Practitioner's Guide for

Alternative Cements
Reported by ACI Innovation Task Group 10

00
'
I

0:::
0
'

u
<( American Concrete Institute
Always advancing
 First Printing
American Concrete Institute April2018
Always advancing
ISBN: 978-1-64195-009-1

Pracitioner's Guide for Alternative Cements

Copyright by the American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. All rights reserved. This material
may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other
distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ACI.

The technical committees responsible for ACI committee reports and standards strive to avoid
ambiguities, omissions, and errors in these documents. In spite of these efforts, the users of ACI
documents occasionally find information or requirements that may be subject to more than one
interpretation or may be incomplete or incorrect. Users who have suggestions for the improvement of
ACI documents are requested to contact ACI via the errata website at http://concrete.org/Publications/
DocumentErrata.aspx. Proper use of this document includes periodically checking for errata for the most
up-to-date revisions.

ACI committee documents are intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the
significance and limitations of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for
the application of the material it contains. Individuals who use this publication in any way assume all
risk and accept total responsibility for the application and use of this information.

All information in this publication is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind, either express or
implied, including but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular
purpose or non-infringement.

ACI and its members disclaim liability for damages of any kind, including any special, indirect, incidental,
or consequential damages, including without limitation, lost revenues or lost profits, which may result
from the use of this publication.

It is the responsibility of the user of this document to establish health and safety practices appropriate
to the specific circumstances involved with its use. ACI does not make any representations with regard
to health and safety issues and the use of this document. The user must determine the applicability of
all regulatory limitations before applying the document and must comply with all applicable laws and
regulations, including but not limited to, United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) health and safety standards.

Participation by governmental representatives in the work of the American Concrete Institute and in
the development of Institute standards does not constitute governmental endorsement of ACI or the
standards that it develops.

Order information: ACI documents are available in print, by download, through electronic subscription,
or reprint and may be obtained by contacting ACI.

Most ACI standards and committee reports are gathered together in the annually revised the ACI
Collection of Concrete Codes, Specifications, and Practices.

American Concrete Institute

38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Phone: +1.248.848.3700
Fax: +1.248.848.3701
www.concrete.org
 ACIITG-10R-18

Practitioner's Guide for Alternative Cements

Reported by ACI Innovation Task Group 10

Lawrence L. Sutter, Chair

Mary U. Christiansen James K. Hicks Kevin A. MacDonald Anol K. Mukhopadhyay

Jonathan E. Dongell R. Douglas Hooton Claudio E. Manissero Deepak Ravikumar

As performance demands of concrete increase, and given recent CHAPTER 3-ALTERNATIVE CEMENT
initiatives to address the sustainability of construction, owners, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS, p. 3
architects, and engineers are actively seeking alternatives to 3. 1-Available alternative cement technologies, p. 3
portland cement for concrete. An alternative cement is intended
to be a replacement for portland cement in some applications.
CHAPTER 4-SELECTED CASE STUDIES, p. 6
In some cases, alternative cements may also be used in combina­
4. 1-Calcium aluminate cement (CAC), p. 7
tion with portland or blended hydraulic cements. This document
covers currently available and emerging alternative cements and is
4.2-Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA), p. 8
intended to provide information to help guide practitioners seeking 4.3-Activated fly ash and slag, p. 8
to implement alternative cements.
CHAPTER 5-GUIDELINES FOR USE, p. 10
Keywords: alkali-activated fly ash cement; alkali-activated glass cement; 5. 1-Mixture design, p. 10
alkali-activated slag cement; alkali activation; alternative cements; calcium
5.2-Construction, p. 11
aluminate cement; calcium sulfoaluminate cement; carbonated calcium
silicate cement; durability; functional addition; geopolymer; magnesium
5.3-Design properties, p. 12
oxychloride cement; magnesium phosphate cement; reactive belite cement;
specifications; supersulfated cement; sustainability; test method. CHAPTER 6-SUMMARY, p. 12

CONTENTS CHAPTER 7-REFERENCES, p. 12

Authored documents, p. 12
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE, p. 1
1.1-Introduction, p. 1 CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE
1.2-Background, p. 2
1.3-Scope, p. 2 1.1-lntroduction
1.4-0rganization of this guide, p. 2 This guide is intended as an introduction for engineers,
architects, contractors, and owners who are interested in
CHAPTER 2-DEFINITIONS, p. 3 using an alternative cement on a project, but lack experi­
2.1-Definitions, p. 3 ence with these materials. This guide assumes the reader
has experience with conventional concrete materials and
construction, and is seeking knowledge on how these new
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are cement technologies compare to portland cement when used
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and in concrete.
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use
The alternative cement properties summarized in this
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who
document are those reported for properly designed and
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it placed alternative cement concretes. As with all types of
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and concrete, material quality, mixture design, curing method-
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
ACI ITG-1 OR-1 8 was adopted and published April 2018.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
Copyright© 2018, American Concrete Institute.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents,
any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic
they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual
by the Architect/Engineer. reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
2 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18)

