
(Glass Reinforced Concrete), FRP (Fibre-reinforced Plastic), GRG (Glass Reinforced Gypsum), UHPC (Ultra
High Performance Concrete), Stone CNC (Computerised Numerical Control) are some of the latest
cladding technologies. The dry cladding method is safe and it prevails the stone from falling off for years.
 This method allows for expansion and contraction of stone in extreme weather conditions.
 The dry cladding method creates a cleft of around 30 to 45 mm (1”-1.5”) in between face of the wall and
stone covering, providing a layer of air cushion that acts as a thermal barrier.
 The appearance of stone used in dry cladding work looks spotless and aesthetically pleasing.
 17

 It is a time saving procedure. The dry cladding method creates a cleft of around 30 to 45 mm (1”-1.5”)
in between face of the wall and stone covering, providing a layer of air cushion that acts as a thermal
barrier. The appearance of stone used in dry cladding work looks spotless and aesthetically pleasing.

FIRE RESISTANT DOOR

 Fire doors are given a fire-resistance rating, and are usually made of a combination of glass, gypsum,
steel, timber and aluminium. They are
designed to be kept closed, and any
gaps between the wall and
the door must be filled with a fire
resistant sealant.
 A fire door is a door with a fire-
resistance rating (sometimes referred
to as a fire protection rating for
closures) used as part of a passive fire
protection system to reduce the
spread of fire and smoke between
separate compartments of a structure
and to enable safe egress from a
building or structure.
 Most fire doors are designed to be
kept closed at all times. Some doors
are designed to stay open under
normal circumstances, and close
automatically in the event of a fire. Whichever method is used, the door's movement should never be
impaired by a doorstop or other obstacle. The intumescent and smoke-seal bounding of fire doors
should be routinely checked, as should the action of the door closer and latch.
 These specialist doors are tested against the elements and purpose-built to withstand roaring fires for
as long as possible. They enable buildings to compartmentalise and delay the spread of fire from one
area to another.
 Fire doors have a few vital safety features and really can be the difference between life and death. Two
of the most important functions fire doors have are:
 When closed, they form a barrier to stop the spread of fire
 When opened, they provide a means of escape
 18

HOLLOW BRICKS : CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS •Is a large rectangular brick used
in construction. • Portland cement and aggregate, usually sand and fine gravel for
high-density blocks. • Size -12x8x4 inch BASIC INFORMATION
 DESCRIPTION • Have one or more hollow cores. • In general, a hollow-core
concrete block is more than 50 % solid. • Standard hollow concrete blocks
come in full and half sizes. • Full-size blocks are rectangular and have two
cores. • Half size blocks are cubical and have one core.
 Raw Materials Required Cement Sand Gravels Water
 Production Processes 1. Raw Materials Mixing 2. Brick/Block moulding 3. Vibrating & Compacting 4.
Curing/Drying 5. Brick/Block Packing
 Manufacturing Process • Cement concrete blocks are - solid or hollow. • The blocks sizes are - 12x8x4";
12x8x3"; 12x8x6", etc. • Cement, stone chips, sand, etc. are mixed in the ratio of 1:6 or 1:12. • vibrate
the mixture and then poured into the desired size mould. • After 24 hours of drying, the blocks are put
in water tank for curing. • Curing time - two to three weeks to give the blocks compression strength.
 Highly Durable: The good concrete compacted by high pressure and vibration gives substantial strength
to the block. Proper curing increase compressive strength of the blocks. • Low Maintenance • Fire
Resistant • Provide thermal and sound insulation • Economical • Environment Friendly ADVANTAGES
OF HOLLOW BRICKS
 Reducing the vulnerability (exposed to damage) of disastrous damage to the structure/building, during
the natural hazards. •Provide and offer better resistance under dynamic loading
 No additional formwork or any special construction machinery is required for reinforcing the hollow
block masonry. • Only semi-skilled labour is required for this type of construction. • It is a faster and
easier construction system, when compared to the other conventional construction systems. • It is also
found to be a cost-effective disaster resistant construction system
 ADVANTAGES •This construction system provides better acoustic and thermal insulation for the
building. •Faster construction: - Easy to work with bigger in size. •Recommended for earth quake
resistance. •Less water absorption: - Approx. 3 to 4% •Environmental Eco-Friendly •This system is
durable and maintenance free. •No leaching: - Reduction in maintenance.
TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL WOODS

