Al Ghad International Colleges of

Applied Medical Sciences

Nursing Research
NURS 429
L8

1
Course objectives:
At the end of the course, the student will be able to :
• Use scientific inquiry to explore problems and needs within
nursing
• Describe how a theoretical/ conceptual framework guides
research
• Identify appropriate research methodology and designs in the
design of nursing research
• Discuss legal ethical implication for conducting and applying
nursing research
• Incorporate intellectual inquiry and critical thinking in the critique
of nursing research
• Develop a nursing research proposal

2
 Lecture No1.
Course overview of Research
role of nurse in research

3
• Outlines
• Definition of research
• Definition of nursing research

• History of Nursing Research

• Definition of Research Utilization

• The Importance of Research in Nursing

• Primary goal of nursing research

• Purposes of nursing research

• Barriers to Utilizing Nursing Research

• Roles of Nurses in Research

• Examples of Research Studies

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 ❖Introduction
▪ Nurses are managing their clinical responsibilities at a
time when the nursing profession and the larger health
care system require an extraordinary range of skills
and talents. Nurses are expected to deliver the highest
possible quality care in a compassionate manner with
the lowest cost. To accomplish these goals, nurses

continually need to access and evaluate new information.

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 Definition of research:

▪ The root meaning of word research is

to search again or to examine
carefully.

▪ Research is systematic inquiry that

uses disciplined methods to answer
questions or solve problems.
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 Definition of nursing research:

➢ Nursing research is a “scientific process that

validates and refines existing knowledge and
generates new knowledge that directly and
indirectly influences nursing practice”.

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 Definition of nursing research:

➢ Nursing research is a systematic search for

knowledge about issues of importance to
nursing, including nursing practice, nursing
education, and nursing administration.

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 History of Nursing Research

➢ Nursing research began in the in the mid of

18th century with Florence Nightingale.
Nightingale focused on the importance of a
healthy environment for patients.

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 History of Nursing Research

➢ Aspects of Florence Nightingale

research:

1. Ventilation

2. Cleanliness

3. Purity of water

4. Healthy diet
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 History of Nursing Research
• Early 1900s – problems in nursing: education, staffing
issues

• 1960s Practice oriented research; first nursing research

journals

• 1983 - ANA Center for Research for Nursing

• 1986 - National Center for Nursing Research (NCNR)

was established to support nursing research & training

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 History of Nursing Research

• Examples of nursing journals: American Journal of

Nursing, American, International Journal of Nursing
Studies, Journal of Nursing Scholarship, Journal of
Nursing Measurement and Journal of Nursing
Management.

• Clinical research is the current major focus of nursing

research.

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 Definition of Research Utilization:

• Research Utilization refers to the use of research findings

in practice to improve care.

• Levels of Research Utilization:

1. instrumental,

2. conceptual, and

3. symbolic Utilization
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 1. Instrumental utilization

• Instrumental utilization is the direct, explicit application

of knowledge gained from research to change

practice.

• It allows the nurse to change nursing practice, for

example, by adopting new nursing interventions,

procedures, or guidelines.

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 2. Conceptual utilization

• Conceptual utilization refers to the use of findings to

enhance one’s understanding of a problem or issue
in nursing.

• Nurse uses the knowledge by thinking about a situation,

problem, or phenomenon to provide different alternatives
and possibilities in nursing situations.

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3. Symbolic utilization:

• Symbolic utilization is the use of evidence to change

minds of other people, usually decision makers.
With symbolic research utilization, the nurse uses
research findings to influence others to make
changes in conditions, policies, or practices
relevant to nurses and clients.

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Importance of Nursing Research:

1. Continued improvement in patient care

2. Improves patient outcomes

3. Broad support for evidence-based practice

4. Reinforcement of nursing as a profession

5. Help in reduction of costs

6. To explain phenomena

7. To describe the characteristics of specific nursing

situations.

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❖Purposes of nursing research:

1.The Primary goal of nursing research is

to answer questions or solve problems of
relevance to the nursing profession.

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❖Purposes of of nursing research:

1.Identification

2.Description

3.Exploration

4.Explanation

5.Prediction and Control

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❖Purposes of nursing research:
• Identification of
1. What is this phenomenon?
2. What is the name of the phenomenon?
• Description of
1. How often does the phenomenon occur?
2. What are the characteristics of the phenomenon?
• Exploration of
1. What factors are related to the phenomenon?
2. What are the antecedents of the phenomenon?

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❖Purposes of nursing research:

• Explanation of
1. What are the measurable associations between
phenomena?
2. What factors cause the phenomenon?
3. Does the theory explain the phenomenon?
• Prediction and control of
1. What will happen if we alter a phenomenon or introduce
an intervention?
2. If phenomenon X occurs, will phenomenon Y follow?
3. Can the occurrence of the phenomenon be controlled?

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❖ Barriers to Utilizing Nursing Research:

1. Research itself: inadequate scientific base.

2. Resistance to change.
3. Organizational settings: unfavorable organizational
climates, and resource constraints.
4. Limited communication and collaboration between
practitioners and researchers.
5. Financial Cost Related.
6. Patient Related.
7. Staff Related.
8. Time factor.
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❖Roles of Nurses in Research:
1.Identify research problems.
2.Attend research presentations at professional
conferences.
3.Evaluate completed research for its possible use
in practice.
4.Help to develop an idea for a clinical study.
5.Review a proposed research plan and offer
clinical expertise to improve the plan.

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❖Roles of Nurses in Research:
6-Assist with data collection. (e.g., distributing questionnaires
to clients).

7- Provide information and advice to clients who are

participating in studies.

8- Discuss the implications and relevance of research findings

with nursing practice.

9- Critique research studies.

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Lecture No 2. Ethical concerns in
nursing research

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Outline

Introduction
• Codes of Ethics
• Ethical principles
•The principal of beneficence
•The Principle of Respect for human dignity

•The Principle of Justice

•Vulnerable subjects

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Ethics and nursing research

• Ethics are "norms for conduct that distinguish between

acceptable and unacceptable behavior". When most people
think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing
between right and wrong.

• Research ethics involves the application of fundamental

ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific
research

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Codes of Ethics
1. Nuremberg Code was one of the first internationally
recognized efforts to establish ethical standards.

2. Declaration of Helsinki was adopted in 1964 by the World

Medical Association and then later revised, most recently in
2000.

3. American Nurses’ Association (ANA) put a document in 1995

entitled Ethical Guidelines

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Three primary ethical principles of Nursing
Research

A.Beneficence

B.Respect for human dignity

C.Justice

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A. The principal of beneficence

Beneficence means minimize harm and

maximize benefits:

Study participants may be harmed physically

(injury, fatigue) psychologically (stress, fear)
socially (loss of friends) and financially (loss of
wages).

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B. The Principle of Respect for human dignity:

• This principle include:

• 1-The Right to Self-Determination,

• 2- The Right to Full Disclosure

• 3- Informed consent

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1. The Right to Self-Determination

• The principle of self-determination means that

participants have the right to decide
voluntarily whether to participate in a
study, without risking any penalty or
prejudicial treatment. It also means that
people have the right to ask questions, to
refuse to give information, to ask for
clarification, or to terminate their participation.

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2. The Right to Full Disclosure

• Full disclosure means that the researcher

has fully described the nature of the study,
the person’s right to refuse participation.

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3. Informed consent

• Informed consent means that participants

have adequate information regarding the
research, are capable of comprehending the
information, and have the power of free
choice, enabling them to consent to or
decline participation voluntarily.

