VOL 26 NO 2 SEPTEMBER 2005

ISSN 0965-0989

The bacterial spore: nature’s survival package

Peter Setlow
Department of Molecular, Microbial and Structural Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington,
CT 06030-3305, USA

Introduction in soils are the common route whereby animals starvation or environmental stress4. An early
Spores of Bacillus and Clostridium species acquire pulmonary anthrax. The severity of this event in sporulation is generally an unequal cell
are metabolically dormant and extremely disease and the resistance of B. anthracis division, generating a larger mother cell and a
resistant to acute environmental stresses such spores, particularly to desiccation, are smaller prespore or forespore compartment. As
as heat, desiccation, UV and γ-radiation, undoubtedly major reasons that B. anthracis sporulation continues, the forespore is engulfed
mechanical disruption, enzymatic digestion and spores: by the mother cell, resulting in a “cell within a
toxic chemicals. In addition to the spore’s cell”. The spore (also termed an endospore) then
resistance to acute stress, spores can survive for a) are considered a likely biological warfare matures through a series of biochemical and
extremely long periods in milder environmental agent; and morphological changes and eventually the
conditions. Indeed, there are several reports b) were used recently in terrorism incidents in mother cell lyses, releasing the spore into the
suggesting that spores of Bacillus species can the United States5. environment. The whole process can take as
survive for millions of years in some special little as eight hours in the laboratory, and may
niches1,2. While this latter conclusion remains Spores and associated proteins of strains of proceed at a high efficiency, with ≥75% of cells in
controversial, there is no doubt that spores of a number of Bacillus species (B. popillae, a 24 hour culture having undergone sporulation.
Bacillus and Clostridium species can survive for B. thuringiensis) also cause lethal intoxications Some strains of B. subtilis are naturally
many, many years3. As a consequence of the and infections of a variety of insect larvae.The transformable with exogenous DNA and this has
persistence of spores and the ubiquity of spore spores of these species, or in some cases the made genetic manipulation of these strains
formers in many different environments, spores toxins associated with the spores are currently straightforward. This property and the
are common contaminants of foodstuffs and if used for insect control in agriculture. Spores of determination of the B. subtilis genome
not dealt with appropriately in food processing several Bacillus species are also currently used sequence in 1997 have made this the organism
may “return to life” via spore germination and as probiotics for both humans and animals, and of choice for detailed analyses of the regulation
outgrowth and then contribute to food spoilage there is ongoing research into the use of: of sporulation (and also the mechanisms of
and food poisoning4. In addition to food spore resistance and spore germination). The
poisoning (B. cereus, C. perfringens, C. botulinum), a) B. subtilis spores as vaccine vehicles; and sporulation “program” is driven by changes in
there are a number of other human illnesses in b) spores of anaerobic Clostridium species in gene expression in both time and space, as
which spores play a causative role including, tumour therapy6. ~30% of B. subtilis genes change expression
wound infections (gas gangene: C. perfringens; levels during sporulation with many groups of
tetanus: C. tetani; wound botulism: C. botulinum; Sporulation genes expressed only in sporulation:
intestinal infection: C. difficile and anthrax: Spores of Bacillus and Clostridium species
B. anthracis). Spores of B. anthracis persisting are formed in sporulation, a process triggered by a) at different times in the process; and
b) in the mother cell or the forespore.

IN THIS ISSUE Major mechanisms modulating gene

The bacterial spore: nature’s survival package; Peter Setlow expression during sporulation are the temporally
and spatially specific synthesis and activation of
The use of chromogenic enzyme substrates in microbial identification;
proteins, termed sigma factors that associate
Richard Bovill and Patrick Druggan with and determine the specificity of the cell’s
 Vol 26 No 2

