Comprehensive An analysis of resistance to change exposed

Psychology in individuals’ thoughts and behaviors

2012, Volume 1, Article 17
ISSN 2165-2228
Lena M. Forsell Jan A. Åström
DOI 10.2466/09.02.10.CP.1.17 Stockholm, Sweden Linköping, Sweden
© Jan A. Åström 2012
Attribution-NonCommercial-
NoDerivs CC-BY-NC-ND
Abstract
Resistance to change can be the cause of difficulty when it is either too strong or
Received November 17, 2012
too weak. Therapy or information can be used to either strengthen or weaken
Accepted December 10, 2012
Published December 28, 2012 resistance to change to appropriate levels. The purpose of this article is intended
to disclose the relationship between resistance to change and some aspects of
human behavior. Resistance to change has affective, cognitive, and behavioral
components that create a psychological resistance to making a change in par-
ticular situations or overall changes in one’s life, and often appears in psycho-
therapy and/or when organizational alterations are underway. Four subfactors
of resistance to change have been found and are related to extraversion and
neuroticism in the “Big Five” personality model. Much indicates that the de-
velopment of resistance to change begins early in childhood and may be neuro-
physiologically founded. It can be traced in both macro and micro gestures in
body language and is believed to influence general health. Whereas previously
published studies on resistance to change have mainly dealt with the effect of
Citation psychotherapy and/or re-organization of staff members in organizations, this
Forsell, L. M., & Åström, J. analysis will show different areas in human thought, behavior, and situations
A. (2012) An analysis of where resistance can appear, and it will try to analyze what is behind the mecha-
resistance to change exposed nism of resistance to change.
in individuals’ thoughts and
behaviors. Comprehensive
Psychology, 1, 17.
Freud and Breuer (1895/1955) were the first psychotherapists who introduced the con-
cept of “resistance” in clinical practice after having noticed that the introduction of “se-
crets” from the unconscious often resulted in a continuous resistance from the patient.
Until the 1960s, there was little interest in the relationships between resistance and re-
lated traits. Izard (1960) disclosed in an investigation that resistance in psychotherapy
was associated with the personality traits autonomy and dominance.
Presently, the interest in resistance to change has become more common, manifest-
ed, for instance, in discussions and research on the difficulties of carrying out organiza-
tional changes in large industries in the 1990s. Armenakis and Bedeian (1999) present-
ed a number of variables on organisational change showing four dimensions: content,
contextual issues, process issues, and criterion issues. Some researchers have empha-
sized that attitudes and feelings toward changes play an important role, while others
claim that resistance to change is just behavioral. Oreg (2003) claimed that resistance
to change is complicated and maintained that it has affective, cognitive, and behav-
ioral components, the structure of which was implemented in the four subscales of his
Resistance to Change Scale: Routine Seeking, Emotional Reaction, Short-term Think-
ing, and Cognitive Rigidity. He investigated the relationships between the Resistance to
Change Scale and characteristics measured by the Five-Factor Model (FFM), or the “Big
Five” (Costa & McCrae, 1992), comprising extraversion, neuroticism, openness to expe-
rience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. He found that neuroticism was positively
related to three of his four subscales: Routine Seeking, Emotional Reaction, and Short-
term Thinking, respectively, and extraversion negatively with the same. Agreeableness
and conscientiousness were negatively correlated to Short-term Thinking, but consci-
entiousness was positively related to Routine Seeking. Extraversion and neuroticism
showed to be the most interesting traits in the investigation. Neuroticism and extraver-
sion were initially concepts of Jung (1921). Eysenck (1957) adopted these concepts, built
upon the three-factor model and added Psychosis, taken from factor analyses. The Ey-