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The Content of Informed Consent

• Fully informed consent involves communicating the

following pieces of information to participants:
• 1-Participant status
• 2- Study goals
• 3- Type of data
• 4- Procedures
• 5- Participant selection
• 6- Potential risks

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The Content of Informed Consent

7-Potential benefits
8- Compensation
9- Confidentiality pledge
10- Voluntary consent
11- Right to withdraw and withhold
information

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C. The Principle of Justice

• It includes:

1. The Right to Fair Treatment

2. The Right to Privacy

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The Right to Fair Treatment

• Study participants have the right to fair

and equitable treatment before,
during, and after their participation in
the study.

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2. The Right to Privacy

• Participants have the right to expect that any

data they provide will be kept in strictest
confidence.

• This can occur either through anonymity

When anonymity is impossible, appropriate
confidentiality procedures is needed

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Vulnerable subjects

• May be incapable of giving fully

informed consent (e.g., mentally
retarded people) or may be at high risk
of unintended side effects because of
their circumstances (e.g., pregnant
women)

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Vulnerable Populations

• Children
• Geriatric clients
• Prisoners
• Homeless
• AIDS patients
• Unconscious
• Sedated
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Critiquing Ethical Aspects of a Study

• Guidelines for critiquing

– Approved by Institutional review board (IRB)?
– Informed consent obtained?
– Provisions for anonymity and confidentiality?
– Vulnerable subjects?
– Benefits outweigh risks?
– Subjects given opportunity to ask questions?
– Results made available to subjects?

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Lecture No 3. Identification of research
problem

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Outlines:
1. Definition of research problem

2. Sources of research problem

3. Examples of research problem

4. Significance versus insignificance

5. Describe a research purpose

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Introduction

Formulating a research problem is the

initial and one of the most significant
steps in conducting both qualitative &
quantitative research.

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Definition of research problem

• The research problem identifies a broad

area of concern and indicates the concepts
and population to be studied and the study
setting.

• Research problem can be expressed as a

statement or a question.

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Sources of research problems

• Nursing practice
• Nursing education &administration
• Social trends
• Researcher and peer interaction
• Literature review
• Theory
• personal conceptual frame work

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Nursing practice
Clinical practice is an extremely important
source for research problems.
Problems can come from:
1. Clinical observation
2. Chart reviews
3. Logs or Journals
Unanswered questions in clinical practice
and the desire to improve nursing
interventions have been sources for many
nursing studies.

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NURSING EDUCATION & NURSING
ADMINISTRATION

• Nurse educators

• Nurse administrators

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Social trends

1. Different types of nursing education

2. Development & implementation of the nursing

practitioner role & the clinical specialist role

3. Use of computer in providing nursing care

4. Increasing focus on prevention of illness &

promotion of health

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RESEARCHER & PEER INTERACTION

• Experienced researcher serve as

mentors & share their knowledge with
novice researcher in the identification of
research topics and the formulation of
research problems

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 THEORY

• Theories are an important source for

generating research problems because
they set forth ideas about events and
situations in the real world that require
testing.

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LITERATURE REVIEW
• Research topics & potential research
problems can be identified by
reviewing a variety of nursing
publications
• Reviewing the literature helps the
researcher to identify problems that
have been studied and gaps that exist
in a discipline’s knowledge base

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PERSONAL CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

• All research ideas, no where they

originated are interpreted and evaluated
in terms of researcher’s personal
framework

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Examples of research problems

• Problem
Because decubitus ulcers occur in
hospitalized patients despite preventive
measure methods.
• Purpose
the purpose of this study was to evaluate
the effects of topical application of insulin to
promote healing of decubitus ulcer in
hospitalized patients.
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Significance vs insignificance

• A research problem is significant when

it has the potential to generate or refine
and / or influence nursing practice.

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Significant topics for nursing
research
1. The quality of care for large number of client
2. The suffering or severe difficulties of
particular clients
3. Access to care
4. Clients’ health situations
5. Modification of current health services
6. The development of effective strategies for
maintaining and promoting health

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 Definition of research purpose

• The research purpose is a statement of

“ why “ the study is being conducted or
the goal of the study.
• The purpose statement identifies the
variables, population and setting for a
study.
• The research purpose should be stated
objectively
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Sources of the research purpose

• The purpose is generated from the

research problem and clearly focuses
the development of the study

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Examples of research problem & purpose

• Problem
Qualitative research study investigating nurses’ perceptions and
experiences of providing psychological care to burns patients
during recovery phase

• Purpose or Aim
The purpose of this study was to (explore or identify) nurses’
perceptions and experiences of providing psychological care to
burns patients during recovery phase to enhance quality of
practice.

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Lecture No 4.Literature review

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Outline:

1. Purposes of literature review

2. Sources of literature review

3. Writing a literature review

4. Examples of the review of literature

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Literature Review

• Through the literature review, the

researcher generates a picture of what is
known a bout a particular situation and the
knowledge gaps that exist in the situation.
• Relevant literature refers to those sources
that are pertinent or highly important in
providing the in-depth knowledge needed to
study a selected problem.

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Literature Review steps

1. Locating a variety of relevant sources

2. Critiquing those sources for significant
information
3. Generating a written report of the
knowledge gained

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Purposes of Literature Review

1. The primary purpose for reviewing literature is to

gain a broad background or understanding of the
information that is available related to research
problem of interest.
2. The literature review will promote the identification
of feasible research purposes & sub-problems and
will direct the development of methodologically
sound studies.

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Purposes of Literature Review in
quantitative studies
1. Clarify the research topic

2. Clarify the research problem

3. Verify the significance of the research problem

4. Specify the purpose of study

5. Identify relevant studies

6. Identify relevant theories

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Purposes of Literature Review in
quantitative studies
7. Clarify research sub-problems
8. Develop definitions of major variables
9. Identify limitations & assumptions
10.Select a research design
11.Identify instruments or tools of
measurement
12.Direct data collection & analysis
13.Interpret findings
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Sources of Literature Review
1. Clarifying a research topic: a researcher select a topic
for study and then proceeds to clarify and narrow that
topic by identifying synonymous terms and appropriate
subheadings for the topic.
2. Searching the catalog, indexes, abstracts &
bibliographies
3. Conducting a computer search
4. Locating relevant sources

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Searching the catalog, indexes, abstracts &
bibliographies

• Catalog: identifies what is available in the library, these

listings may be on cards, in a book or on line
computer.
• Indexes: a number of sources are referenced under
different divisions and subdivisions
• Abstracts: include the same bibliographic data as
indexes, and in addition , they include a brief ,
objective summary of the content covered in the
publication.
• Bibliographies: is a list of publications for a specific
topic as nursing research on nutrition or a specially
area as cancer nursing
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Writing a Literature Review
• Outlines for LR
1. Introduction: describes the organization & purpose of
the review of literature
2. Content: empirical & theoretical sources must be
presented in a concise and accurate manner &
summarized by researcher’s own words whenever
possible. Content should be honestly presented, not
distorted to support the selected problem.
3. Summary: includes discussion of the LR, identify
knowledge gaps exist and indicates the directions for
further research.

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Lecture No 5.Theoretical basis of
nursing practice/research

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Outlines:

1. Frame of reference
2. Theory
3. Concept
4. Proposition
5. Variable
6. relationship

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Definition of common terms

• Frame of reference: is the abstract, logical

structure that enables the researcher to link
the findings of a study to a body of knowledge.
• Theory: is a set of interrelated concepts,
constructs, definitions and propositions that
present an orderly view of phenomenon by
identifying relations among concepts;
• The purpose of theory is to explain and provide
a basis for deduction of hypothesis which can
be tested and verified or refuted

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Definition of common terms

• Concept: is a word that expresses an abstract idea

formed by generalizing from particulars; concepts can
be thought of as a category or label. Concepts can be
concrete, meaning they can be seen, or abstract,
meaning they can not be seen but are known to exist

• Preposition: is a statement of a consistent relationship

between two or more concepts that is capable of
generating hypothesis.