 Plywood
 Marine plywood
 LDF / MDF / HDF
 Chipboard
 OSB
 Laminated
 Layer wood
 Honeycomb wood
 Sandwich
 Laminated
 PLYWOOD: The Plywood is also called Multilayer Wood precisely because made with thin layers of
overlapped wood in which the fibers are placed at 90 degrees relative to one another. It is also called
Compensate Wood because it is thanks to this composition, which is able to compensate deformations,
such as twisting, stretching and shrinkage of the material. The plywood is well recognizable because the
layers are very obvious looking at the section. Given the cross-positioning, the layers appear in different
colors. In reality it is the same material, but seen with the fiber in the longitudinal or transverse section.
 MARINE PLYWOOD: There is then also the marine plywood which serves mainly to realize the outdoor
facilities in which it needs a high resistance to moisture. It’s a high quality multilayer in which the veneers
are glued with synthetic resins, urea formaldehyde, resorcinol or phenolic based. It is manufactured
using selected sheets of a limited variety of species similar to mahogany. The sheets of marine plywood
are very compact. They don’t have holes and resist also underwater. They do not fret and do not change
even if exposed to snow or sun! Of course it can also be used for indoor furniture because it is very
durable. It has the downside of being very expensive.
 19

 LDF, MDF and HDF: The letters that indicate certain types of Artificial Wood.
 LDF: Low Density Fibreboard
 MDF: Medium Density Fibreboard
 HDF: High Density Fibreboard
 The density changes, but in practice are obtained from the union of fine wood fiber, compacted and
blended by high strength glue. The wood fiber may be of various types, but usually they prefer the wood
of coniferous trees. This wood is first stripped of bark and then crushed and ground to become fiber
with the help of water and chemicals. The procedure can be done either dry or by wet milling. The most
widely used of this 3 types in carpentry is probably the MDF. The main quality of this Artificial Wood is
the compactness that makes it easy to work, especially in the case of shaping and milling. It has the
defect of being quite heavy, it doesn’t have natural wood veins, but that is why it lends to be painted
and lacquered homogeneous.
 CHIPBOARD: As the name indicates the same Chipboard is formed from wood “chips” obtained from
the woodwork kneaded with resins and high strength glues. Unfortunately, very often, due to the high
demand for this material (very inexpensive), a barbarian deforestation is carried out exclusively in order
to obtain chips aimed at the realization of the chipboard. It can be found in various thicknesses and is
used in the construction of furniture. The aesthetic is very bad if not bordered and veneered with fine
wood or covered in some way.In addition, because of its very porous composition, it is unusable for
outdoor furniture and must be combined with special screws and glue to prevent it from flaking, or
worse, splitting.
 OSB: The OSB (Oriented Strand Board) is an Artificial Wood consists of several superimposed layers
formed from wood chips. These chips are mainly of a long and narrow shape (strand) and are held
together by a glue. The wood chips are positioned so as to improve the technical properties (strength
and bending resistance) of the panel. There are 4 types (OSB / 1, OSB / 2, OSB / 3, OSB / 4) with different
properties and you can choose one of these according to the constructional requirements since they
have different resistance to moisture and to the loads. The OSB is often used to realize partition walls
or panelling inside workshops and laboratories. Lately find extensive use in design and furnishing
especially for shops that want to express one Industrial style.
 BLOCKBOARD The Blackboard is sold in panels of various sizes formed from a central core constituted
by slats of wood glued together and 2 external panels. This configuration gives the material a very good
strength, but it means a less aesthetic appearance. To overcome this problem is beaded or laminate
with adhesive strips to beautify the edges of which are obvious interior strips. These slats, which are the
structural part of the blockboard wood, are often in hard wood. The blockboard wood is easy to work
with and is used in the production of doors, shelves, racks etc.
 HONEYCOMB: The Honeycomb Wood is a panel often used for the realization of doors thanks to its
lightness. And it is precisely its composition to make it so light! In fact, the Tamburato is formed
externally by two skins sheets, which may be of MDF, chipboard or plywood, framed on MDF or
chipboard and finished. Internally, in the area that would have been empty, there is a honeycomb
structure which can be made in different materials: paper, polyurethane, polystyrene, aluminum, plastic
etc.
 SANDWICH: Produced in panels of different thicknesses (from 30 to 150 mm) is mainly used to isolate
Indeed, it is composed in the internal part by an insulating material (polystyrene foam, phenol foam,
rock wool, rigid mineral wool or cork), while the outer layers are formed from plywood or particle board.
The sandwich panels are used for vertical panels, ceilings and any situation where there is a need to
insulate surfaces. Obviously the material of which is composed the core of the panel varies depending
on the environment in which it will be located and the function.
 LAMINATED: Laminated Wood is available commercially in the form of different colored panels. It’s
made of chipboard or plywood panels coated with plastic sheets on one or both surfaces. It is a very
robust material and is used mainly for working surfaces and tables, for its uniformity and because you
can work and write over it without problems. Of course you have to edge it. Otherwise the aesthetic
would be very unpleasant.
 Artificial timber –– is a wood substitute made from solid waste like fly ash, silica, bituminous tar sand,
and bio-degradable cellulosic ash or waste material.
20