Ammons Scientific Address correspondence to Jan Åström, Med.D., Stureplan 1, 582 21 Linköping, Sweden or e-mail (astrom.j@
www.AmmonsScientific.com telia.com).
 Resistance to Change / L. M. Forsell & J. A. Åström

senck Personality Inventory was later revised (Eysenck comfort they feel in relation to their behaviors is laid on
& Eysenck, 1993). the environment but also on the their own personality,
Saksvik and Hetland (2009) performed an investiga- which they believe is not amenable to therapy. This idea
tion to test Oreg’s theories, as Oreg’s work (2003) was a of a trait of resistance to change may be compared to
fundamentally new mode of understanding resistance the personality trait introversion–extraversion, ranging
to change, emphasizing the role of individual variables from very introverted to ambivalent to very extravert-
in elucidating the successful or unsuccessful change ed, with a relatively normal distribution in the popula-
processes. Their investigation was conducted in 259 tion (Eysenck, 1967).
student participants who were administered a measure Resistance to change as a state, as a rule can be over-
of the Five-Factor Model and the Resistance to Change come by the individual himself, often in dialogue with
Scale. Regression analysis showed that extraversion, other persons; but it has a tendency to return. Exam-
openness to experience, and agreeableness were nega- ples are eating a new dish, denial of illness by forget-
tively correlated with resistance to change and neurot- ting to take medicine or forgetting an appointment with
icism and positively correlated with Routine Seeking, a therapist, and avoiding payment of bills over the In-
Emotional Reaction, and Short-term Thinking. Cogni- ternet. Of course, most people do not speak in terms of
tive Rigidity and gender did not show any significant resistance to change, but use expressions such as “noth-
correlation with the Big Five scales. The three Resis- ing ventured, nothing gained,” “there is nothing secure
tance to Change subscales seemed to be related more to enough,” and “he doesn’t budge” to describe resistant
insecurity and neuroticism rather than not being open individuals. As can be seen in these examples, resis-
to experiences. However, Saksvik and Hetland (2009) tance to change is often regarded as negative. Knowles
found that age correlated negatively with Resistance and Riner (2007) have developed “Omega strategies,”
to Change scores, i.e., the younger the participant, the which are persuasion techniques used to reduce or
more resistance to change. This is somewhat surpris- overcome resistance to change. However, most resis-
ing given popular opinion that radical political and re- tance to change is natural. Skepticism, reactance, and
ligious movements have more young than old support- inertia are the main ingredients.
ers. The authors emphasized the necessity of repeating Resistance to change may have different intensities
the study with participants taken from a normal popu- depending on the circumstances. When an individual