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Definition of common terms
• Variable: is an attribute, property and /or
characteristic of person, event or object that is
examined in a study.

• Relationship: is an association between or

among concepts or variables; it may be range
from positive to negative, it may be neutral.

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Purpose of frame of reference

• To organize the development of a study

• To provide a way to interpret findings.

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Types of frame of reference

• Conceptual framework: is an organization of

concepts that provides a focus for inquiry.
• The purpose of CF is to clarify the concepts and to
propose relationship between the concepts in the
study & provides meaning within which to interpret
the research findings.
Example: using concepts of basic human needs &
styles of learning to study how well patients learn
health information.

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Types of frame of reference
• Theoretical framework: is a general, abstract
explanation of the interrelationships of the concepts in
a theory to be investigated.

Example: using a preposition from the self care deficit

theory of nursing to examine how patients care for
themselves at home.

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 Lecture No 6.
Formulating of research
Questions/hypothesis
development

79
Outline:

1. Definition of research sub-problem

2. Types of research sub-problem
• Objectives
• Questions
• Hypotheses
3. Variables

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Definition of research Sub-problem

• Research sub-problems are the specific or

more concrete subparts of a research problem.

• Sub-problems can be stated as objectives,

questions, or hypotheses

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Research Objectives

Objectives are clear, concise, declarative

statements that are expressed in the present
tense.
For clarity , an objective should focus on only
one or two variables.
• Identification
• Description
• relational

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Research Objectives

• The objective of this study was to

determine the influence of attendance &
effort in a long term exercise program on
the cognitive and physical functioning of
older adults.

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Research Questions

• A research question is a concise,

interrogative statement that is worded in
the present tense and usually includes
one or two variables.

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Examples of a problem statement

• Bilharzias is a serious health concern and a major

public health challenge in rural areas in Egypt.

• Women are at high risk for the development of coronary

artery disease after menopause.

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Examples of purpose statement:

• The purpose of this study is to investigate the main

causes of Bilharzias in rural areas in Egypt.

• The purpose of this study is to investigate the

experiences of postmenopausal women after diagnosis

with coronary artery disease.

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Examples of Research question:

• What are the causes of Bilharzias in rural areas in Egypt?

• What are the experiences of postmenopausal women who are

diagnosed with coronary artery disease?

• Does the administration of analgesics by nurses vs. by patients

themselves affect pain intensity during postoperative recovery in

older adults?

87
Research Hypotheses

A hypotheses: is the formal statement of the expected

relationships between two or more variables.

The hypotheses translates the research problem and

purpose into a clear explanation or prediction of the
expected results or outcomes of the study.

For clarity, hypotheses are expressed as declarative

statements written in the present tense.

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Purposes of Hypotheses

• Lend objectivity to investigations

• Test theoretical propositions

• Advance scientific knowledge

• Guide research design

• Dictate statistical analysis used

• Show researcher’s expectations

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Sources for Hypotheses

• Theories
• Personal experience
• Previous research studies

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Types of Hypotheses

1- Simple
• Bivariate
• Relationship between one independent
and one dependent variable
• Independent variable: cause, first
chronologically
• Dependent variable: effect

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Types of hypotheses

2-Complex Hypothesis
• Multivariate
• Relationship between
– Two or more independent variables
– Two or more dependent variables
– Both

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Types of hypotheses

2-Directional Research Hypotheses:

• Predicts the direction of the relationship
– Example: People Who Smoke Are More Likely
to Develop Lung Cancer Than Those Who Do
Not.

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Types of hypotheses

4-Nondirectional Research Hypotheses:

Does not predict direction of relationship
– Example: There Is a Relationship Between
Serotonin Levels and SIDS.

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 The Criteria To Be Considered When Formulating
Hypothesis

• Be written in a declarative sentence

• Be written in the present tense
• Contain the population
• Contain the variables
• Reflect the problem statement, purpose
statement, and research question
• Be empirically testable

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Hypothesis Format

• A correlational statement
• A comparative statement
• Statistical analysis

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 Predictive Terms

• Examples
– Less
– Greater
– Decrease in
– Negative correlation

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Critiquing Hypotheses and Research Questions

• Does the study contain a hypothesis or hypotheses?

• Is each hypothesis clearly worded and concise?

• Is it written in a declarative sentence?

• Is each hypothesis directly tied to the study problem?

98
Critiquing Hypotheses and Research Questions
(cont’d)

• Is the study framework clearly defined with each

hypothesis derived from it?

• Does each hypothesis contain the population and at

least two variables?

• Is each hypothesis stated as a directional research

hypothesis? If not, is a rationale given for the type
employed?

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Defining variables

• Conceptual definition is the broad, abstract

meaning of a variable

• Operational definition is a way of defining a

variable to make it measurable in the real world.

100
Types of variables

Independent variable: is the variable that influences or creates

dependent variable.
Independent Variable :is the cause for the outcome for the study.

Dependent variable: is the outcome or criterion variable that is

hypothesized to be caused by the independent variable.

Dependent variable: is the variable being affected by the independent

variable.

101
Types of variables (cont’d)
Extraneous variables
Ext.var exists in all studies and can affect the
measurement of the study variables and examination
of the relationships within a study. (eg. Environmental
var.)
Attribute variables
Attr.var are characteristics or elements of the human
subject that are collected to describe the sample. ( eg.
Demographic var. as age, sex etc )

102
Lecture No 7. Research methods &
design (qualitative, quantitative)

103
Outline:
1. Definition of research design
2. Purpose of research design
3. Types of research designs
• Experimental design
• Quasi-experimental design
• Non-experimental designs
4.Research processes

104
Definition of research design

• A research design is the researcher's overall plan for

obtaining answers to the research questions.

• Research design is the structural frame work of a study.

• It is the way you choose to do the research

Steps of the design phase include:

• Selecting a study design

• Selecting a sampling plan

• Identifying data collection method
• Conducting a pilot study 105
purpose of research design

• The research design directs the researcher in

planning & implementing the study in a way that is
most likely to achieve the intended goal.

• Research design is a blueprint for the conduct of a

study that maximizes control over factors that could

interfere with the desired outcomes from studies .

106
 Types of Research design:

1. Quantitative design (experimental design):

2. Qualitative design (non- experimental design):

• Both quantitative and qualitative approaches are important for

nursing research because they generate different kinds of

knowledge essential for nursing practice…

107
1- Quantitative design (experimental design)

1. Quantitative design uses numbers and precise

measurement

2. Data of experimental designs are collected by

traditional approaches such as experiments,

questionnaires, surveys

108
Types of quantitative study design:

1. Descriptive

2. Exploratory

3. Correlation

4. Experimental

109
Types of quantitative study design:
➢ Descriptive design: describes the variables of interest as it
naturally occurs. It describes the characteristics of persons,
groups, or situations and the frequency with which certain
phenomena occur.

➢ Exploratory design: Preliminary investigation designed to

develop or refine hypotheses or to test the data collection
methods.

➢ Correlation design: examines the relationship between two or

more variables.

110
 Experimental design

➢ Experimental design: provides the maximum

amount of control in order to examine causality
between variables. Experimental Research
studies in which the investigator controls
(manipulates) the independent variable and
randomly assigns subjects to different
conditions.