RNA polymerase, as these different sigma

factors direct the RNA polymerase to recognise Inner membrane Outer membrane
and transcribe new groups of genes. There is
one new sigma factor that becomes active in the
young sporulating cell prior to the unequal cell
division, two that become active only in the COAT
mother cell, and two that become active only in
the forespore. In addition, there are a number of
sporulation-specific DNA binding proteins, both
repressors and activators that further modulate CORE
sporulation gene expression in the sporulating
cell compartments. There are also elegant
mechanisms, often called checkpoints that co- CORTEX
ordinate gene expression in sporulation with
major morphological milestones in the overall
process. One example of such a checkpoint is EXOSPORIUM
the activation of a new sigma factor in the Germ cell wall
mother cell triggered by the engulfment of and
Figure 1. Spore structure (Note that all layers are not drawn to scale, and that the size of various layers varies
proper gene expression in the forespore. These
significantly between sportes of different species).
checkpoints presumably ensure that the
differentiation of the mother cell and forespore Spore structure containing carbohydrate and protein but mostly
remains “in register”. While sporulation has In addition to their metabolic dormancy and water. The exosporium contains a number of
been best studied by far in B. subtilis, analyses resistance, the spore has a very different structure proteins and antigens unique to spores and for
of sequenced genomes of other Bacillus and from that of a growing cell, including several spores of B. anthracis, which have a very large
Clostridium species have indicated that major layers (see Figures 1. and 2.) and many exosporium, there is much work on such antigens
sporulation regulatory proteins of B. subtilis are constituents that are unique to spores7–9. The for their potential utility in spore detection and
generally conserved in these other species. Thus outermost layer is the exosporium. While probably generation of anthrax vaccines. However, the
it is thought that the general mechanisms not present in spores of all species, in some precise function of the exosporium in nature is not
regulating spore formation are similar across spores the exosporium is by far the largest spore clear.
these species. layer and is a loosely fitting, balloon-like structure Underlying the exosporium is the spore coat
composed largely of proteins. There are multiple
proteins in the spore coat and often multiple coat
layers and this structure and its constituents are
again unique to spores. The coat protects the
spore from destruction by lytic enzymes such as
lysozyme and also many toxic chemicals.
The next layer in is the outer membrane and is
very important in spore formation. However, in the
dormant spore the importance of this membrane,
even if it is a complete membrane, is not clear.
The next layer in is the cortex, composed of
peptidoglycan (PG) that has a structure similar to
that of growing cell PG but with several cortex-

HOOC COOH

N
Dipicolinic acid (DPA)

500nm
Figure 3. Dipicolinic acid structure
Figure 2. Electronmicrograph of a dormant spore of strain S69 B. cereus.

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Vol 26 No 2

specific modifications. These cortex-specific

Table 1. Resistance of growing cells and dormant spores of B. subtilis to various treatments*
modifications appear crucial for the recognition
and eventual degradation of this layer when spores Growing cell Dormant spore
return to life in spore germination. Cortex Treatment Survivors – %
formation during sporulation appears essential to Wet Heat – 85°C; 30 min <10–4 79
establish both spore dormancy and much of the
Dry Heat – 90°C; 15 min 0.2 >90
spore’s resistance properties by causing a
Dry Heat – 120°C; 30 min <10–5 14
reduction in the core water content (see below),
UV Radiation at 254nm – 315J/m2 <10–6 10
but how the cortex accomplishes this latter
Freeze Drying and Rehydration – once 2 >90
function is not known. There is a second PG layer
under the cortex, termed the germ cell wall. The Freeze Drying and Rehydration – 6 times – >90
PG in this layer has a structure that appears 0.5M HCl – 24°C; 30 min <10–6 65
identical to that of the growing cell PG and this 4M H2O2 – 24°C; 30 min <10–6 70
layer becomes the cell wall of the spore when it
* Data are taken from references 17 to 21.
returns to life.
The second spore membrane, the inner
membrane, is next. This is a complete membrane metabolism of either exogenous or endogenous attack on the spore cortex and also against
but one with some novel properties. Despite a not compounds. A striking feature of the spore’s killing by many, but not all chemicals, perhaps
unusual fatty acid and phospholipid composition, metabolic dormancy is the virtual absence of the by functioning as “reactive armour”. Loss of
this membrane is relatively impermeable to small common high energy compounds present at spore coats, either by mutation or chemical
hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules, and lipids high levels in growing cells such as adenosine removal sensitises spores to lytic enzymes and