lation and validity testing in varied settings. In gener- is introduced to change through a message that is not
al, however, Saksvik and Hetland (2009) concluded that clear or communicated in full and/or that the person
the psychological resistance to change is related to char- does not fully grasp, there may be no or only a small
acteristics like neuroticism and extraversion. amount of resistance to change (Oreg, 2003). In con-
trast, the more complicated and large the change is un-
Expanding the concept
derstood to be at its presentation, the more probable a
Resistance to change may be seen partly as an inter- blockage of thinking will immediately appear towards
nal phenomenon, i.e., a personality trait that character- the information (Oreg, 2003). By studying the compo-
izes the individual’s behavior. However, it may also be nents and the processes behind this resistance, it is pos-
seen as an external phenomenon, i.e., a state that may sible, for instance, to prevent misunderstandings and
arise in connection with introduction of change in the realize organizational changes, as well as prevent thera-
individual’s life situation, for instance, a disease with pies from collapsing (Saksvik & Hetland, 2009). Study-
reduced functions, encounter of societal prejudices, or ing these areas in greater detail will result in deeper
an organizational change that may require divergence knowledge of important relations in social and person-
from the ordinary routines of thinking and handling of ality psychology.
situations (Oreg, 2003), making solutions more difficult.
Therapy or acquisition of information may reduce or re- Resistance to change illustrated by attachment theory
move such a state. However, the trait of resistance to In order to understand resistance to change, it is nec-
change is developed in childhood and is more difficult essary to begin in childhood. Some kinds of resistance
to overcome (Saksvik & Hetland, 2009). One may also to change start already in the newborn child, who is bi-
regard the trait of resistance to change as a continuum ologically programmed to seek closeness to the caregiv-
from very weak (as in histrionic personality disorder er (Bowlby, 1969). If this seeking is rejected in different
and hypomania) to very strong (as in perfectionism, ob- ways by the caregiver, the child will respond with dis-
sessive-compulsive disorder and obsessive compulsive couraging movements or no movements at all. Those
personality disorder). Paranoid states, as well as strong very basic behaviors or non-behaviors may be called an
prejudices, are also related, as they reduce the freedom infantile variant of resistance to change. The phrase “re-
of action. Occasionally, individuals at the extremes of sistance to change” did not exist when Bowlby (1969)
this continuum are not aware of behaving abnormally formulated attachment theory, but he described the
and thus do not seek therapy. The blame for any dis- phenomena that occurs in such a way that one may