ology, and placement technique are all crucial to obtaining may exceed that of PCC. In most cases, however, initial costs
the desired properties; the examples presented are not should be similar for an alternative cement to be considered
universally applicable but are illustrative of what to expect for use. More importantly, for alternative cements to replace
from specific alternative cements. PCC in less-specialized applications, functional equivalence
with PCC is required. Functional equivalence is required due
1.2-Background to the empirical nature of the concrete design and construc­
Portland cement concrete (PCC) is unrivaled when it tion environment. Demonstrated performance, both in the
comes to versatility and durability and, as such, is the most laboratory and in practice, is required to ensure that life­
widely used man-made material on Earth. Countless civil safety considerations are met when using alternative cement
engineering and architectural structures use concrete in their concrete in place of PCC. Demonstrating this performance
construction, including roads, bridges, public water and to specifiers has been a challenge for alternative cement
sanitary systems, and buildings. Almost 200 years of experi­ producers largely due to the lack of a clear testing protocol
ence has resulted in a solid, practical understanding of how or, in some cases, the lack of applicable tests.
PCC works, and with the correct mixture design and mate­ Another aspect of functional performance is construc­
rials, practitioners can manipulate concrete to easily meet tability. To achieve the desired hardened properties, the
the needs of society. concrete must be properly placed and cured in the field. This
As engineers, architects, and contractors continue to push aspect limits the application of some alternative cements that
the bounds of what is possible in design and construction, require specific non-atmospheric curing regimes such as a
materials must evolve as well, which is where alternative C02-rich curing environment, or elevated temperatures. For
cements come in. To serve as an alternative to portland other alternative cements, rapid setting and rapid strength
cement, a binder technology needs to offer demonstrable gain, as compared to PCC, are principal value-added aspects
improvements when considering factors such as environ­ of their performance. Constructability also depends on the
mental impact, life-cycle cost (LCC), and performance. The availability of knowledgeable people to both place and
use of an alternative cement is motivated by one or more of adjust the mixture designs to achieve the desired perfor­
three main drivers : mance. Therefore, it is necessary to have a workforce that
1. Reduced cost-both initial cost and LCC is trained and able to proportion, test, mix, place, and cure
2. Reduced environmental impact these new materials.
3. The need for specific properties unattainable with PCC
Improving the sustainability of construction is clearly one 1.3-Scope
force driving the emergence of alternative cement concrete This guide covers both currently available and emerging
technologies. Increasingly, construction alternatives are alternative cements, and is intended to aid people interested
being considered in terms of their LCC, in addition to or in in using alternative cements in a project. A brief summary
place of initial cost. When it comes to LCC determination, of each of the alternative cement technologies is provided,
the industry has considerable experience with PCC and can as well as selected case studies and a guideline for use that
estimate the individual costs that contribute to the LCC. For addresses mixture design as well as construction and design
some alternative cements, the industry still needs to develop properties. References made to portland cement and port­
that experience and establish life-cycle costs. A life-cycle land cement production are for comparison purposes only.
cost is strongly intertwined with the material's functional An in-depth discussion of portland cement is not within the
performance and is inextricably linked to its durability. scope of this guide.
Given their recent development, long-term durability data
are not available for all alternative cements. 1.4-0rganization of this guide
As is the case with all manufacturing processes, portland This guide is organized into five chapters; a synopsis of
cement production has environmental impacts that repre­ each is presented below.
sent a cost to society. Chief among these are : 1) the energy­ Chapter !-Introduction and Scope: Describes the
intensive nature of producing portland cement; and 2) the need for alternative cements and identifies the scope and
inherent release of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the objectives of this guide.
production process. A key advantage of alternative cement Chapter 2-Notation and Definitions: Defines termi­
production is a significant reduction in environmental nology unique to alternative cements or not currently defined
impact as compared to portland cement. The specific nature in ACI Concrete Terminology.
of the reduction varies between different alternative cement Chapter 3-Alternative Cement Properties and Appli­
technologies. Burris et al. (20 15) states manufacture of the cations: Summarizes the alternative cement technologies
alternative cements described in this document results in currently considered commercially available, as well as
anywhere from 44 to 84 percent of the C02 associated with those in development.
the production of an equal mass of portland cement. Chapter 4-Selected Case Studies: Provides selected
Apart from sustainability considerations, in some appli­ case studies to help illustrate how some of these materials
cations an alternative cement concrete may offer enhanced have been used successfully.
functional performance when compared to PCC, and in those Chapter 5-Guidelines for Use: Provides guidelines
cases, the market value of the alternative cement concrete for issues to consider when deciding to use an alternative

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18) 3

cement including mixture design, construction, and design Table 3.1-Summary of alternative cement
properties. Many of these issues can be resolved in dialogue technologies discussed
with the alternative cement producer, although some will Calcium aluminate

require testing prior to design or construction. Reactive belite

Clinkered alternative cements Calcium sulfoaluminate
Chapter 6--- Summary: Provides a brief summary of the
Carbonated calcium silicate (emerging
document. technology)