in this membrane are immobile10–12. This triphosphate (ATP), reduced pyridine nucleotides to many chemicals. However, the spore coat
membrane also appears to be very compressed in and acetyl-coenzymeA13. While spores are plays little or no role in spore resistance to heat,
the dormant spore, as the inner membrane dormant, they do have significant pools of some desiccation or radiation. The low permeability of
bounded volume increases ~2-fold early in spore metabolic substrates, in particular the glycolytic the spore’s inner membrane appears important
germination without any membrane synthesis. The intermediate, 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3PGA), as in protecting spores against chemicals such as
permeability of and lipid mobility in the spore’s inner well as the enzymes needed for metabolism of formaldehyde and nitrous acid whose target is
membrane also increase to values similar to those of this and other substrates. However, these the DNA in the spore core12. Changes in inner
the plasma membrane of growing cells upon enzymes do not work on these subtrates in the membrane permeability generally result in
completion of spore germination, again without any dormant spore, and normally soluble proteins parallel changes in spore resistance to nitrous
new membrane or macromolecular synthesis. While are immobile in the spore core, likely because of acid and other chemicals that act in the spore
the reasons for the novel properties of the dormant the core’s low water content13,14. core, although have no effect on resistance to
spore’s inner membrane are unclear, this chemicals that act outside the spore core. Of
membrane’s low permeability contributes to the Spore resistance major significance in many spore resistance
spore’s resistance to some toxic chemicals. The other striking property of spores is their properties is the low water content of the spore
Finally in the centre of the spore, termed the resistance4,15. For example, compared with core, and for spores of many species the lower
core, is the spore DNA and most spore enzymes growing cells, spores of Bacillus species in the core water content, the higher the wet heat
and small molecules. Of particular note, with water are generally resistant to ~40° higher resistance. However, the mineralisation of the
spores suspended in water, the core’s wet weight temperatures, can survive multiple cycles of core with DPA and divalent cations also play a
as water is only 25–55% depending on the freezing, drying and rehydration with no loss in role in spore resistance to wet heat as does the
species, while in growing cells this value is viability, are 10- to 50-fold more resistant to UV identity of the divalent cation, with Ca2+ generally
~80%9. The low core water content plays a key radiation, are extremely resistant to acids, bases giving the most heat resistance.
role in spore resistance to wet heat and in the oxidising agents, aldehydes and alkylating Surprisingly, given the extremely high
spore’s enzymatic dormancy. The spore core also agents, and can survive pressures as high as temperatures (≥100°C) at which spores of some
contains an enormous amount (~20% of core dry 8,000 atmospheres (Table 1.). Indeed, spores species (eg. Geobacillus stearothermophilus)
weight) of pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylic acid are so resistant and the potential danger so great can survive for considerable times, there is little
(dipicolinic acid (DPA)) (Figure 3. Note that the if they survive processing/sterilisation (for if any DNA damage associated with spore killing
carboxyl groups will be ionised at physiological example, if C. botulinum spores survive, there is by wet heat. This indicates that spores must
pH.). This molecule is synthesised only in the potential that the contaminated food can have some specific mechanisms for protecting
sporulation within the mother cell, is taken up by cause botulism), that food sterilisation their DNA from damage. Indeed, spore DNA is
the forespore late in sporulation and is present procedures are designed with killing spores, in saturated with a group of small (60–75 residue),
exclusively in the spore core as a 1:1 chelate with particular C. botulinum spores, and many tests acid-soluble proteins (SASP) that protect the
divalent cations, predominantly Ca2+. The core’s of autoclave function use spore killing or spore DNA against many types of damage15,16. The
high DPA level appears important in reducing enzyme inactivation as a readout. SASP are synthesised only in the forespore late
spore core water levels and also in promoting and Spore resistance is due to a variety of in sporulation, are non-specific DNA binding
maintaining spore dormancy. factors, including the spore coats, spore inner proteins that are unique to spores and are
membrane impermeability, low core hydration, degraded when spores return to life in spore
Spore dormancy and specific mechanisms for protecting and germination. Binding of these proteins to DNA
As noted above, the spore is metabolically repairing spore DNA4,15,16. The spore coats are protects against damage caused by wet and dry
dormant, and exhibits no significant (if any) important in protection against lytic enzyme heat, desiccation and many DNA damaging