Comprehensive Psychology 2 2012, Volume 1, Article 17

 Resistance to Change / L. M. Forsell & J. A. Åström

speak about an infantile variant of resistance to change drives and drive derivatives. The third major source of
consisting of discouraging movements or no move- resistance to change is fear, manifested in the anxiety and
ments at all. uncertainty the patient feels when he tries to develop new
The older infant is stimulated by proximity to pa- modes and mechanisms when working with issues dur-
rental figures to be ready to explore its environment on ing therapy (Freud, 1895/1955; Dewald, 1964). Change
the basis of ability to return to security if discoveries are in thoughts and behavior is often associated with some
fear-invoking (Bowlby, 1969). If the contact between the loss of energy and uncertainty about the result.
child and the caregiver is disturbed due to psychological, In the beginning of the psychoanalytic era, resistance
social, or neurological reasons, the child becomes passive to change was considered something bad, the patient
and does not react, reacts by avoidance, or reacts with viewed as “uncooperative” and, consequently, the ther-
fear when the caregiver or some other person approach- apy often went off course. However, the development of
es. In this situation, the child does not take initiative to ego psychology (Freud, 1923/1961) made it clear that re-
explore the environment and an infantile variant of resis- sistance to change played an important role in one’s psy-
tance to change is established. Later on, when the child chological functioning. By understanding resistance to
begins to develop social abilities, a secure child tends to change, it became possible to map out many unconscious
have more and better friendships with minimal resis- aspects of the ego function, and by showing them to the
tance to change. The emergence of resistance to change patient, bring them into consciousness.
is often founded in a childhood with strict routines ac- Therapists found that resistance to change could
companied by negative reinforcement. Absence of se- occur at varying levels of consciousness, which could
cure attachment often co-occurs with patterns of nega- imply the patient of not being fully aware of the con-
tive reinforcement (Bowlby, 1969). When the attachment flicts within. Patients often avoid disclosing material
becomes insecure in different ways (Cassidy & Shaver, that is conscious to them and will even lie to the ther-
1999), children do not dare to take initiative, and instead apist. Sometimes, the patient is not aware of the exis-
become passive and are on their way to developing a tence of a conflict that is creating resistance to change,
resistance to change. Green and Goldwyn (2002) have but becomes conscious of it when the therapist points it
shown that many studies indicate that disorganized at- out. The most difficult type of resistance to change oc-
tachment seems to increase social problems and decrease curs when the patient is totally unaware of unconscious
the ability to solve cognitive problems later in life. They material. This patient may be very motivated to work
also point to the fact that an increased presence of psy- in therapy but, nevertheless, uses unconscious ego de-
chopathology in childhood is complicated to pinpoint fense mechanisms, such as displacement, isolation, or
and needs further study. projection without being aware of them. Sometimes it is
Resistance to change in therapy possible to uncover these hidden resistances using hyp-
notherapy. However, resistance to change, in various
Freud and his colleague Breuer (1895/1955) were
manifestations, continues throughout therapy regard-
the first to coin and define the word “resistance.” Freed-
less of the kind of therapy chosen.
man, Kaplan, and Sadock (1975, p. 497) wrote:
Resistance to change may appear in actions such as
Freud’s conclusion was that resistance was the matter of failing to show up for a therapeutic session. When the
operation of active forces in the mind, of which the pa-
therapist points out that there may have been thoughts
tients themselves were often quite unaware and which re-
sulted in the exclusion from consciousness of painful or and feelings of not coming, the patient admits that this
distressing material. Freud described the active force that is true (Dewald, 1964). Sometimes, a special subject—
worked to exclude particular mental contents from con- for instance, sexuality—is avoided, intellectualized, or
scious awareness as repression—one of the fundamental paradoxically discussed in detail, with the patient hop-
ideas of psychoanalytic theory.
ing that is what the therapist wants to hear. This is also
Dewald (1964, p. 221) formulated a definition of a per- a sign of resistance to change. Another way of grasp-
son’s resistance to change as “representing the continu- ing the quality and quantity of resistance to change is
ing operation and function of the patient’s ego defenses by testing hypnotic susceptibility. By using two of the
as they emerge and are manifest in the therapeutic situ- 10 tests in the Stanford Susceptibility Scales (Hilgard,
ation.” 1965), the Postural Sway Test and the Hand Clasp Test,
There are three sources of resistance to change to be a rather good picture is given of the individual’s sug-
pointed out here. The first one is the need to sustain re- gestibility and ability to enter a trance. Resistance to
pression of unconscious conflicts and thereby avoid un- change and need for control may be discovered by re-
pleasant affects that may emerge out of such conflicts if garding the individual’s behavior during suggestive
they come into conscious thought. The second source of instructions. The testing also includes observations of
resistance to change is the compulsive repetition of the vegetative changes and changes in movements. To re-
patient’s wish for satisfaction of infantile and childhood lease control is to be open to verbal or tactile stimuli