111
Experimental design

➢ Experimental design is characterized by:

• Control (the experimenter introduces controls over the

experimental situation, usually control group that does not receive
the intervention).
• Manipulation (the experimenter does something as interventions)

• Randomization- the experimenter assigns subjects to control or

experimental group on a random basis.

112
 Classical model of experimental design

• Pre-test post-test control group

design.

Treatment group:R O1 X O2

Control group :R O1 O2

113
 Strengths of experimental design

• The confidence with which causal relationships can be

inferred.

• The most powerful method available to scientists for testing

hypotheses of cause-and-effect relationships between

variables.

• Because of its special controlling properties, the scientific

experiment offers grater corroboration than any other

research approach ” if –then “.

114
 Weaknesses of experimental design

• Some variables can not be manipulated as

human or environmental characteristics

• Ethical consideration prohibit manipulation.

• Impractical “ not feasible “

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Quasi-experimental design

1. Manipulation (intervention)
2. Randomization or control

116
 Quasi-experimental design
• Strengths:
1. Practicality
2. Feasibility
3. Generalizability
4. Introduce some control over extraneous variables
• Weaknesses
1. Control is absent in quasi-experimental design
2. Inability to randomize subjects to treatment &
control group
3. Its weakness in allowing us to make causal
inferences
117
 Classical model of Quasi-experimental
design

• Non-equivalent control group design.

Treatment group: O1 X O2

Control group : O1 O2

118
 Types of qualitative study design (non
experimental design):

1. Phenomenology: evaluates the human

experience
2. Grounded theory: theory building
3. Ethnography: cultural exploration
4. Historical: life histories as a person's life
experience

119
Types of qualitative study design (non experimental
design):
Non experimental designs do not manipulate a variable. It allows
exploration of problems that are not amenable to experimentation.
It evaluate subjective life experiences and focuses on understanding
phenomena from an individual’s perspective.

•non-experimental designs explore feelings, experiences, cultures or

philosophies

•Examples of qualitative study: How do nurses define patient

satisfaction?

120
Research processes

1. Problem identification and statement

2. Formulating the problem significance
3. Reviewing the literature
4. Developing a research purpose and question
5. Formulating hypotheses and defining variable
6. Selecting a research design
7. Identifying a method of data collection
8. Conducting a pilot study
9. Analyzing the data
10. Interpreting the results
11. Communicating the findings

121
Collecting and Analyzing the data
• To answer the research question meaningfully, the data
must be processed and analyzed. In experimental
research, data are analyzed through statistical
procedures such as: Mean, median, mode,
frequencies. In non-experimental research data are
analyzed through coding and developing themes,
categories and subcategories.

122
Interpreting the results

• Interpretation of the results refers to the process of

making sense of data, and examining the

implications of the findings within a broader context.

In this step the researcher explains the findings

of the study in light of what is known about

previous work in this area.

123
Communicating the findings

• The results of the research investigation are of little use

and have no value if they are not communicated to
others. Therefore, the results of research must be
applied in real life situation to explain phenomenon
or to solve a problem. This can be done by
presenting the findings to others who are concerned.

124
Lecture No 8. Sampling

125
 Outlines

1. Definition of terms

2. Purpose of sampling

3. Factors affecting sample size

4. Types of sampling procedures

• Probability sampling

• Non- probability sampling

126
 Definition of Population
The term population refers to "the entire set of
individuals or objects that possess specific
characteristics that the researcher is interested in
studying".

Target population: The entire population of

interest

127
 Example:
All cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, all
professional nurses who has doctoral degree in
nursing, all children in Egypt with rheumatic
fever, …etc. in others words it is the group of
people who are going to be studied and to whom
should study findings apply.

128
• A sampling plan is just a method or procedure for
specifying how a sample will be taken from a population.

• Sampling: It is the process or technique of selecting a

portion of the population (a sample) to represent the entire

population.

129
• A sample can be defined as a set of respondents (people)
selected from a larger population to represent the
population of interest.

• Sampling bias: This involves problems in sampling,

which reveals that sample is not representative of
population.

130
• Strata: a stratum is a mutually exclusive
segment of a population, established by one
or more characteristics. Subpopulations of
a population (e.g., male, female).

131
 Representative sample:

• A sample whose key characteristics closely approximate

those of the population (the main sampling goal in
quantitative research).

• Characteristics of a highly representative sample:

• Probability sampling
• Homogeneous populations
• Large samples

132
❖Purpose of sampling:

1. Sampling serves time, money, and effort.

2. Sampling increases the efficiency of the research.

3. Sampling makes some impossible researches more

possible.

133
 ❖Factors affecting sample size:

1. Homogeneity of the population

2. Effect size
3. Cooperation and attrition
4. Subgroup analyses
5. Sensitivity of the measures

134
 ❖Factors affecting sample size:

1. Homogeneity of the population. If the population is

relatively homogeneous, a small sample may be
adequate.

2. Effect size. Power analysis builds on the concept of an

effect size, which expresses the strength of relationships

among research variables.

135
 ❖Factors affecting sample size:
3. Cooperation and attrition.
In most studies, not everyone invited to participate in a
study agrees to do so.

• Attrition problems may occur when people who

initially agree to cooperate in a study may be
subsequently unable or unwilling to participate for
various reasons such as death, deterioration of
health, early discharge,..
136
 ❖Factors affecting sample size:

4. Subgroup analyses.
Researchers are sometimes interested in testing hypotheses
not only for an entire population but also for subgroups.
For example, we might be interested in determining
whether a structured exercise program is effective in
improving infants’ motor skills. After testing the general
hypothesis with sample of infants, we might wish to test
whether the intervention is more effective for
certain infants.
137
 ❖Factors affecting sample size:

5. Sensitivity of the measures.

Instruments vary in their ability to measure key
concepts precisely.

138
 ❖Types of sampling procedures:

1) Probability sampling

2) Nonprobability sampling

139
 ❖ 1) Probability sampling
Probability sample involves random selection
of elements so that every member of the
population has an equal chance of being
selected in the sample.

140
❖Types of Probability Sampling:

1. Simple random sampling

2. Stratified random sampling

3. Cluster sampling

4. Systematic sampling

141
❖1. Simple random sampling:

Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is

easy to explain to others. Because simple random

sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is reasonable

to generalize the results from the sample back to the

population.

142
 ❖Simple random sampling involves:

1. Uses a sampling frame = a list of all population elements

from which the sample will be chosen.

2. Involves random selection of elements from the sampling

frame using a table of random numbers or a computer.

3. It cannot be used in large, national surveys

143
 ❖2. Stratified random sampling:

Stratified Random Sampling, involves dividing

your population into homogeneous subgroups and
then taking a simple random sample in each
subgroup

144
 ❖Stratified Random Sampling involves
1.Stratified random sampling designs subdivide the population
into homogenous subsets (strata) from which an appropriate
number of elements can be selected at random.

2.Example if the population were students of nursing faculty a

stratified random sampling will done as follows; 1st year, 2nd
year, 3rd year, and 4th year students. Then an equal proportion
from each strata are selected at random.

3.It enhances a greater degree of representativeness

145
 ❖3. Cluster (multistage) sampling:
1) Successive random sampling of units from larger to
smaller (e.g., states, then cities, then districts, blocks, and
then households).

2) It widely used in national surveys.

3) It has larger sampling error than simple random

sampling, but more efficient for larger population.