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 Vol 26 No 2

chemicals including hydrogen peroxide, restricting the swelling and full rehydration of the 4. Montville T.J., Matthews K.R. (2005) Spores and
formaldehyde and nitrous acid. SASP binding spore core. Again, the completion of Stage II in the their significance. In: Food Microbiology.
Washington, DC: ASM Press. pp 29–44.
also causes significant changes in DNA germination process takes only minutes for
5. Oncu S., Oncu S., Sakarya S. (2003) Anthrax – an
structure, with an accompanying dramatic individual spores and does not require metabolism overview. Med. Sci. Monit. 9. 276–283.
change in the DNA’s UV photochemistry15,16. of exogenous or endogenous subtrates. Action of 6. Ricca E., Henriques A.O., Cutting S.M. (2004)
This change in DNA photochemistry is a major the cortex-lytic enzymes in Stage II is triggered by Bacterial spore formers: probiotics and emerging
factor in the spore’s resistance to UV light. The events in Stage I of germination, in particular the applications. Norfolk: Horizon Bioscience.
7. Driks A. (2002) Maximum shields: the assembly
other factor responsible for minimising spore release of DPA and its accompanying divalent
and function of the bacterial spore coat. Trends in
DNA damage is DNA repair, since many DNA cations. Interestingly, spores have multiple and Microbiol. 10. 251–254.
repair enzymes and pathways can operate when redundant cortex-lytic enzymes whose activity is 8. Popham D.L. (2002) Specialized peptidoglycan of
spores germinate and return to life, and at least triggered by different signals. Presumably the the bacterial endospore: the inner wall of the
one of these repair mechanisms is unique to presence of redundant cortex-lytic enzymes in lockbox. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 59. 426–433.
9. Gerhardt P., Marquis R.E. (1989) Spore
spores15,16. spores is a fail-safe mechanism in case one
thermoresistance measurements. In: Smith I.,
enzyme is lost or not activated. The degradation of Slepecky R.A. and Setlow P. (eds): Regulation of
Spore germination the cortex by these enzymes then allows the core Prokaryotic Development. Washington, DC: ASM
While spores can remain dormant for to expand and take up more water until the core Press. pp 43–63.
extremely long periods, they are continually hydration level reaches that of a growing cell, thus 10. Cowan A.E., Olivastro E.M., Koppell D.E., et al.
(2004) Lipids in the inner membrane of dormant
sensing their environment for the presence of completing spore germination.
spores of Bacillus species are immobile. Proc. Natl.
nutrients using a group of receptors located in Acad. Sci. USA 101. 7733–7738.
the spore’s inner membrane22. Different Spore outgrowth 11. Bertsch L.L., Bonsen P.P., Kornberg A. (1969)
receptors respond to different nutrients and at The fully germinated spore then begins Biochemical studies of sporulation and germination.
least some receptors appear to act cooperatively outgrowth, as the increase in core water content XIV. Phospholipids in Bacillus megaterium.
J. Bacteriol. 98. 75–81.
in sensing mixtures of nutrients. Nutrients to in Stage II of germination allows initiation of
12. Cortezzo D.E., Setlow P. (2005) Analysis of factors
which these receptors respond include amino enzyme action within the core, resulting in SASP influencing the sensitivity of spores of Bacillus
acids, sugars and purine nucleosides. In some degradation to amino acids and metabolism of subtilis to DNA damaging chemicals. J. Appl.
fashion, the binding of these nutrients to their stored energy reserves such as 3PGA and the Microbiol. In press.
receptors triggers the initial events in amino acids generated from SASP degradation, as 13. Setlow P. (1993) Mechanisms which contribute to
the long-term survival of spores of Bacillus species.
germination, including the release of DPA and well as metabolism of exogenous compounds22.
J. Appl. Bacteriol. 76. 49S–60S.
monovalent and divalent cations from the spore This metabolism generates nucleoside 14. Cowan A.E., Koppel D.E., Setlow B., Setlow P.
core and the parallel influx of water22. This triphosphates including ATP, as well as other (2003) A soluble protein is immobile in dormant
process, which has been termed Stage I, may common high-energy compounds. Since SASP spores of Bacillus subtilis but is mobile in germinated
take ≤1 minute for an individual spore, although degradation early in outgrowth frees the DNA spores. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100. 4209–4214.
15. Nicholson W.L., Munakata N., Horneck G., et al.
longer in a population of spores, in which from the coating of SASP, mRNA synthesis also
(2000) Resistance of Bacillus endospores to extreme
individuals generally exhibit varying lag periods beings followed by protein synthesis. At this point terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments.
between addition of nutrients and the initiation of the outgrowing spore is now well on its way to Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 64. 548–572.
germination. Spore germination can also be becoming a vegetative cell, and with the 16. Setlow P. (2001) Resistance of spores of Bacillus
triggered by exogenous Ca2+–DPA, cationic replication of its DNA, an event that may take species to ultraviolet light. Environ. Mol. Mutagen.
38. 97–104.
surfactants such as dodecylamine or very high place as soon as ~45 min after initiating
17. Setlow P. (1993) I will survive: protecting and repairing
pressures (1,000–8,000 atmospheres)22. This germination, the spore’s long journey is complete, spore DNA. J. Bacteriol. 174. 2737–2741.
latter mechanism for triggering of spore having become a growing cell once again. 18. Setlow B., Setlow P. (1993) Binding of small, acid-
germination has drawn considerable interest soluble spore proteins to DNA plays a significant
form the food industry, as high pressure Acknowledgements role in the resistance of Bacillus subtilis spores to
hydrogen peroxide. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59.
processing holds out the possibility of reducing Work cited from the author’s laboratory has
3418–3423.
spore burdens in foods with minimal reduction been generously supported by the National 19. Fairhead H., Setlow B., Waites W.M., Setlow P.
in food quality, since germinated spores have Institutes of Health (GM19698) and the Army (1994) Small, acid-soluble proteins bound to DNA
lost the high resistance properties of the Research Office. I am grateful to Adam Driks for protect Bacillus subtilis spores from killing by freeze
dormant spores23. the micrograph shown in Figure 2. drying. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60. 2647–2649.
20. Setlow B., Setlow P. (1995). Small acid-soluble
Metabolism of neither exogenous nor
proteins bound to DNA protect Bacillus subtilis
endogenous nutrients is required for events in spores from killing by dry heat. Appl. Environ.
State I of spore germination; even after these References Microbiol. 61. 2787–2790.
events are completed the spore still does not 1. Cano R.J., Borucki M. (1995) Revival and 21. Setlow B., Loshon C.A., Genest P.C., et al. (2002)
contain ATP, core enzymes still do not work and identification of bacterial spores in 25 to 40 million Mechanisms of killing spores of Bacillus subtilis by
year old Dominican amber. Science 268. acid, alkali and ethanol. J. Appl. Microbiol. 92.
the core water content remains well below that
1060–1064. 362–375.
of a growing cell22. However, the rise in core 2. Vreeland R.H., Rosenzweig W.D., Powers D.W. 22. Setlow P. (2003) Spore germination. Curr. Opinion
water in Stage I of germination does result in a (2000) Isolation of a 250 million-year-old Microbiol. 6. 550–556.
significant decrease in spore wet heat resistance. halotolerant bacterium from a primary salt crystal. 23. Patterson M. (2004) Under pressure: a novel technology
The germination process now continues into Nature 407. 897–900 to kill micro-organisms in foods. Culture 25. 2–5.
3. Kennedy, MJ., Reader S.L., Swierczynski L.M.
Stage II through the stimulation of hydrolysis
(1994) Preservation records of micro-organisms:
and eventual degradation of the spore cortex, a evidence of the tenacity of life. Microbiology 140.
spore layer that appears to act as a strait jacket 2513–2529.