Magnesium oxychloride
CHAPTER 2-DEFlNITIONS Magnesium phosphate
Calcined alternative cements
ACI provides a comprehensive list of definitions through Magnesium ammonium phosphate
an online resource, "ACI Concrete Terminology." Defini­ Magnesium potassium phosphate

tions provided herein complement that source. Alkali-activated

Fly ash
Non-clinkered alternative
Slag
2.1-Definitions cements
Recycled glass (emerging technology)
alkali activation-the process of using an alkali-based
Supersulfated cement
solution to cause the dissolution of an alumino-silicate
precursor and initiating the chemical reactions leading to the
in terms of production technology, such as kiln operating
formation of reaction products.
temperatures. Non-clinkered alternative cements often
alkali activator-an alkali-based solution that causes
beneficially use industrial by-products as a precursor mate­
alkali activation.
rial and require the addition of an activating solution.
Note: Examples of alkali activators include concentrated
Table 3.1 provides a summary of the commercially avail­
sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solutions. Molar
able or emerging alternative cement technologies discussed
strengths of up to 1OM are typical.
in this guide.
alternative cement-an inorganic cement that can be used
3.1.1 Clinkered alternative cements-Clinkered alterna­
as a complete replacement for portland or blended hydraulic
tive cements are manufactured using production technologies
cements, and that is not covered by applicable specifications
similar to those used to manufacture portland cement. With
for portland or blended hydraulic cements.
the exception of carbonated calcium silicate, the materials all
Note: An alternative cement or alternative cement blend
react through hydration (that is, they are hydraulic cements).
could provide better performance than that of portland or
However, the resulting materials have chemical and physical
blended hydraulic cement in some applications. An alter­
properties that are notably different than portland cement,
native cement, however, might not perform adequately as
and in some cases require completely different approaches to
a replacement for portland or blended hydraulic cement
implementation (for example, different curing regimes).
in every application. In some cases, alternative cements
3.1.1.1 Calcium aluminate cements-Calcium aluminate
can also be used in combination with portland or blended
cements (CACs) are produced using raw materials different
hydraulic cements.
from portland cement production. When CAC is placed in
functional addition-a substance other than water that is
contact with water, hydration reactions occur, as happens
added to, or combined with, a material that is not hydraulic
with portland cement. However, the reaction products formed
and causes a cementitious reaction to occur or accelerate.
are completely different given the different cement composi­
geopolymer-an alternative cement produced from
tion and CAC use must be approached understanding these
alumino-silicate precursors that form nonhydrated cementi­
differences. W hen 100 percent CAC is used, the hydration
tious reaction products by alkali activation.
products formed are thermodynamically unstable and, with
precursor-a solid raw material reacted with a functional
time, at ambient temperature, pressure, and humidity, these
addition to form an alternative cement.
hydration products convert to thermodynamically stable
forms with a significant loss of strength. This "conver­
CHAPTER 3-ALTERNATIVE CEMENT
sion" process must be accounted for and the final converted
PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
strength must be used in design to ensure predictable perfor­
mance. Assessing conversion is done through performance
3.1-Available alternative cement technologies
testing. Technical support for mixture design and conversion
For discussion, the technologies are grouped based on
testing should be obtained from the CAC provider for first­
similar cement production factors. Clinkered alternative
time users of this product. By blending CAC with portland
cements use production technologies similar to portland
cement or other products, this conversion process is readily
cement, but with process changes that affect the environ­
controlled.
mental footprint of the product. Often, these process changes
Calcium aluminate cements resist sulfate attack, are abra­
lead to material properties that affect aspects of the related
sion-resistant, and are sometimes combined with synthetic
alternative cement concrete such as cost or performance.
aggregate made from CAC to produce a highly resistant
Clinkered alternative cements in some cases are produced
material for use in dam spillways and industrial floor slabs
with precursor materials similar to portland cement raw
(Scrivener and Capmas 2003). Calcium aluminate cements
materials, while in other cases alternative raw materials
are also generally considered to be resistant to alkali-silica
are used. In some cases, they differ from portland cement

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

4 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18)