146
❖In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:

➢ Divide population into clusters (usually along

geographic boundaries)

➢ Randomly sample clusters

➢ Measure all units within sampled clusters

147
 ❖4. Systematic sampling:
1. It involves the selection of every case from some list or
group, such as every 10th person on a patient list

2. It is conducted when an ordered list of all members of the

population is available (e.g. 1000 ) and the sample size is
known (e.g. 50) then the size of the gap between members
which will be selected from the list is = 1000 ÷ 50 = 20 then

every 20th member of the list will be included in the study.

148
❖Advantage of probability sampling:

1. less biased

2. Highly representative

3. Less time consuming

149
 ❖2) Nonprobability sampling:

Nonprobability sampling does not

involve selection of elements at random
(using nonrandom methods).

150
 ❖Types of Nonprobability Sampling:

1- Convenience (accidental) sampling

2- Quota sampling

3- Purposive (Judgmental) sampling

151
 ❖1- Convenience (accidental) sampling;

Convenience sampling means using of the most conveniently

(readily) available people.

1.Most widely used approach by quantitative researchers.

2.Most vulnerable to sampling biases

•Example, stopping people at street corner to ask them to
complete a questionnaire

152
 ❖2- Quota sampling:

Convenience sampling within specified strata of the

population, here the researcher divides the population into
homogeneous subgroup in order to ensure representative
proportions at various subgroups in the sample, and then
within each subgroup the researcher selects a convenient

sample.

153
❖2- Quota sampling: Example

A researcher subdivide the population to females and

males then select a convenient sample from each
subgroup.

154
 ❖2- Quota sampling: Example

In quota sampling, you select people non randomly according to some fixed

quota. There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non
proportional. In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the
major characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount
of each. For instance, if you know the population has 40% women and 60%
men, and that you want a total sample size of 100, you will continue

sampling until you get those percentages and then you will stop.

155
❖3-Purposive (Judgmental) sampling:

– Sample members are hand-picked by researcher to

achieve certain goals.

– Can be used to select experts or achieve other goals, such

as, in case of a needs assessment using the key information
approach.

– Used more often by qualitative than quantitative

researchers

156
 Sample Size
– Definition; Sample size is the number of study participants in
the final sample.

• Although there is no simple equation that can automatically

answer the question of how large a sample is needed, researchers
are generally advised to use the largest sample possible. The
larger the sample, the more representative of the population it is

likely to be.

157
 Steps in sampling
1. Identification of the target population, for example
cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy.

2. Identify a part of the target population that is accessible

utilization is usually possible, for example outpatient or
hospitalized cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy.

158
 Steps in sampling

3. Put on inclusion and exclusion criteria: Inclusion criteria

such as cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, receiving at
least one cytotoxic drugs, their age over 18 years old,
experience of nausea and vomiting related to chemotherapy
and willing to participate in the study. Exclusion criteria such
as patients have gastrointestinal cancers.

4. Decide on the type of sampling procedures and go ahead.

159
 Lecture No 9.
Methods of Data Collection

160
Outline

• Sources of data:

• Methods of data collection:

1) Self-report.

2) Observation

3) Use biophysiologic measures

161
 Sources of data:

1. Primary data collection: Primary data mean data you

collect e.g. surveys, experiments, questionnaires,
observations and interviews.

2. Secondary data collection: Conducted by collecting

information from electronically stored information or
diverse source of documents e.g. county health
departments, vital statistics – birth, death certificates or

hospital records.
162
Factors affecting methods of data collection

1.Research problem

2.Research design

3.Study variables

4.Sample
5. Amount of time and resources available
163
 1) Self report Method:

The self-report method is strong. If we want to know what people

think, feel, or believe (qualitative data) the most direct means of
gathering the information is to ask them about it.

Types of Self report:

A) Interviews

B) Questionnaire

164
A) Interviews:

Interviews are methods of data collection where a

data collector questions a subject verbally by face to face
or telephone format.

It may consist of open ended or closed ended

questions

Interviews divided into unstructured interview, Semi-

structured interview and Structured interview

165
 Unstructured and semi-structured interview:

1. Unstructured interview is most commonly used in

qualitative research.

2. It used when the researcher proceeds with no pre

conceived view of the specific content or flow of
information to be gathered. The researcher begins with

a broad question relating to the topic under investigation.

166
 Unstructured and semi-structured interview:

e.g., Tell me about what happened when you first

learned you had Diabetes? Subsequent questions are
more focused and are guided by response to the broad
question.

167
 Unstructured and semi-structured interview:

3. Unstructured or loosely structured self-report

methods offer the researcher flexibility in
gathering information from research
participants.

4. The researcher does not have a specific set of

questions that must be asked in a specific order.

168
 Unstructured and semi-structured interview:

5. The researcher starts with some general questions

or topics and allows the respondents to tell their
stories in a naturalistic, narrative fashion. It tends to
conversational in nature.

6. Unstructured interviews should be the mode of

choice when the researcher does not have a clear
idea of what it is he or she does not know.
169
 Structured interview:

• A researcher use a structured approach always with a

formal, written instrument and the questions asked

orally or face to face or telephone format. Here the

questions are asked in the same order within the

same wording and according to the identical

procedures used in every interview.

170
 Advantages of interview:

1. Better response rates

2. Wide range of subjects:
as young children, blind, elderly.
3. Can clarify questions
4. Greater depth of questions
5. Decreases missing information
6. Order of questions controlled
7. Adds supplementary observational data

171
 Collecting interview data

• Primary task of the interviewer is to put respondents

at ease to feel comfortable in expressing their
honest opinions

• The interviewer should strive to appear unbiased.

• All the opinions of the respondent should accepted

as natural and the interviewer not appear surprise

172
 Collecting interview data

• The interviewer should follow the wording of the

questions in the schedule similarly.

• The interviewer should not read the questions

mechanically conversational tone is essential with
respondent

• The interviewer shouldn't summarize the respondents

reply.
173
 B)Questionnaire:-

• The instrument called questionnaire when the respondents

complete it themselves usually in a paper and pencil
format. In a construction of a questionnaire there must be
careful thinking, planning and testing to have clear,
organized & sequential questions by the respondents who

can’t have help from data collector .

174
 Elements of questionnaire:-

1-Covering letter

2-Instructions to the respondents

3-The Questions

175
 Elements of questionnaire:-

1-Covering letter
▪ Who the researcher is.

▪ Assure the confidentiality of the responses.

▪ Explain the purpose of the research.

▪ How the respondents are selected for the study.

▪ Why the answers are important.

• The respondents signed consent from

176
 2- Instructions to the respondents: -

This should explain how is going to answer the questionnaires. It

should be :-

Clear & simple

Each time a different mode of answer is requested, clear directions

should be given.

If one answer only is required, indicate so.

If more than one answer is required indicate so .

177
 3-The Questions:
They are the hearts of the questionnaire since the
researcher depends on them to collect his data.
Therefore , the questions should be carefully
examined.

Types of questions

closed – ended questions & open-ended

questions.

178
 1- Open-ended questions:

Allow respondent to respond in their own words.

e.g., what was the biggest problem you faced after your
open heart surgery?

Should be provided adequate space to respondents to permit a

full response.

179
 1-Closed-ended questions:

• Offer respondents a number of alternative

replies, from which the subjects must choose one
of the most appropriate answer. The alternative
range from yes or no. e.g., have you smoked a
cigarette within the past 24 hr.?

180
 Types of closed-ended questions:

1-Dichotomous question; require the respondent to make

choice between two response alternative, such as yes/no or
male/female. It is considered most appropriate for gathering

factual information.

181
 Types of closed-ended questions:

Multiple-choice question; offer more than

two response alternatives multiple-choice

questions most commonfly offer three to

seven alternatives.