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 Resistance to Change / L. M. Forsell & J. A. Åström

from the hypnotherapist. The less self-reflecting the tematically study human use of space, described four
person tends to be (initiated by the left cerebral hemi- distance zones based on his observations of normal mid-
sphere), the more quickly the hypnotic trance appears, dle-class Americans. The closest one, the intimate zone
indicating less resistance to change. between two communicating individuals, represents the
least resistance to change and the farthest one, the public
Resistance to change as an influence on general health
zone (which nearly makes communication impossible),
and physical symptom reporting
represents the maximum resistance to change.
Several studies have shown that other factors, such as Hall (1966) proved how differing amounts of person-
learned helplessness especially in depression (Seligman, al space influences thinking and behavior when com-
1992), positive adaptation (Coughlin, 2007), as well as municating. He stressed how cultural differences, e.g.,
optimism in children with cancer (Williams, Davis, Han- between Americans and Arabs, could be represented by
cock, & Phipps, 2009) affect resistance to change. Posi- the amount of personal space used. Generally speaking,
tive thinking is also an important factor in curing serious Americans tended to use more personal space during
illnesses (Jayson, 2004). Other researchers have stressed
interactions than Arabs. When approached too closely,
sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1993) and optimism
i.e., in the far phase of Hall’s intimate zone, Americans
(Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994), which have a predict-
removed themselves to the next zone of personal dis-
able effect on general health associated with physical
tance. Hall added in interpretation that Americans were
symptoms (Ebert, Tucker, & Roth, 2002). High levels of
conscious about the cost of relational involvement, in
stress along with trauma symptoms will increase learned
contrast to Arabs.
helplessness and resistance to change (Seligman, 1992).
Personality is also mirrored in personal space. Sev-
Post-traumatic Stress Syndrome (PTSD) caused by expo-
eral studies (Patterson & Holmes, 1966; Cook, 1970; Pat-
sure to terror-inducing circumstances may lead to more
terson & Sechrest, 1970) have found that there is a pos-
cognitive rigidity related to resistance to change (Oreg,
itive relationship between Extraversion (measured by
2003; Hobfoll, Canetti-Nisim, & Johnson, 2006). A high
the Maudsley Personality Inventory and the Minnesota
sense of coherence means that life is more understand-
Multiphasic Personality Inventory) and personal space
able, manageable, and meaningful. Optimism is related
based on seating distance. The more extraverted the
to positive thinking and related to a better immune func-
person, the closer he will tend to sit to another person.
tion (Seligman, 2002; Segerström & Sephton, 2004). Eb-
On the other hand, personal space increased in individ-
ert and colleagues (2002) found among other things that
uals who were psychologically disturbed (Weinstein,
Neuroticism and Extraversion amongst the “Big Five”
1965; Hutt & Vaizey, 1966; Fischer & Byrne, 1967; Lett,
traits have the same capacity for measuring resistance
Clark, & Altman, 1969). Sommer (2002) describes this:
to change as Sense of Coherence and Optimism. That is,
“Probably the most consistent findings are that people
high resistance to change is associated with high Neurot-
who are extraverted, field dependent, affinitive, and co-
icism and low Extraversion and vice versa. Ebert, et al.’s
operative tend to interact at a closer distance than those
(2002) article showed how different components of resis-
who are anxious, maladjusted, and introverted” (p. 4).
tance can be used for bettering the prediction of how to
These results are in agreement with Oreg (2003), who
handle resistance.
found a negative correlation between Extraversion and
Resistance to change reflected in body language resistance to change and a positive relation between
Approach or withdrawal.—In general, the body lan- Neuroticism and resistance to change.
guage and verbal testimony of an individual are syn- Sommer (2002) identified 10 different ways of mea-
chronized. But in cases where the external circumstances suring interpersonal distance, for example, the stop dis-
demand an action that goes against inner desires, there tance: “A confederate approaches the subject who tells
is a difference in what the two systems communicate. the other one to stop when the confederate comes un-
The truth generally is to be found in body language. By comfortably close” (p. 3). There may be a relation be-
studying the body language of the client, employee or tween interpersonal distance and resistance to change
partner (Morris, 1977; Molcho, 1983), it is possible get a such that the closer the distance in communicating in
better idea of the individual’s reaction and the underly- a dyad, the less the resistance to change. Forsell (2010)
ing will and desire. Resistance to change has its own lan- has discussed using this method as a test for assessing
guage with suppressed or even absent bodily movement her clients’ need for closeness and trust, which may be
and evidenced by greater muscular control, particular- the opposite of resistance to change. In this instance,
ly in the face. To move back or stand still (Morris, 1977) she slowly approaches the client and asks them to tell
are expressions of reservation and resistance to change. her to stop when they feel uncomfortable. Åström
To approach is the reverse. Choosing nearness in physi- (1993) described an experimental situation where peo-
cal space when communicating may be an expression of ple are observed and filmed stopping at different dis-
feeling safe and confident. Hall (1966), the first to sys- tances in front of the experimenter during introducto-