reaction, given the hydration products are different from is different in composition as compared to portland cement
those of portland cement. Specifically, there is no calcium clinker. The production of CCS clinker results in significant
hydroxide (CH) formed in the hydration reaction, the pH of reductions in C02 emissions as well as a reduced embodied
the pore solution is lower (pH 11.5 to 12.5) and, therefore, energy. Carbonated calcium silicate cement is an emerging
CAC does not promote dissolution of silica (Si02) in reac- technology that is not yet fully commercialized.
tive aggregates. Carbonated calcium silicate cement requires curing in a
3.1.1.2 Reactive belite cement-A reactive belite cement COrrich environment and, therefore, special equipment is
(RBC) is produced from a modified portland cement clinker required for curing. Unlike the hydration reactions in port-
that has a significantly lower alite content and a signifi- land cement, the carbonation reaction in CCS is a relatively
cantly higher belite content. This means if used by itself as rapid process. Full curing of CCS-based concrete can occur
a hydraulic cement, early strengths would be very low but in less than 10 to 24 hours (DeCristofaro et al. 2017).
later strengths, such as 28-day strengths, may be acceptable 3.1.2 Calcined alternative cements-Calcined alternative
(Chatterjee 1996). The advantage of RBC clinker is that a cements differ from portland cement in terms of produc-
lower kiln temperature can be used to produce the mate- tion technology and are produced from raw materials not
rials, resulting in less fuel consumption, less raw material used for portland cement production. Calcined alternative
use (for example, limestone), and lower C02 and NO, emis- cements are a combination of a calcined magnesite rock and
sions. Because of the low early strengths, RBC is rarely used a crosslinking agent that, when combined, react to form a
without some modification to improve the early strength. solidified binder matrix.
The most common modification results in calcium sulfoalu- 3.1.2.1 Magnesium oxychloride ceme nt-Magnesium
ruinate cement (CSA), which is discussed in the next section. oxychloride cement (MOC) was developed by Stanislas
3.1.1.3 Calcium sulfoaluminate cements-One approach Sorel in 1867 (Sorel l 867) and is also referred to as Sorel or
to increasing the early strength of RBC is to add a reactive magnesite cement (Phair 2006; Valek et al. 2012). Magne-
component such as calcium sulfoaluminate (Quillin 200 1). sium oxychloride cement is not a hydraulic cement. The
Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are not new; they contain as process of hardening occurs through an acid-base reaction.
a primary phase ye'elimite (Ca4Al6S016 or C4A3 S in cement The main bonding phases found in hardened MOC pastes
chemistry notation), which was used by Alexander Klein in are magnesium hydroxide.
the 1960s as an additive to portland cement to form expan- During initial curing, MOC is not stable in prolonged
sive cement and is sometimes called Klein's Compound contact with water. Leaching of magnesium chloride, with
(Klein 1966). These cements can exhibit rapid setting, rapid reversal of the reaction and loss of strength can result (Lu
strength gains, and expansion. In practice, these properties et al. 1994). Over a period of time, atmospheric C02 reacts
can be controlled through manipulating the composition of with magnesium oxychloride to form a surface layer that
the cement and through the addition of chemical retarders. slows the leaching process. Eventually, additional leaching
Concretes made using CSA generally show excellent leads to the formation of hydromagnesite, which is insol-
sulfate resistance (Quillin 2001). Under natural and accel- uble and enables the cement to maintain structural integrity
erated conditions, carbonation rates for CSA concrete are (Cole and Demediuk 1955). A variety of additives have
high when compared with PCC made using similar mixture been developed that will significantly slow down or block
designs (Quillin 2001). Therefore, corrosion of reinforce- water penetration during early ages, or expedite formation
ment could be an issue for concrete made using CSAs. The of hydromagnesite.
rate of carbonation, however, can be lowered with the use The set time for neat MOC paste can vary from a few
of appropriate water-reducing admixtures. The mechanical hours to 48 hours (Yadav et al. 2013). Curing is affected
properties and durability of CSA concrete are reported to by temperature, air flow, and humidity conditions. While
rival portland cement (Quillin 200 1), although additional heating could increase the rate of hardening, care must be
field experience is needed to fully vet the long-term material taken not to overheat the concrete to avoid cracking of the
performance. material (Yadav et al. 20 12). After set, no further curing is
Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are used for some struc- necessary.
tural applications and are especially well-suited for precast Being an acid/base reaction, MOC paste develops a signif-
and cold weather applications, which take advantage of the icant heat of reaction. The mixtures, therefore, can develop
rapid strength gain of these materials (Su et al. 1997). temperatures of up to 140 to 176°F (60 to 80°C), or in some
3.1.1.4 Carbonated calcium silicates (emerging tech- cases, temperatures above 212°F (100°C) have been reported
nology)-Carbonated calcium silicate cement (CCS) is a (Newman et al. 1952). Care should be taken when handling
non-hydraulic cement. As the name implies, the solidifi- neat paste to avoid thermal damage of substrates and forms
cation process used is carbonation. Water is used as the and to avoid personal injury. Temperature evolution is
medium for the process and it is not incorporated into the significantly decreased when fillers/aggregates are added to
final hardened cement paste, as is the case with portland the paste, resulting in mixtures that are safe to handle and
cement hydration. Carbonated calcium silicate cement place. Also, the evolved heat dissipates quickly due to the
clinker is produced using the same raw materials and rotary high temperature conductivity of the material.
kilns used for portland cement clinker production, but the Concrete mixtures prepared with MOC, when properly
kiln is operated at a lower temperature. The resulting clinker formulated, can have high compressive strength, such as