182
 Types of closed-ended questions:

Cafeteria questions; are special type of

multiple-choice question that asks respondent to

select a response that most closely corresponds

to their view.

183
 Types of closed-ended questions:
Rank-order questions; ask respondent to rank target
concepts along some continuum such as most important to
least important. Rank order question can be useful but need to
handled carefully because they are often misunderstood by
respondent. Rank-order questions shouldn't ask respondent

to rank more than 10 alternatives.

184
 Types of closed-ended questions:

Rating questions; ask respondents to judge something

along an ordered dimension. Rating questions are

typically bipolar in nature which the end points

specifying the opposite extremes of continuum.

185
 Types of closed-ended questions:

Checklists; items that encompass several questions on

a topic and require the same response format.

186
 Types of closed-ended questions:

Calendar questions; are being used increasingly when

researches want to obtain retrospective information.
Question about start date and stop date of events are
asked and recorded on calendar. Calendar are useful to
respondent because they can often better reconstruct the
dates of events when several events are recorded

187
Types of closed-ended questions:

Visual analogue scales; it is increase to measure

subjective experiences, such as pain, fatigue,
nausea, dyspnea. Subjects are asked to mark to
appoint on the line corresponding to the amount
of sensation experienced

188
 Principles of questionnaire construction:

1-Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.

2-Use short, simple, and clearly worded questions.

3-Handling sensitive or personal information.

4-Avoid double-barreled questions that contain two distinct

idea.

189
 Principles of questionnaire construction:

5-Avoid asking about future intentions.

6-Avoid using leading-questions.

7-State range alternatives within the question itself when

possible.

8-Avoid ambiguity or confusion

9-State questions in the affirmative

190
 Lecture No 10.

Data collection
&
Measurement

191
 Outline

• Sources of data:
• Methods of data collection:

1) Self-report.

2) Observation

3) Use biophysiologic measures

192
2) Observational Method

Definition of Observational method;

• Observational methods are techniques for acquiring

data through the direct observation of phenomena.

• Observational technique varies along a continuum

from tightly structured procedures to loosely
structured and unstructured procedures.

193
 Types of variables measured by Observational Methods;

1. Characteristics and conditions of individuals for example,

the sleep/wake state of patients.

2. Verbal communication behaviors such as exchange of

information at change of shift report.

3. Nonverbal communication behaviors such as facial

expressions;
194
 Types of variables measured by Observational
Methods;

4. Activities and events such as geriatric patients' self grooming

activities.

5. Skill attainment and performance; that attainment of nurses daily

skills is often manifested behaviorally and observational assessment is

appropriate. e.g., nurse observe the ability of diabetic patient to test

their urine for sugar and acetone.

195
 Types of observational methods;

a. Unstructured observation.

b. Structured observation

196
A. Unstructured observational method

• Definition of unstructured observational method;

It is an observation that proceeds without a previous structure.

The researcher records all events or behaviors, which are observed

without using a pre-designed observation checklist.

197
 •The aims of unstructured observational method:

1- To understand the behavior and experience of people as

they occur naturally in naturalistic setting.

2- To observe and record information about people and their

environment.

198
B. Structured observation

It is an observational method that the researcher

records all events or behaviors, which are observed

using a pre-designed observational tool such as

checklist.

199
B. Structured observation

The purpose of structured observation is to maximize

observer's accuracy and objectivity and maintain an

adequate representation of the phenomena of

interest.

200
•Methods of recording structured observations:

1- Checklists: are techniques of indicating whether

or not a behavior occurred.

2- Rating scales: allows the observer to rate the

behavior or event on a scale.

201
1- Checklists;

Checklist is a tool for recording the appearance

and/ or frequency of specific behaviors, events, or

characteristic.

-The observer identifies the occurrence and/ or

frequency of a particular behavior.

202
1- Checklists;

The observer either:

1) place a check mark beside the appropriate behavior, or

2) make accumulative tally of the number of times the

behavior was witnessed.

e.g., describing patients' ability to perform selected activities of

daily living (as Hygiene behaviors).

203
1- Checklists;

• Activity frequency

• Hygiene behaviors

- Wash hands.

- Brushy teeth.

- Cleans fingernails

204
2- Rating scales:-

• The observer is require to rate some phenomenon

in terms of points along a descriptive
continuum.

• Rating scale involves a number of behavior

statements or traits. Five-point rating scale is
the most common (1-5).
205
2- Rating scales:-(example)
Name:----------- dept:---------- date:------------
very good Satis- fair Unsatis-
good factory factory

Knowledge of work:
1- Clear, understand facts
pertinent to job.
Comments:

Personal quality:
1- Appearance
2- Absenteeism
3- Communication
4- Leadership
206
Comments:
 Advantages of observational methods:

1. There are many problems that are better suited to an

observational approach than self-report techniques
such as when people are embarrassed to report
their activities e.g. display of aggression or hostility.
2. With observation technique the researcher has the
ability to directly capture a record of behaviors
and events.
3. There are no others methods of data collection that
can provide the depth and variety of information
as observation.
207
 Disadvantages of observational methods;

1. There is possible ethical difficulty due to lack of consent to

being observed.

2. Vulnerability of observational data to biases. There are many

factors that can interferes with objective observation include

• Emotions, attitudes, and values of the observer may result

in faulty inference.
• Anticipation of what is to be observed may affect what is
observed.

208
3) BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES

There is a distinct research tradition interested in

biophysiologic outcomes. Physiological and
biological measurements involve the use of
specialized equipment (such as scales, microscopes,
electrocardiogram monitors, and
sphygmomanometers).

209
3) BIOPHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES
• Biophysical measures, such as:

1. Blood pressure,

2. Body temperature,

3. Biochemical measures of serum hormones or

electrolyte levels;
4. And microbiologic measurements from culture tests
for the presence of bacteria.

210
 Purpose of biophysiological processes:

1. Study of basic physiologic processes that are relevant to

nursing care.

• e.g., study blood pressure reactivity in a sample of

healthy adolescents during angry and normal talk.

2- Exploration of the ways in which nursing actions or

medical interventions affect the health outcomes of the

patients.

211
 Purpose of biophysiological processes:
3- Evaluation of a specific nursing procedure or
intervention. New intervention that is being
tested.
• e.g., study the effect of music intervention
on the noise annoyance, heart rate, and
blood pressure in cardiac surgery patients.

212
 Purpose of biophysiological processes:

4.Studies to improve the measurement and recording

of biophysiologic information regularly gathered by
the nurse.

e.g., compare the result of hemoglobin measured at

the bedside with measurements done in the
laboratory and found that the two were
comparable.
213
 Types of biophysiological measures:

1) In vivo measurements:

2) In vitro measurements:

214
In vivo measurements:

• In vivo measurements are performed directly

within or on living organisms themselves.

• e.g., in vivo measure oxygen saturation

measurement through a pulse oximeter

• -In vivo measurements such as blood

pressure, heart rate and cardiac rhythm.
215
 2)In vitro measurements:

• In vitro measurements are performed outside

the organism's body.

• e.g., in the case of measuring serum

potassium concentration in the blood drawn
from a patient.

216
2)In vitro measurements:
• In Vitro measurements include:-

- Chemical measures such as hormone level, sugar level.

- Microbiologic measures such as bacterial counts and identification.

- Histological measures such as tissue biopsy.

• For example: what is the difference between the use of scrub brush and use
of soap alone in reducing bacteria.

• - In vitro measurements such as bacterial cultures and hand bacterial

counts.

217
 Advantages of physiological data collection
methods:

1.Objectivity.