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Vol 26 No 2

The use of chromogenic enzyme substrates

in microbial identification
Richard Bovill and Patrick Druggan
Research and Development Laboratories, Oxoid Ltd., Wade Road, Basingstoke, UK
Introduction be monitored by observing the amount of yellow colour can be formed and phenolphthalein
Bacteria lack suitably diagnostic colour produced (Figure 1). Other carboxylic or monophosphate has, therefore, been described
morphological characteristics so identification inorganic acids can be linked to the oxygen to as a better substrate2. Similarly, Coleman3 used
has largely relied on their ability to degrade form substrates for longer chain esterases, thymolphthalein monophosphate as a substrate.
substrates or produce certain biochemical phosphatases or sulphatase. In addition,
substances as end-points of metabolism. saccharides can be attached to form glycosides. Indoxyl
Although molecular biology aids identification, it o-Nitrophenol is cheap and the synthesis of Indoxyl is a colourless, water soluble
is still necessary to use biochemical tests to substrates from it is fairly uncomplicated. This compound that is rapidly air-oxidised to the
screen isolates from the vast number of food has led to its widespread use but it does suffer intensely coloured, insoluble, dimeric compound,
and clinical samples examined every year. from two notable drawbacks: the extinction indigo blue. Indoxyl is stabilised by the formation
Early biochemical tests were often developed coefficient for the coloured form is fairly low and of esters or glycosides and hydrolase activity
and used empirically and it was only much later it is, therefore, not particularly sensitive. Also, it is may be monitored by the production of indigo
that their underlying biochemical basis became fairly water soluble. The second characteristic blue (Figure 2). Indigo blue is highly insoluble
apparent. More recently, microbiologists have renders it unsuitable for use in cell staining or in and when indoxyl substrates are used in agar
focused on the hydrolase group of enzymes agar plates but it is still much used in liquid tube plates, colouration is restricted to the cellular
because of their greater discriminatory properties. assays. Indeed the ONPG (Ortho-nitrophenol-β-D- mass or to the agar immediately adjacent to the
This is due to the ready availability of substrates; galactoside) test still forms an important part of microbial colony. This enables colonies of a
for example, Escherichia coli can easily be detected many bacterial classification tables. species containing the relevant hydrolase enzyme
in the presence of other organisms in water to be readily recognised in a mixed culture.
samples by its ability to cleave β-glucuronide Phenolphthalein Substitution in the aromatic ring of indoxyl
substrates. In addition, hydrolases lend themselves Phenolphthalein diphosphate1 is hydrolyzed with halogens or attachment of a methyl group
to assay procedures that give rapid results. by phosphatase to phenolphthalein which is to the heterocyclic nitrogen produces
Many hydrolase enzymes have a fairly strict determined in alkaline conditions at 530 nm. pronounced shifts in the wavelength of
requirement for the structure of the component Both phosphate groups must be split off before absorption of the dimeric precipitate (Table 2).
on one side of the bond to be hydrolysed, but a
low requirement for the group on the other side.
Thus, glycosidases exhibit specificity not only
for the sugar type but also for its steric Table 1. Examples of commmercially available hydrolase substrates.
conformation and for the conformation of the Enzyme Chromogenic substrates
glycosidic bond. On the other side of the bond, Aminopeptidase A multitude of substrates are available, containing single amino acids
the group, which in natural substrates usually rising to quite long peptide lengths.
yields an alcohol, is of much less importance Esterase (carboxylic) A range of substrates containing various fatty acid chain lengths: C2, C4,
and may be anything from another sugar to a C6, C8, C9, C10, C12, C14, C15, C16 and C18.
Esterase (inorganic) Phosphate, phosphodiester, venom phosphodiester, sulphate.
phenol. This is useful in that a chromogen can
be attached and specificity for a glycosidase is Glycosidase α-L-Arabinoside, β-D-Cellobioside, α and β-L-Fucoside, β-D-Fucoside,
α- and β-Galactosaminide, α- and β-D-Galactoside, α- and β-D-
retained while activity of the enzyme may easily Glucosaminide, α- and β-D-Glucoside, β-D-Glucuronide, β-Lactoside, α-
be monitored by observing colour production. and ≤-D-Maltoside, α- and β-Mannoside, α-L-Rhamnoside, β-Xyloside.
Examples of hydrolase substrates that are Others Substrates for lysozyme and phosphatidylinositol phospholipase C.
available for diagnostic purposes are shown in
Table 1.
O CH3
Chromophores used for the detection of C
O
-
hydrolase activity OH O
O
Nitrophenol
Some of the earliest artificial enzyme NO2 NO2 NO2
substrates produced were based on nitrophenol, acetyl esterase high pH
a compound which at a pH above the pKa forms low pH
the yellow nitrophenoxide ion. If electron-attracting
groups are attached to the oxygen atom of o-Nitrophenol acetate o-Nitrophenol o-Nitrophenoxide ion
(colourless) (yellow)
nitrophenol it cannot donate electrons and the
compound is colourless. Hydrolase reactions may Figure 1. Production of the yellow nitrophenoxide ion from o-Nitrophenol acetate.