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 Resistance to Change / L. M. Forsell & J. A. Åström

ry greetings. Using the Sociability variable of the CMPS 1977; Molcho, 1983; Åström, 1993).
Scale by Cecarec and Marke (1968), Åström found that Visual behavior is the most important non-verbal
younger women stopped closer to the experimenter phenomenon in its social, physiological, and even psy-
and had high scores on Sociability compared to those chological significance. Heron (1970) stated:
who stopped at longer distances and who scored higher
The most fundamental primary mode of interpersonal en-
on Aggressive Non-conformance. The former disclosed counter is the interaction between two pairs of eyes and
a greater need for contact, had greater interest in the re- what is mediated by this interaction. For it is mainly here,
lationship, and less resistance to change, while the lat- throughout the wide ranges of social encounter, that the
ter were more expectant, controlling, and showed more real encounter, in the strict sense, occurs. (p. 244)
resistance to change. Champness (1970, p. 309) has stated, “One of the most
Finding a place in a lecture room far from the lec- wonderful things in nature is the glance of the eye; it
turer is an expression of resistance to change and a criti-
transcends speech; it is the bodily symbol of identi-
cal attitude, and sitting close will give a manifestation
ty.” When analyzing the expression of the pupil, con-
of interest in the topic (Morris, 1977). When people are
sideration must be given to the fact that changes in the
used to gathering, for instance in churches, it is not un-
size of the pupil are physiological, caused by differ-
usual for someone to feel uncomfortable unless he can
ences of light or intake of certain drugs. Pupils also re-
have the same seat as usual. This is another example of
act to emotional impressions; the more positive the im-
resistance to change.
pression the bigger the pupils, and vice versa. That is
Movements and gestures.—It is possible to categorize
to say that when someone gives a negative or defen-
physical movements into different types when individ-
uals meet for the purpose of communicating, i.e., ma- sive impression or houses negative thoughts, the pupils
jor motions, such as backward and forward, and posi- shrink. This may happen in an individual with strong
tions, such as sitting, standing, and walking. Leaning resistance to change. Gazing at the ground or the tips
back while in a sitting or standing position with crossed of the toes is typical for an individual who is afraid of
arms or legs (while sitting) may be an expression of re- change and depends on old experiences and is careful
sistance to change. Standing in circle with others and about new ones (Morris, 1977; Molcho, 1983).
pointing the torso and feet in a direction other than to- Psychological resistance in writing psychology
wards the actual speaker or towards the mid-point in (graphology)
the circle is another expression for resistance to change.
Writing is a form of body language, micro move-
The carriage of the upper part of the body can be con-
ments, more determined by personality trait and char-
strued in the same way, sitting or standing. Erectness of
acter than by the muscles in the writing arm and fin-
the body posture means vitality, while a sunken posture
gers. Pophal (1949) speaks about “Hirnschrift” (mind
means passivity or depression. Downward angling of
writing). However, it is important to be aware of pos-
the head and infrequency of hand movements are ex-
sible diseases the writing individual may have that
pressions of resistance to change. All of these are mir-
could influence their writing. Movement, form, distri-
rored in posture and movements (Waxer, 1976).
bution, and ground rhythm are four criteria used in cat-
The long-term loser, the social failure, and the depressed egorizing the overall impression of handwriting. Move-
subordinate walk with a permanent stoop, shoulders
rounded and neck hunched forward, their posture a non-
ment and rhythm, divided into two groups (strong and
stop slump. The body-lowering and curling up is not weak), seem to be most evident when speaking about
acute, it is chronic just as the conditions of submission are resistance. Strong movement and rhythm imply elastic,
chronic. (p. 493) flowing, swinging, and rapid movement of the pencil
Resistance to change against human contact is best illus- and is interpreted as vigorous, versatile, active, and dy-
trated with the frontal Barrier Signal with the left and namic. Seichter (1965) describes the weak group in the
right arms intertwined across the front of the chest. A following way:
rather common therapeutic variant is to press the tightly In a weak and disturbed movement rhythm many or only
clasped hands down on to the crotch and squeeze them some of the following qualities appear, that may be de-
there, as if protecting the genitals, a strong symbolic scribed with words like: feeble, often checked, rigid, formal,
gesture of noli me tangere (“do not touch me”). When a flaccid, wrecked, fragile, dull, shaky, disjointed, and torn to rags.
Besides the line hold is often un-elastic inelastic and some-
form of bodily contact is inevitable, e.g., at introducto-
times has a desperate and irregular pressure. (p. 35)
ry handshake greeting, the resistant individual tries to
avoid all forms of greeting that are “too close” by avoid- The above descriptions are in accordance with Oreg
ing applying pressure to the outstretched hand, squeez- (2003) in that extraverts are viewed as having little re-
ing only the upper part of the other’s fingers, or push- sistance to change and vice versa for introverts and neu-
ing away the other’s hand when greeting, etc. (Morris, rotics.

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 Resistance to Change / L. M. Forsell & J. A. Åström