2. Accuracy.
3. Sensitivity

218
 Disadvantages of physiological data collection methods:

1. Some instruments may be quite expensive to obtained.

2. Often require specialized knowledge and training to
be used accurately.
3.The presence of some types of devices might change
the measurement.
Example: the presence of a heart rate monitoring
device might make some patients anxious and
increase their heart rate

219
 Lecture No
11. Data Processing & presentation

220
Outline

▪ Descriptive Statistics :
- Mean - Median

- Mode -Frequencies

▪ Presentation and analysis of data

1) Tables
2) Charts and graphs:
- Bar chart -Line graph
• Pie chart

221
Basic types of statistics

▪ 1. Descriptive statistics:
such as mean, median, mode, frequencies.
▪ 2. Non-parametric:
Values cannot be representative to a population.
▪ 3. Parametric Values:
Values can be representative to a population.

222
 Descriptive Statistics

▪ Mean: Mean is the sum of the scores

divided by the number of scores being
summed.

• Median: is the score at the exact center of

ungrouped frequency distribution & obtained by
rank ordering the scores
223
•
 Median

• Example:
• 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19
• Example:

• 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 11, 13, 14, 16

• - In the second case, the mean of the two middle

values is the median or (n+1) /2

• (12 + 1) / 2 = 6.5 ~ (6+7) / 2 = 6.5

• 224
 Mode

• Mode: Mode is the most frequent value in

a data set

• Example:

• 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 11, 11, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19

– In this case the mode is 1 because it is the most
common value
•

225
 Presentation and analysis of data
• Data are analyzed through tables or charts and
graphs.
▪ Tables:
▪ Simplest way to summarize data

▪ Data are presented as absolute numbers or percentages

▪ Charts and graphs:

▪ Visual representation of data

▪ Data are presented as absolute numbers or percentages

•
226
 Basic guidance of data presentation:

1. Ensure graphic has a title

2.Label the components of your graphic

3.Indicate source of data with date

4.Provide number (n=xx)

227
Tables: Frequency distribution

1. Set of categories with numerical counts

Year Number of births

1900 61

1901 58

1902 75

228
 Tables: Relative frequency:

• Table: Percentage of births by decade between 1900 and 1929.

Year Number of births (n) Relative frequency (%)

1900–1909 35 27

1910–1919 46 34

1920–1929 51 39

Total 132 100.0

229
Tables: Relative frequency

number of values within an interval

x 100
total number of values in the table

Year # births (n) Relative frequency (%)

1900–1909 35 27
1910–1919 46 34
1920–1929 51 39
Total 132 100.0

230
 Charts and graphs
▪ Charts and graphs are used to portray:

• Trends, relationships, and comparisons

• Charts and graphs are the most informative are

simple and self-explanatory

231
 Types of charts and graphs:
1.Bar chart : show comparisons and categories
of data

2.Line graph: show display trends over time

3.Pie chart: show percentages or proportional

share

232
Bar chart
Comparing categories
6

4
Site 1
3
Site 2
2 Site 3

0
Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4

233
 Line graph
Number of Physicians Working in Each Clinic During Years 1-4*
6

5
Number of clinicians

4
Clinic 1
3
Clinic 2
2 Clinic 3

0
Year 1
Y1 1995 Y2Year
19962 Y3Year
19973 Year
Y4 4
1998

Zambia Service Provision Assessment, 2007.

*Includes doctors and nurses 234

Pie chart
Contribution to the total = 100%

Percentage of All Patients Enrolled by Quarter

8%

10%

1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
23% 59% 4th Qtr

N=150
235
 Lecture No 12.
Utilization of research findings

236
Outlines:

• Importance of communicating the findings

& conclusion
• The content of the research report
• Identify audiences to whom findings are
communicated
• Methods of presenting research findings

237
Importance of communication

• It is essential for utilization of findings in

practice
• It gives nurses opportunity to critique
the studies
• The findings stimulate others to
replicate studies and develop additional
research problems

238
Importance of communication

• Many research activities are conducted

alone, and communicating findings is a time
for researchers to interact with others and
share knowledge
• Through communication of findings,
researchers are rewarded for their work by
receiving personal recognition, professional
advancement and other psychological and
financial compensations.

239
Plan to communicate findings &
conclusions

• A plan for communicating findings

should be developed during the
proposal and should include the
designation of time and money
necessary to share the findings.

240
Content of the research report

• Introduction: includes
1. Statement of the problem
2. Background & significance of the problem
3. Statement of the purpose
4. Review of relevant literature
5. Frame of reference of the study
6. Assumptions
7. Research sub-problems (including
operational definition of the variables)

241
Content of the research report

• Methods: includes
1. Description of the research design
2. Description of the population& sample
3. Description of the setting
4. Description of the pilot study
5. Presentation of ethical considerations
6. Description of data collection methods &
procedures
7. Identification of methodological limitations

242
Content of the research report

• Results: includes
1. Description of data analysis
procedures
2. Presentation of results

243
Content of the research report

• Discussion: includes
1. Major findings
2. Conclusions drawn from the findings
3. Implications for nursing
4. Recommendations for further research

244
Audience for the research report

• Audience of nurses: nurses need to be

aware of research findings so they can
use them to improve nursing practice
and to serve as a basis for conducting
additional studies

245
Audience for the research report

• Audience of health care professionals: other

health professionals need to be aware of
the knowledge generated by nurse
researchers in order to facilitate the use of
that knowledge in health care. They must
be aware of nursing research findings in
order to understand the care being given to
the patients by other health team members

246
Audience for the research report

• Audience of health care consumers:

consumers need to know if the
information and nursing care that they
are receiving are based on research.
Nursing interventions that are based
on research are probably more
credible to consumers than are un-
researched nursing actions.

247
Methods used to present research
findings
• Verbal presentation: conferences & meetings
• Poster presentation: poster session at conference
• Oral & Video tapes: for verbal presentation provided by
conference sponsors
• TV & Radio: to communicate research findings for
medical & nursing studies
• Publication of research findings: journal & book to
reach large audiences
• Patient & family teaching: explain findings which is the
basis for the care to pt & family

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 Lecture No 13
.Research critique

249
Outline:

❑Definition of critique
❑Purpose of critique
❑Features of good critique
❑Process of research critique

250
Definition of critique

• A critical estimate of a piece of research

which has been carefully and
systematically studied by a reader who
has used specific criteria to appraise the
general features of a research report

251
❑Helps researcher refine and improve
the research
❑ Helps future researchers on the topic
❑ Helps consumers use findings while
understanding limitations

252
1-Objective
2- Comprehensive
3- Correct
4- Respectful
5- Humane
6- Constructive
253
 Nursing
students
Research Practicing
proposal nurses

Article Nurse
publication educators
Research
critique

Nurse
Abstract
researchers
selection

After After verbal

published presentation
research 254
Comprehension Comparison Analysis Evaluation

255
 1. Comprehension

1. Review the abstract and to read the study

from the beginning to the end

256
 1. Comprehension

2. Answer the following questions about the

presentation of the study:
• Was the writing style clear and concise?
• Were the major sections of the research report clearly
identified?
• Were relevant terms clearly defined?
257
 1. Comprehension

3. Underline the terms that you do not

understand and determine their meaning

258
 1. Comprehension

4. Read the article a second time and

highlight or underline each step of the
research process.