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 Vol 26 No 2

O chelate with ferric ions in the assay medium.

However, this is toxic, particularly for Gram-
O C CH3 H
O positive organisms and it is rarely used
N microbiologically. A much better candidate for
1. acetyl esterase use in agar plate bacterial tests is alizarin. This is
2. oxidation non-toxic and forms brightly coloured
N N complexes with metals, the colour of which is
H O dependent on the metal used8. The colouration is
H
highly localised and it is described by the
indoxyl acetate (colourless) indigo blue (intense colour, very poor water solubility)
authors as a highly sensitive reagent.
Figure 2. Indigo blue produced by enzyme treatment and oxidation.
Nitroaniline
Other chromogens Metal chelates Peptidase enzymes are usually detected
The production of colour from indoxyl Another approach to colour production from using the chromogen p-nitroaniline. This
substrates is dependent on oxidation. This enzyme substrates is to use a compound that is behaves in a similar manner to nitrophenol in
presents problems if agar plates are used to capable of forming a chelate with metals present that attachment of an electron withdrawing
detect organisms in anaerobic conditions. A in the test medium. One of the first to be used was moiety, such as an amino acid or peptide, to the
β-galactosidase substrate based on p-naphthol- the natural β-glycoside, esculin. This is broken amine group renders the compound colourless.
benzene has been described4 which overcomes down by β-glucosidase and the esculetin that is Hydrolysis of the peptide bond releases free
this problem and gives highly restricted zones of released complexes with ferric ions in the medium nitroaniline which is yellow (Figure 4).
colour around colonies. to form a black, poorly water soluble, compound One of the most useful aminopeptidase
Indoxyl esters are very poorly water soluble (Figure 3). This has been used in both liquid and enzymes for bacterial identification is L-alanine
and it is often difficult to produce agar plates solid agar plate media. However, in the latter there aminopeptidase. Significant enzyme activity is
containing these substrates without a precipitate is considerable spreading of colour. A much more restricted almost entirely to Gram-negative
forming. Esters based on 4 - [2 - (4 - hydrophobic variation of the esculetin structure, micro-organisms. Although some Gram-negative
octanoyloxy - 3,5 - dimethoxyphenyl) - vinyl] - cyclohexenoesculetin, has been synthesized which organisms do not possess this enzyme, most
quinolinium - 1 - (propan - 3 - yl carboxylic acid) produces much reduced colour spread6. notably Campylobacter, all Gram-positive or
(SLPA) are soluble and produce a burgundy-red 8-Hydroxyquinoline-β-D-glucoside and β-D- Gram-variable micro-organisms examined do not
colour around colonies5. glucuronide have also been used in enzyme display activity or give a very weak reaction9,10.
assays7. 8-Hydroxyquinoline is released on The aminopeptidase test thus provides a reliable
hydrolysis and forms a dense black, insoluble method for distinguishing Gram+ and Gram–
micro-organisms.
Table 2. Effect of substituents on the colour of indigo compounds p-Nitroaniline suffers from the same draw-
backs as nitrophenol in that it has a low extinction
Derivative Colour of precipitate Name Absorption (nm)
coefficient and it is water soluble. However, a
None blue Y™ 680 poorly water soluble chromogenic alternative for
N-methyl green Green™ 665 use in agar plates is not commercially available.
5-bromo, 4-chloro blue X- 615 If sensitivity is a requirement, it, or any other
5-iodo purple iodo 575 suitable amine containing molecule, may be
5-bromo, 6-chloro magenta Magenta™ 565 derived enzymatically. Thus, non-coloured β-
6-chloro salmon Salmon™ 540 naphthylamine released from a peptide substrate
may be tested with a dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde
reagent. Within a few minutes of addition, a red
colouration is produced as the Schiff base is formed.
H OH HO O O
This test can be adapted to use on cards or paper
H O strips. A colony from an agar plate is rubbed onto a
HO card containing the substrate, buffer is added, and
HO O
H the card incubated for 10 to 20 minutes. The reagent
OH
β-glucosidase is then added and if the organism contains the
H H
relevant enzyme a red colour will appear.
Fe3+
water soluble, colourless esculin
(esculetin-6-O-β-D-glucopyranoside) Uptake of Chromogenic substrates
H H Lipophilic chromogenic substrates, such as
O O O O O O
esters, can enter the bacterial cell by passive
Fe diffusion. This occurs in Gram-positive but not
O O Gram-negative organisms unless the outer cell
H H
membrane has been made permeable by
poorly water soluble, black, esculetin complex with iron
detergents or chelating agents. Thus, bile salts
Figure 3. Hydrolysis of esculin to form a black esculetin/iron complex. are often added to Salmonella selective media