Resistance to change in a psychobiological context tion, fear of the situation sets in and avoidance behav-
From ancient times to the present, there has always ior begins, which will become a part of the individual’s
been the urge amongst those in the scientific commu- resistance to change.
nity to relate personality traits to psychobiological phe- Pavlov (1927/1960) also observed and studied Trans
nomena (Eysenck, 1967). This has partly been success- Marginal Inhibition, or the inborn reaction of closing
ful, but much is lacking in creating a comprehensive down when exposed to more stress and pain by electri-
psychobiological theory of personality. Hitherto, no ar- cal stimuli than is endurable. Those with different tem-
ticle has been published disclosing the relationship be- perament types responded to stimuli in the same way,
tween resistance to change and psychobiological vari- but moved through the response process at different
ables. It has only been through the personality traits of rates. Jung (1921) was the first one to introduce the con-
Extraversion and Neuroticism that we are able to ana- cepts of introversion and extraversion within personal-
lyze psychological resistance. ity psychology. The introverted individual is more di-
The first person to relate personality traits to bodi- rected toward inner psychic processes and needs less
ly fluids was Galen, a Greek doctor, (129–200 AD). He external stimulation compared to the extravert, who is
asserted that people who were strong-willed, who of- more directed toward external stimuli. That will partly
ten had out-bursts of temper and daring and were of- make clear his discovery that introverted persons were
ten furious, had an excess of “red” gall. He called them more susceptible to physiologic excitation and reached
choleric persons. People who were sad, depressive, and Trans Marginal Inhibition earlier than extraverted per-
pessimistic had an excess of “black” gall and were re- sons. This would seem to indicate that people with
ferred to as melancholic, resistant persons. People who marked resistance to change have a short shutting-
were cheerful, happy-go-lucky, volatile, uneasy, and down point. If so, this could be an important informa-
non-resistant had a surplus of blood and were called tion for therapists in managing the psychotherapeutic
sanguine. Finally, people, who were tardy and sluggish, process.
had a lack of initiative, and were restrained and conser- Eysenck (1957) and Cloninger (1999) have studied
vative had a supposed surplus of phlegm or mucus in different structures in the brain to establish the basis of
the blood. Later scientists of the time described it as an temperaments or specific ways of reacting when meet-
excess of fluid of lymph (Vallberg, 1942). Galen’s theo- ing new situations. These temperaments describe accu-
ries were accepted until the beginning of the 17th cen- rately the way in which resistance to change manifests
tury when Harvey (1628), an English doctor, refuted itself. Eysenck (1967, 1981) has stated that divergences
them. in the personality dimensions of extraversion-introver-
Pavlov (1927/1960) discovered and described sali- sion and stability-neuroticism are related to states in re-
vary reactions in dogs in different situations and es- ticulo-cortical areas of the brain and autonomic arousal,
tablished the basic laws for the establishment and ex- respectively. Eysenck inferred that in introverts, there
tinction of what he called “conditioned reflexes.” was greater tonic activity in their ascending reticular ac-
Conditioned reflexes later became a basis for models of tivating system (ARAS), that they possess more reactive
human learning. Pavlov found that conditioned reflex- cortical pathways, and attain optimal arousal with low
es imply automatic reactions to stress and pain. He also stimulation. In contrast, extraverts are always stimulus-
found that different types of reflex actions were related hungry in all sensory modalities, which leads to new
to different types of temperament, very much like those experiences and may result in low resistance to change.
of Galen, although described in different terms. He also Cloninger (1999) was the first to develop a more
found that dogs with different temperament types ha- closed model of both temperament and character. He
bituated differently, for example, “the strong and lively preferred to utilize genetic, neurobiological, and neuro-
one” (correspondingly the sanguine personality) habit- pharmacological data, rather than using factor analysis
uates very quickly while the one with a “weak nervous of behavior or self reports, as was done previously. His
system” and less stimulus hunger (correspondingly techniques included measurements of electrodermal re-
the melancholic and pflegmatic personality) habituates activity. He proceeded from the point of view of how
more slowly or not at all. In people, quick habituation the brain processes new information. Cloninger’s (1999)
may be found in individuals with weak resistance to Three-dimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ)
change and slow habituation in those with strong resis- describes three distinct dimensions of temperament.
tance to change. Conditioned reflexes arise more often These include Harm Avoidance, observable as anxious
in introverts and neurotics, especially in the latter who and pessimistic behavior and cognition vs outgoing
have a strong tendency to generalize conditioning to and optimistic; physiologically, this temperament is re-
other stimuli (Jung, 1921; Eysenck, 1953; Eysenck, 1967). lated to high serotonergic activity in the brain. Novelty
If conditioned reflexes have developed in an individual Seeking is observed as impulsive and quick-tempered
under negative circumstances and there is generaliza- behavior and cognition as opposed to rigid and slow-

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 Resistance to Change / L. M. Forsell & J. A. Åström