259
 1. Comprehension

• Study problem
• Study purpose
• Literature review
• Study framework
• Research objectives, questions, or hypotheses
• Major variables or concepts 260
 1. Comprehension

• Attribute variables
• Research design
• Sample
• Data collection method
• Measurement strategies
• Statistical analyses 261
 1. Comprehension

• Researcher's interpretation of the findings

• Limitations of the study
• Implications of the findings
• Suggestions for further studies
• Missing elements
262
 2. Comparison 3. Analysis

1. Compare the ideal with real

2. Analyze logical link among the steps of

the study
263
 Title
1. Describe the -Major variables
-Population
-(setting)

2. Brief (no more than 15 words).

3. Avoid extraneous words (the

relationship………, a study of)

264
 OXYGEN UPTAKE AND

CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSE IN

PATIENTS AND NORMAL ADULTS

DURING IN-BED AND OUT-Of-BED

TOILETING
265
 OXYGEN UPTAKE AND

CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSE IN

PATIENTS AND NORMAL ADULTS

DURING IN-BED AND OUT-Of-BED

TOILETING
266
 Abstract
1. Clear and concise (100-200 words)

2. Summarize the main features :

• Problem
• Aim/ objectives
• Methods
• Major findings/results
• Conclusion

267
OXYGEN UPTAKE AND CARDIOVASCULAR
RESPONSE IN PATIENTS AND
NORMALADULTS DURING IN-BED AND OUT-
Of-BED TOILETING
Patients dislike using the bedpan and urinal while in bed and often insist
that it would be easier and better for them to get out of bed to toilet. Little
data are available about the physiologic costs of toileting. Therefore, we
measured oxygen uptake (VO2), peak heart rate (HR peak)' peak rate
pressure product (RPP peak), rating of perceived exertion, and preference in
42 women who used the bedpan and bedside commode for urination and in
53 men who used the urinal while in bed and standing. The subjects
included 26 healthy volunteers, 16 cardiac outpatients, 27 medical
inpatients, and 26 acute post-myocardial infarction patients (two to 28 days
post infarction). No physiologically important differences were found
between in-bed and out-of-bed toileting. Both in-bed and out-of-bed
toileting produced small increases in energy cost and myocardial work over
resting levels, with a mean VO2 < 1.6 times resting VO2a mean HR peak <
100 beats/min, and a mean RPP peak < 11,200. The subjects clearly preferred
getting out of bed to toilet. Out-of-bed toileting produces minimal energy
expenditure and cardiac stress and can help reduce bed rest-induced
268
orthostatic intolerance. In-bed toileting should be reserved for patients with
specific contraindications to postural change.
OXYGEN UPTAKE AND CARDIOVASCULAR
RESPONSE IN PATIENTS AND
NORMALADULTS DURING IN-BED AND OUT-
Of-BED TOILETING
Background: Patients dislike using the bedpan and urinal while in bed and often insist
that it would be easier and better for them to get out of bed to toilet. Little data are
available about the physiologic costs of toileting.
Objectives: Therefore, we measured oxygen uptake (VO2), peak heart rate (HR peak)'
peak rate pressure product (RPP peak), rating of perceived exertion, and preference in
42 women who used the bedpan and bedside commode for urination and in 53 men
who used the urinal while in bed and standing.
Method: The subjects included 26 healthy volunteers, 16 cardiac outpatients, 27
medical inpatients, and 26 acute post-myocardial infarction patients (two to 28 days
post infarction).
Results: No physiologically important differences were found between in-bed and out-
of-bed toileting. Both in-bed and out-of-bed toileting produced small increases in
energy cost and myocardial work over resting levels, with a mean VO2 < 1.6 times
resting VO2a mean HR peak < 100 beats/min, and a mean RPP peak < 11,200.
Conclusion: The subjects clearly preferred getting out of bed to toilet. Out-of-bed
toileting produces minimal energy expenditure and cardiac stress and can help
reduce bed rest-induced orthostatic intolerance. In-bed toileting should be reserved
for patients with specific contraindications to postural change. 269
 Problem statement

1. Clearly stated and contain population, and the major

variables.

2. Significant and clearly relevant to nursing

3. Researchable

4. Researcher place the study problem within the context of

existing knowledge and prior work on the topic

270
Example

Patients dislike using the bedpan and urinal

while in bed and often insist that it would be
easier and better for them to get out of bed to
toilet. Little data are available about the
physiologic costs of toileting

271
 Purpose

1. Clarify the aim of the study and identify the

research variables, population and setting

2. Expresses a relationship between two or more

variables

3. Worded appropriately

4. Feasible to conduct

272
Example

To measure oxygen uptake (VO2), peak

heart rate (HR peak) peak rate-pressure
product (RPP peak) (systolic blood pressure x
heart rate), rating of perceived exertion
(RPE), and preference in 95 hospitalized
and non hospitalized adults during in-bed
(bedpan and urinal) and out-of-bed (bedside
commode and standing urinal) toileting.

273
 Review of literature

1. Organized and comprehensive

2. Clear, concise summary the current (recent) empirical and

theoretical knowledge in the area of the study

3. Include all or most of the major studies conducted on the

topic

4. Cite primarily primary sources

274
 Review of literature

6. Critically appraises and compares key studies

7. Include strengths, weakness, limitations of the design;
conflicts; essential components of the design like size and
type of sample, instruments its validity and reliability

8. Identify important gaps in the literature

9. References current and relevant

275
 Review of literature

11. Paraphrasing is preferred rather than the use of

large numbers of direct quotation

12. At the end of the literature review conclude with

a sentence or two that indicates how the present
study will contribute to the existing body of
knowledge in that subject area

276
 Conceptual and theoretical
framework

1. Clearly identified

2. The concepts and propositions clearly outlined

3. Appropriate for the research problem

4. Guide the research design, data collection and

analysis, and interpretation of the finding

277
 Hypotheses / research
questions

1. Clearly and objectively stated in declarative form

2. Testable

3. Justifiable basis for the predictions

4. Directly linked to conceptual framework

278
 Hypotheses and research
questions

6. Contain population and major variables

7. Stated in research form rather than null form

8. Research question precise and specific

9. Research question delineate the problem of the

study

279
 Variables

1. Reflect the concepts identified in the framework

2. Clearly defined (conceptually and operationally)

3. Conceptual definition of a variable consistent with the

operational definition

4. Extraneous variables identified and controlled as necessary

in the study

280
 Variables

5. Discuss the potential impact of these

variables on the findings

6. Identify attribute variables examined in the

study

281
 Design

1. Appropriate design used for the research problem.

2. Logically linked to the sampling method and

statistical analyses

3. What are the threats to the study’s internal and

external validity

282
 Design

5. Identify procedures were used to control

extraneous subject characteristics, and were they
adequate and appropriate

6. Limitations of the design acknowledged and taken

into account in the interpretation of results

283
 Sampling

1. Identify and describe target population

2. Identify sampling method

3. Specify clearly the inclusion criteria

4. Describe the sample selection procedures

5. Are possible sample biases or weaknesses identified

284
 Sampling

5. Identify the sample size. Was the sample size adequate

6. If more than one group is used, do the groups appear

equivalent?

7. Obtain subject consent

8. Describe the setting, the setting appropriate for the research

question

285
References
• http://www.aacn.nche.edu.edu/public/position/nursing-research
• http: //nursingfile.com/nursing –research /characteristics and
purpose –of –nursing –research.html
• Rose Marie Nies Wiadomy, Foundation of Nursing
Research.6TH Edition ,2012
• http://wwwslideshare.net/jollymathews/historical-development-
of-nursing-research
• Nieswiadomy R. Foundations of nursing research. 5th ed,
prentice HII.2008
• Portney LG, Watkins MP. Foundation of clinical research:
Application to practice 3rd ed.2008

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