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Vol 26 No 2

O β-galactosidase which is strictly controlled by

the lac operon. A natural substrate, such as
lactose, may be used to induce the enzyme but
H3C C H activity may then be reduced by competitive
CH N NH2 inhibition. This is overcome by the addition of
the inducer, isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside
NH2 (IPTG), which is 10,000 times more inductive for
the lac operon than lactose itself.
L-Alanyl aminopeptidase

Chromogenic agars
It is strange that given the widespread use of
chromogenic substrates in biochemistry their
application to microbiology did not really take off
NO2 NO2 until the 1980s. This change was catalysed by
L-Alanine p-Nitroanilide p-Nitroaniline the desire of water microbiologists for rapid
(colourless) (yellow) screening procedures for the faecal indicator
Figure 4. Production of yellow p-Nitroaniline from L-Alanine-p-nitroaniline. Escherichia coli. In 1988 the Association of
Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) gave first
not only to inhibit Gram-positive organisms but to a concentration gradient. This type of permease, action status for the use of 4-
to permit entry into the cell of the chromogenic however, is more sensitive to the structure of the Methylumbelliferone-β,D-glucuronide in Lauryl
marker indoxyl caprylate. aglycone and this has limited the use of some Sulfate Broth for the presumptive identification
Active transport involves accumulation of the chromogenic substrates. of E. coli 12. This was based on the work by Feng
substrate against the osmotic gradient in the cell The highly sensitive but discriminatory PTS and Hartman13, who pioneered the use of this
at concentrations far in excess of that found in system is useful when substrates are at low substrate for presumptive identification of E. coli
the medium. There are two main methods of concentration, and the more general symport in water and foods. Within a short time the
active transport of glycosides in bacteria. The system is used when substrates are available at AOAC then approved the Colilert system for use,
symport system uses an ion gradient to drive high concentration. a method for determining coliforms and E. coli
uptake of the substrate. It has a broad specificity Peptide uptake is again active and is by one in water. This system was based on the use of
but a low sensitivity and higher concentrations of three systems depending on the peptide ONPG for the identification of β-Galactosidase-
of a sugar are required for growth. A limitation structure: dipeptide-, tripeptide- or oligopeptide- positive organism (coliforms) and the
of this system is that it is not active in stressed permease. The permease pathway is the major fluorogenic substrate 4-Methylumbelliferone-
or stationary phase cells. route of entry for most chromogenic peptidase β-D-Glucuronide for the identification of E. coli.
The other main active transport system is the substrates. Approval by the AOAC for these two methods
more complex phosphoenol-pyruvate: The ability of an organism to cleave a stimulated research into investigating the use of
phosphotransferase system (PTS)11. This does not chromogenic substrate is dependent on fluorogens and chromogens in culture media as a
rely on an ion gradient and is functional at every possession of both a hydrolase enzyme and a means of shortening the time for a presumptive
stage of growth of the organism. The PTS system functional permease system. A further identification of a variety of organisms.
generally has a narrower specificity but has a complication encountered when using Low specificities of conventional isolation
greater sensitivity than symport transport and has glycosidase substrates is that glycosidases are media can result in prolonged testing of false
a greater ability to concentrate a substrate relative often inducible. This is particularly true of positives with all the associated costs that this
entails. The arrival of chromogenic substrates has
both simplified and expedited screening for
pathogens. The wide range of chromogenic
hydrolase substrates that are now commercially
available, particularly those based on indoxyl
derivatives, has made possible the use of
cocktails of substrates to simultaneously assay
for a range of enzymes. The colour of a microbial
colony is a mixture of the chromogens that have
been released and reflects the hydrolase content
of that organism. The Venn diagram in Figure 5
shows an example of combining a
β-galactosidase test for coliforms with a
β-glucosidase test. It can be seen that combining
two substrates increases the specificity of the
medium, reducing the need for further testing.
In practice, various subtleties in these
Figure 5. Species potentially isolated from urine streaked onto a non-selective medium containing 5-Bromo-4- colours are often obtained in microbiological
chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-glucopyranoside and 5-Bromo-6-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-galactopyranoside. medium where media composition and pH can