cCiC'iJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18) 5

8000 to 10,000 psi (55 to 69 MPa), within 48 hours. (Beau- activated. In particular, the calcium oxide content of the fly
doin and Ramachandran 1975; Misra and Mathur 2007). ash has a significant impact on the phases that are formed,
Concrete produced with MOC is very stable to heat, and and can change the activator and curing requirements of
freezing and thawing cycles, and does not require air entrain- the mixture (that is, a higher curing temperature is typi-
ment to improve durability (Misra and Mathur 2007). cally required for low-calcium oxide ashes). Therefore, it
Concrete using MOC does not lose strength over time. is important to know the composition of the fly ash when
However, these cements are not very resistant to water at proportioning an AAFA cement.
early ages. Magnesium oxychloride cement is best suited The spherical nature of fly ash particles is particularly
for internal uses and is not recommended for applications useful in this alternative cement system. The round parti-
having prolonged contact with water. In architectural appli- cles move freely, and this "ball-bearing effect" increases
cations where the material is colored, mottling or discolor- the workability of a mixture without an increase in water
ation can result from exposure to water (Lu et a!. 1994). This content. When necessary, high-range water reducers have
can be avoided or minimized by application of sealers or been shown to be useful in further improving the workability
other protective coatings. of a mixture (Hardjito et a!. 2004). Like PCC, the water-
3.1.2.2 Magnesium phosphate cement Magnesium phos-
- solids ratio of AAFA concrete is important, where higher
phate cement (MPC) and magnesium oxysulfate cement water content typically results in lower strength (Van Jaars-
(MOS) are variations of MOC where different acids are veld et a!. 2003; Diaz-Loya et a!. 2011).
used to react the magnesia. Magnesium ammonium phos- Alkali-activated fly ash concretes usually exhibit high
phate cement (MAPC) is formed by reaction of MgO with early strength, particularly in the case of activated low-
monoammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP). Magnesium calcium ashes that are subjected to heat curing (Wastiels et
potassium phosphate cement (MKPC) results from the reac- a!. 1994; Fernandez-Jimenez and Palomo 2003; Fernandez-
tion of MgO with monopotassium phosphate (MKP). Both Jimenez et a!. 2006). Most strength is typically developed
reactions are very fast and highly exothermic. within the first 24 hours. Similar relationships between
3.1.3 Non-clinkered alternative cemen ts -Non-clinker compressive, flexural, and tensile strength; modulus of elas-
cements commonly use precursor materials that are waste ticity; and density have been documented as those that exist
products or by-products from an industrial process. These for normal PCC. Overall, AAFA concrete has been shown to
precursors generally contain a significant fraction of amor- perform similarly to PCC (Fernandez-Jimenez et a!. 2006;
phous phases (glass phases) consisting of some combination Sofi et a!. 2007; Diaz-Loya et a!. 2011).
of silica (Si02), alumina (Al203), and calcium oxide (CaO). 3.1.3.2 Alkali-activated slag-An alkali-activated slag
Examples include fly ash, calcined clay, blast-furnace slag, (AAS) binder consists of ground-granulated blast furnace
and ground glass. To form a hardened cement from these slag (GBFS, also known as slag cement), water, and an alkali
materials, a functional addition, or activator solution, is activator. The activator promotes dissolution of slag parti-
required. The nature of the activator solution depends cles and initiates the chemical reactions leading to precipita-
upon the type of precursor material and the type of reac- tion of calcium-alumino-silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) phases,
tion desired. Examples of an activator solution are sodium similar to what is found in portland cement. Alkali-activated
hydroxide solution or sodium silicate. slag systems are also known as alkali-activated cements
In general, the cementitious material created depends (Palomo and Lopez deJa Fuente 2003).
on the composition and combination of the materials used. Alkali-activated slag concretes have shown promise due
The predominant factor is the calcium oxide content of the to their competitive cost and excellent properties when
precursor. Materials that contain significant amounts of compared to PCC. These properties include high strengths
calcium-rich phases, such as slag or Class C fly ash, tend of up to 19,000 psi ( 130 MPa) at 1 year (Douglas and Brand-
toward hydration reactions similar to portland cement when stetr 1990; Wang and Scrivener 1995; Fernandez-Jimenez
exposed to water. Materials predominately rich in silica et a!. 1999; Brough and Atkinson 2002); rapid strength
and alumina, such as Class F fly ash, calcined clay, and gain, specifically for heat-cured AAS (Wang et a!. 1994;
ground glass, undergo a different set of reactions, referred Femandez-Jimenez et a!. 1999; Shi et a!. 2006); good dura-
collectively as geopolymerization, where the resulting bility against fire; water and chloride penetration (Douglas
binder is known as a geopolymer. Alkali-activated fly ash et a!. 1992; Wang and Scrivener 1995; Gifford and Gillott
binders using calcium-rich precursors are the most common 1996b); and chemical/sulfate attack (Bakharev et a!. 2003).
commercially available non-clinkered alternative cements. Activated slag concretes cured at ambient temperature typi-
3.1.3.1 Alkali-activated fly ash An alkali-activated fly
- cally exhibit low early strength, generally failing to exceed
ash (AAFA) cement is composed of fly ash, water, and an 1500 psi (10 MPa) after 1 day (Shi 1996; Collins and
alkali activator. The activator promotes the dissolution of Sanjayan 1999; Brough and Atkinson 2002; Oh et a!. 2010;
fly ash particles and initiates the chemical reactions leading Chi 20 12). Early strength improvement can be achieved
to the precipitation of cementitious reaction products. The using highly concentrated activators or curing at elevated
composition of the reaction products varies depending on temperatures (Bakharev et a!. 1999; Collins and Sanjayan
the composition of the fly ash and the activator used (Van 1999). Progressive strength development typically occurs
Jaarsveld et a!. 2003). Due to the heterogeneous nature of within the first 5 days of curing at ambient temperature. The
fly ash, not all fly ashes will perform similarly when alkali- later-age strength of activated slag is determined mainly by

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org cCiC'iJ

6 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18)

Table 3.1.4a-Comparison of alternative cement technologies currently commercially available

CAC CSA MOC MPC AAFA AAS
Set time relative
Rapid Rapid and expansive Same or longer Rapid Rapid Same or faster
to PC

Early faster,
High-early, good High-early, good Low early, and High early, good late Low early, good late
Strength compared to PC,
late strength late strength moderate strength strength strength
slower late strength

Good sulfate
Good sulfate Good sulfate, corro-
resistance Good fire and abra- Stable sulfate Good sulfate, acid,
Key durability resistance sian, acid, ASR,
Abrasion resistant sian resistance performance ASR, resistance
attributes Carbonation rates resistance
GoodASR Good FT resistance Good fire resistance Good fire resistance
high Good fire resistance
resistance