tempered, indicating low dopaminergic activity in the chotherapeutic process must proceed slowly and careful-
brain. Reward Dependence is observed as warm and ly, as the resistance to change is often the result of the fear
approval-seeking in contrast to cold and aloof behav- of change and the attitudes and behaviors of the patient’s
ior, and indicates low noradrenenergic activity. Within parents or other adults from their childhood. The portion
the three dimensions of temperament, it is possible to of the population in the middle of the continuum should
find individuals with low electrodermal resistance that be able to consider whether or not a potential change is
have low avoidance, high novelty seeking, and high positive or negative and, after due consideration, come
reward dependence, equivalent to extraversion. Some to a decision about how to handle the change.
time after the Three-dimensional Personality Question- Several studies have tried to analyze components
naire’s introduction, a fourth dimension was added, and qualities of resistance to change, but their conclu-
Persistence; this describes persevering, ambitious be- sions have been, to a large extent, divergent. This may
havior, which can be contrasted with easy discourage- depend on special circumstances and populations, so
ment and underachievement. These four dimensions that investigations have addressed varying, distinct,
have a strong relationship to the “older cortico-stria- separate levels of the resistance to change continuum,
tal and limbic systems that regulate habits and skills” as opposed to viewing the continuum as a whole. Only
(Cloninger, 1999). Cloninger (1999) found that tempera- one researcher, Oreg (2003), was interested in the com-
ment alone could not explain the whole personality and ponents of resistance and how resistance to change was
he completed his personality theory using three char- related to other personality traits in the Big-Five Model.
acter traits to measure a person’s humanistic and trans- Correlation and regression analyses described relation-
personal style: Self-Directedness (reliable, purposeful ships between three of the four subfactors of his Resis-
vs. Blaming, aimless), Cooperativeness (tolerant, help- tance to Change Scale and two variables of the Big-Five
ful vs. prejudiced, revengeful), and Self-transcendence Inventory, namely Extraversion and Neuroticism. How-
(self-forgetful, spiritual vs self-conscious, materialistic). ever, the correlations were in reversed order.
These character dimensions relate to the frontal, tempo- There are different ways of measuring resistance
ral, and parietal neocortex, respectively, which regulate to change. One can use a standardized inventory like
learning of facts and propositions. Oreg’s (2003) Resistance to Change, which measures
Thorell (2009), in his research of extraordinarily fre- the relative strength of the components of resistance to
quent electrodermal hyperactivity in depressed pa- change. Cloninger’s (1999) Three-dimensional Ques-
tients with suicidal propensity, formulated a functional tionnaire is another inventory describing resistance
model to describe the way in which some types of neu- to change rather well. An alternative method of mea-
rons function. He found that if one assumes inadequate suring resistance to change is by testing hypnotic sus-
activity of “sameness neurons,” which inhibit the elicit- ceptibility, which gives the therapist a good idea of the
ing of orienting reactions to unexpected events (curios- individual´s resistance to change and need for control.
ity), a consequence might be that the person is hindered One field where the goal is to reduce resistance is
on a fundamental level from attending to events occur- marketing. By emphasizing the advantages and con-
ring in the environment in a normal way. This would be cealing the disadvantages of a product, a business at-
considered a neurophysologically dictated resistance to tempts to create a positive opinion about a product in
change resulting in the loss of a specific kind of interest the target population. Individuals with a strong resis-
in everyday life (Thorell, 2009). tance to change do not yield to the temptation, as they
have a tendency to avoid mass media’s influence, while
Discussion individuals in the middle of the continuum are more
The material in this article indicates that resistance to dependent upon weighing the pros and cons as pre-
change may be present in nearly all decision-making sented. People with little resistance to change are easily
processes, be disclosed in verbal and non-verbal acts, swayed to believe in the product’s benefits.
and has a neurophysiological basis. Freud and co-work- It is not entirely clear what drives the development
er Breuer (1895/1955) were the first to coin the expres- of resistance to change in childhood. However, Bowl-
sion ”resistance,” but they differed in formulating the by’s (1969) Attachment theory may yield part of the an-
definitions. All psychological resistance is built on a fear swer. The theory implies that a newborn child is bio-
of change where the outcome could result in a worse sit- logically coded to seek closeness with its caregiver. The
uation. The portion of the population on either extreme emergence of resistance to change may be founded in
of the resistance to change continuum may be consid- the absence of proximity and strict routines in child-
ered to have psychopathological variants of resistance, hood often accompanied by negative reinforcement.
are not aware of their illness, and consequently may not The child, under such circumstances, becomes insecure,
seek care. To assist at least a portion of this population, avoids new contacts and experiences, and becomes
psychotherapy and/or medical care is needed. The psy- more psychologically resistant. Such early experienc-

Comprehensive Psychology 7 2012, Volume 1, Article 17

 Resistance to Change / L. M. Forsell & J. A. Åström

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