7
 Vol 26 No 2

Figure 6. Strains of species of Candida plated onto medium containing different Figure 7. Listeria colonies appear as blue colonies due to the hydrolysis of 5-Bromo-
indoxyl substrates. C. albicans, green; C. glabrata, beige; C. krusei, purple/pink; 4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-glucopyranoside. In addition, pathogenic Listeria utilise
C. parapsilosis, brown; C. tropicalis, dark blue. phosphatidyl choline to produce a halo around the colony.

affect the shade and spreading of the zones of False-positive colonies can be rapidly and cheaply β-D-galactoside and 8-hydroxyquinoline-β-D-
colouration. This can add to the discriminatory detected, allowing the user to concentrate their galactoside as substrates for the detection of β-
galactosidase. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62. 3868–3870.
ability of the medium and quite similar resources on any organisms that are negative for
7. Fishman W.H., Green S. (1955) Microanalysis of
organisms can be differentiated (Figure 6). these tests. glucuronide glucuronic acid as applied to beta-
Other biochemical tests may also be glucuronidase and glucuronic acid studies. J. Biol.
incorporated into chromogenic media to identify Chem. 215. 527–37.
References 8. James L., Perry J.D., Chilvers K., et al. (2000)
certain characteristics of the target organism.
1. Linhardt K., Walter K. (1952) Reliability of Alizarin-β-D-galactoside: a new substrate for the
For example, when screening for pathogenic
determination of phosphatase in the serum with the detection of bacterial β-galactosidase. Lett. Appl.
Listeria species the presence of phosphatidyl- method of Huggins and Talalay. Hoppe Seylers Z. Microbiol. 30. 336–340.
specific phospholipase C may be detected by Physiol. Chem. 289. 245–53. 9. Carlone G.M., Valdez M.J,. Picket M.J. (1982)
zones of clearing around colonies (Figure 7). 2. Wilkinson J.H., Vodden A.V. (1966) Methods for distinguishing Gram-positive bacteria.
Phenolphthalein monophosphate as a substrate for J. Clin. Microbiol. 16. 1157–1159.
A major problem in both clinical and food
serum alkaline phosphatase. An appraisal. Clin. 10. Cerny G. (1978) Studies on the aminopeptidase test
microbiology is the doubtful specificity of tests for
Chem. 12. 701–8. for the distinction of Gram-negative from Gram-
Salmonella. The organisms most likely to produce 3. Coleman C.M. (1966) The synthesis of thymolph- positive bacteria. Eur. J. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol.
false positives on traditional isolation media such thalein monophosphate, a new substrate for alkaline 5. 113–122.
as Desoxycholate Citrate Agar, Mannitol Lysine phosphatase.Clin. Chim. Acta. 13. 401–3. 11. Postma P.W., Lengeler J.W. (1985) Phosphoenol-
4. James A.L., Chilvers K.F., Perry J.D., Armstrong L., pyruvate:carbohydrate phosphotransferase system of
Crystal Violet Brilliant Green Agar and Xylose
Gould F.K. (2000) Evaluation of p-naphtholbenzene- bacteria. Microbiological Reviews 49. 232–269.
Lysine Desoxycholate Agar are Citrobacter and
β-D-galactoside as a substrate for bacterial β-galactosidase. 12. Moberg L.J., Wagner M.K., Kellen L.A. (1988)
Proteus. Unfortunately it is not possible to perform Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66. 5521–5523. Fluorogenic assay for rapid detection of Escherichia
the two most useful enzyme tests (L-pyrrolidonyl 5. Cooke V.M., Miles R.J., Price R.G., Richardson coli in chilled and frozen foods: collaborative study.
arylamidase and 4-Nitrophenylalanine deaminase) A.C. (1999) A novel chromogenic ester agar Journal of the Association of Official Analytical
medium for detection of salmonellae. Appl. Environ. Chemists 71. 589–602.
for differentiating strains of these genera from
Microbiol. 65. 807–812. 13. Feng P.C.S., Hartman P.A.. (1982) Fluorogenic
Salmonella in an agar plate method. However, they
6. James A.L., Perry J.D., Ford M., Armstrong L., assays for immediate confirmation of Escherichia
can be used in the card method described earlier. Gould F.K. (1996) Evaluation of cyclohexenoesculetin- coli. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 43. 1320–1329.

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