Conversion reac-
Carbonation Loses strength when
lions increase
affecting corrosion exposed to water at
porosity and reduce Significant heat Performance varies Performance varies
Concerns resistance early ages
strength over time evolution with fly ash source with slag source
Possible thaumasite Significant heat
Significant heat
formation evolution
evolution
Notes. Abbrevratwns used- PC. portland cement, ASR. alkali stltca reacttvtty; FT: freezmg and thawmg.

the activator type and dosage (Bakharev et a!. 1999; Collins Table 3. 1.4b-Reported applications of each
and Sanjayan 1999; Puertas et a!. 2000; Thomas et a!. 2014). alternative cement
Key obstacles for adoption of AAS materials by the Alternative cement Reported applications
construction industry are the issues of durability against
Refractory concrete, sulfate and acid
shrinkage cracking, carbonation corrosion, and alkali­ Calcium aluminate (CAC)
resistance, rapid repair
aggregate reaction (Shi et a!. 2006). Numerous studies have
Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) Structural, precast, and cold-weather
reported excessively high drying shrinkage in activated slag
Magnesium oxychloride (MOC) Patching material, wallboard
concrete, despite less severe weight loss than observed in
Nuclear waste solidification, rapid
comparable PCC (Collins and Sanjayan 2000; Melo Neto et
Magnesium phosphate (MPC) repair, fire-proof coatings, patching
a!. 2008; Duran Ati� et a!. 2009). It is also inherently suscep­ material
tible to alkali-aggregate reaction due to the high alkalinity of
Alkali-activated fly ash (AAFA) Same as PC
their pore solution as a result of the alkali activation (Gifford
Alkali-activated slag (AAS) Same as PC
and Gillott 1996a; Yang et a!. 1999; Bakharev et a!. 2001;
Lloyd et a!. 20 10).
3.1.3.3 Alkali-activated recycled glass (emerging tech­ standard for supersulfated cements was issued in 2010 (CEN
nology)-Alkali-activated glass (AAG) is considered a 15743:20 10).
geopolymer cement due to the low-calcium oxide content in 3.1.4 Summary-Table 3.1.4a provides a summary of
the glass. For use as a geopolymer, glass suffers from a very the commercially available alternative cements and key
low alumina content and an additional source of alumina properties.
must be included to achieve adequate stability in water Based on the wide variety of alternative cements consid­
(Christiansen 20 13; Redden and Neithalath 2014). Alkali­ ered in this document, the applications for each binder also
activated glass is attractive due to the wide geographic avail­ vary widely. Table 3.1.4b offers a brief overview of the type
ability of waste glass. To date, however, it has not evolved as of application that each binder has been used for in the past.
a commercially available product. Selected case studies are provided in the next section.
3.1.3.4 Supersulfated cem ent-Supersulfated cement
(SSC) consists of blast-furnace slag activated by means of CHAPTER 4-SELECTED CASE STUDIES
calcium sulfate. The cement is 80 to 85 percent slag, 10 to 15 As mentioned within this guide, long-term performance
percent anhydrite, and approximately 5 percent alkali acti­ data are limited for many alternative cements. Therefore, it is
vator, usually portland cement clinker. It was first patented important that successful applications of these new alterna­
in 1908 and later standardized in Germany, France, Belgium, tive cements be properly documented. The following points
and Great Britain (Kuhl 1908; DIN 42 10 (1959); BS 4248 should be considered to maximize the beneficial impact of
(2004)). The production of SSC increased after W WII, from each alternative cement field trial:
1940 to 1960, as a result of a portland cement shortage (a) To the extent possible, treat each placement as an
(Lea 1970). However, its production was abandoned due opportunity to gather data.
to changes in iron production, which yielded slags that did (b) Document construction and conditions, quantities of
not meet the minimum 13 percent Ah03 requirement (Lea materials used, mixture designs, mixture design testing,
1970). Supersulfated cements are attracting renewed atten­ durability testing, and fresh concrete test results.
tion due to low-C02 footprint and unique characteristics (c) As opportunities allow, document performance and
such as sulfate resistance and low heat of hydration. A new condition after placement on a regular basis using standard
approaches such as Long-Term Pavement Performance

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18) 7

(LTPP) distress surveys and International Concrete Repair

Institute (ICRI) guidelines.
(d) Make public all data through publication in journals or
other means, and use the results to guide larger demonstra­
tion projects to develop fundamental performance data.
The following sections contain selected case studies for
some of the alternative cements covered in this document.
Most of the case studies summarized here came from publi­
cations discussing the case study more thoroughly, and those
references are provided at the end of each case study. In
addition, condition surveys from five other case studies for
concretes placed using MPC, CSA, CAC, AAFA, and AAS
binders have been documented in a recent Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) Report FHWA-HRT-16-017 (Burris
et al. 201S).

4.1-Calcium aluminate cement (CAC) Fig. 4.1-Surface of the repaired runway section after instal­
Project: Airport Repaired in Cold Climate Using CAC lation of the CAC mortar (Justnes 2008).
Mortar
Alternative Cement: CAC concrete
Location: Northern Norway
Application: Bridge piers
Alternative Cement: CAC by Ciment Fondu® by Kerneos
Project Summary: Over 70 years ago, hollow bridge
Aluminate Technologies
piers in the Montrose Bridge were constructed using calcium
Application: Rapid repair material for airport runway
aluminate cement concrete. The choice to use CAC concrete
Project Summary: An airport in Northern Norway
was based on the reported durability qualities of the binder in
needed major repairs to the runway. Some of the concrete
high-sulfate soils and seawater environments. The Montrose
joints had deteriorated to the point where reinforcing bar was
Bridge was demolished in 2004, giving researchers a rare
exposed. A plan was made to use calcium aluminate cement
chance to look closely into the long-term durability perfor­
mortar to quickly repair the damaged sections overnight
mance of the CAC concrete.
(Justnes 2008). Calcium aluminate cement was selected
Analysis at Time of Demolition: A time capsule had been
for its rapid set time and its reputation for performing well
embedded in the original bridge that contained the mixture
in cold climates. The typical overnight temperature at the
design and quality control data from the CAC installation,
airport was 40°F (S0C).
including design compressive strength. These data were
Specification and Compliance Testing: Laboratory tests
useful when analyzing the existing concrete. Ten cores were
were performed in multiple phases. Initially, neat pastes
collected from one of the piers, at elevations ranging from
were developed and the temperature-setting time relation­
just below the tide line to the top of the pier. A variety of
ship of the mixture was established. Silica fume was added
tests were performed on the cores, including chloride and
to the mixture to accelerate the early-age strength gain and
sulfate depth profiles, assessment of corrosion of reinforce­
to help reduce conversion from occurring (Justnes 2008).
ment, carbonation depth, a visual and petrographic assess­
Then, mortars were made and temperature, set time, and
ment, compressive strength, oxygen permeability, hydrate
flexural and compressive strength measured to validate the
analysis, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging.
mixture was ready for placement.
Through all these analyses, the concrete was found to be
Production and Installation: The repair mortars were
well-compacted, with no evidence of corrosion found, and
mixed on-site. In addition to the calcium aluminate cement,
an extremely low carbonation depth of only 0.04 in. (1 mm)
silica fume and sand, a polycarboxylate-based high-range
measured.
water-reducing admixutre (HRWRA), lithium carbonate
As is common with CAC concretes, strength conversion
accelerator, and a sodium gluconate retarder were added.
is a normal occurrence, so it was expected that after 70
The retarder and accelerator were both used to regulate the
years in a marine environment, the entirety of the concrete
time of set to approximately 1S minutes. After removal of
would have been converted. However, it was found that a
the damaged concrete, the mortar was placed and struck off
significant difference existed between the first 0.4 in. ( 10
with a board to improve skid resistance. A finished patch is
mrn) of the concrete and the remaining bulk concrete below
shown in Fig. 4. 1. Although the site received rain during the
the surface. The bulk concrete had an average compressive
night, as well as experiencing a drop in temperature to 40oF
strength of 4000 psi (28 MPa), whereas the cores closer
(S0C), the mortar developed a compressive strength at the
to the surface averaged between 8800 to 10,100 psi (60
end of the 6-hour repair window of over S800 psi (40 MPa),
to 70 MPa). Further investigation revealed the outer layer
making the project a success (Justnes 2008).
of concrete was not converted and instead consisted of a
Project: CAC Concrete Bridge Piers Prove Durable 70
dense matrix of partially reacted CAC grains. Speculation
Years Later
as to why this outer layer remained unconverted had to do
Location: Angus, Scotland

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

8 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18)

Fig. 4.2-Very early-strength (VES) calcium sulfoaluminate Fig. 4.3a-Precast panels made of alkali AAFA and slag
(CSA) cement concrete being placed during a highway panel concrete during construction of the GCJ Building (photo
replacement in California (Ramseyer and Perez 2009). courtesy of Tom Glasby).

with a possible temperature gradient that may have formed

during hydration or a chemical reaction between the phases
present and seawater. Despite the reason, the analysis of the
Montrose Bridge demonstrated the lasting power and dura­
bility of CAC concrete in a marine environment (Fryda et
a!. 2008).

4.2-Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA)

Project: Highway Panel Replacement in California
Location: California
Alternative Cement: Very early-strength (YES) CSA
Application: Highway panel replacement
Project Summary: Very early-strength (YES) CSAs have
been used by Caltrans to replace highway panels in Cali­
fornia since 1994, as shown in Fig. 4.2. Due to the rapid
early-strength gain, along with ease of workability, YES
Fig. 4. 3b-Precast panels made of alkali-activated fy
l ash
CSA cements have become the preferred repair material
and slag concrete (photo courtesy of Tom Glasby).
to precast concrete panels or asphalt panel replacements.
An estimated 70,000 California highway panels have been
4.3-A ctivated fly ash and slag
replaced with YES concrete between 1994 and 2008.
Project: Global Change Institute (GCI) Building
Specification and Compliance Testing: Proprietary
Location: University of Queensland - Brisbane,
testing on a variety of YES cements has shown YES CSA
Queensland, Australia
cements to be among the top in performance for early-age
Alternative Cement: Wagners Earth Friendly Concrete
compressive strength gain, ultimate compressive strength,
Application: Precast floor beams
flexural strength, freezing-and-thawing resistance, drying
Project Summary: The new Global Change Institute
shrinkage, and chloride permeability. In addition, YES CSA
Building on the campus of the University of Queensland
cements have also shown good performance when it comes
Australia was constructed with the goal of showcasing the
to sulfate and alkali-silica reaction resistance.
next generation of environmental building technologies. A
Production and Installation: Production of the YES
concrete binder based on a blend of fly ash and slag that
CSA is most often done in a concrete plant or a mobile volu­
was activated by a proprietary alkali activator was used to
metric mixer. Placement of the material is very forgiving
construct thirty-three 34.5 ft (I 0.5 m)-long precast floor
due to the high water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm),
beams (Fig. 4.3a and Fig. 4.3b).
which is typically 0.47. The use of admixtures can also help
Specification and Compliance Testing: Initially, there
to improve the workability of the material. Adequate struc­
was some concern about using a 100 percent replacement
tural strength is reported within the first hour of placement
of portland cement due to the potential for issues meeting
at normal temperatures and, because of this, YES CSA can
the Standards Australian concrete structures specification
be placed very rapidly, with the record being approximately
AS3600-200 1, but due to the performance-based focus of
I 00 highway panels in 6 hours (Ramseyer and Perez 2009).
the specification, use of the alkali-activated mixture was
deemed acceptable. An independent third-party engineering

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18) 9

Fig. 4. 3c-Dump trucksfill the slip form paver with geopolymer concrete at B WWA (photo
courtesy of Tom Glasby).

Fig. 4.3d-Aerial views of geopolymer concrete installed at B WWA (photos courtesy of

Tom Glasby).

company verified the structural performance properties were increasing the curing temperature to 100°F (38°C) resulted
such that reinforced concrete design provisions put forth in accelerated strength development. The precast beams
in AS3600-200 1 would be sufficient. Compliance testing were an off-white color upon final curing (Bligh and Glasby
included compressive, flexural, and tensile strength as well 20 14).
as modulus of elasticity, drying shrinkage, creep, alkali­ Project: Brisbane West Wellcamp Airport (BW WA)
aggregate reaction resistance, fire testing, and load testing Geopolymer Pavement
of a prototype. Location: Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
The concrete performed well on all tests, only developed Alternative Cement: Wagners Earth Friendly Concrete
half of the typical 56-day drying shrinkage, and had a low Application: Airport pavements
heat of reaction along with a 30 percent higher flexural Project Summary: Cited as the world's largest
tensile strength than typical concrete. geopolymer concrete project, over 52,300 yd3 (40,000 m3)
Production and Installation: The concrete hatching of alkali-activated fly ash- and slag-based concrete were
facility allowed the mixture to be produced at their existing placed to create the turning node, apron, and taxiways at
plant. Extreme caution was used to keep the mixture from BW WA. Geopolymer concrete was designed and placed
contaminating normal concrete operations, as it would likely using a slipform paving machine, as shown in Fig. 4.3c. The
affect the set time. The dry ingredients were hatched in a duration of placement was nearly 3.5 month and the airport
concrete truck and transported to the precast plant where they opened just a few weeks after construction was completed.
were activated, placed, and finished like normal concrete. Geopolymer use was not limited to pavements. A bridge,
A proprietary HRWRA was also used. Curing was carried curbs, road barriers, precast culverts, footings, piles, pads,
out for 7 days under ambient curing conditions. Exposed median strips, and sewage tanks were all constructed using
surfaces were kept moist to prevent drying. The concrete geopolymer concrete, as shown in Fig. 4.3d.
exhibited very little tendency for bleeding and, as was noted,

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

10 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18)

Specification and Compliance Testing: Material it is understood that increased water will increase the work­
development started over 10 years prior to the BWWA ability of alternative cement concrete, there could be other
project. Test sections were placed inside a private hanger factors that limit the total water that can be added. In some
to ensure quality. Although current standards in Australia cases, the flow of the mixture may be too high and should
do not directly allow the use of geopolymer concrete, the be reduced. Understanding how to adjust workability of the
contractor obtained third-party engineering verification that alternative cement concrete mixture is a necessity.
the concrete was performing as desired. Regarding workability, the following issues should be
Production and Installation: Geopolymer concrete understood:
was mixed on-site in a twin mobile wet-mix batch plant, (a) Do water-reducing admixtures have the same effect
where liquid activators were mixed with dry materials. This with the selected alternative cement concrete as they do with
method allowed for a continuous feed of concrete to the slip­ PCC?
form paving machine. The use of slipforming, not typically (b) Are there compatibility issues between specific water
used in Australian airport construction, allowed an estimated reducers and the alternative cement that is being considered?
30 percent time reduction for pavement work, providing a (c) Are high-range water reducers recommended or
much more efficient method of placement. The alkali-acti­ needed?
vated concrete exhibited very little propensity for bleeding, (d) Is there any means to decrease the flowability?
and care was taken to maintain a moist surface on exposed (e) If workability is determined by the alternative cement
slabs; an alkaline anti-evaporation spray was developed and formulation, how is the needed workability specified? Are
used to maintain moisture over such a large surface area. The the existing tests for PCC flowability or slump used?
concrete had negligible shrinkage (Glasby et a!. 20 15). (f) How long can a given workability be retained, the
equivalent of slump retention in PCC, and can the time for
CHAPTER 5-GUlDELINES FOR USE placement and finishing be extended through using admix­
To use alternative cements safely and effectively as a tures or other means?
replacement for portland cement, consideration is required Are there aggregate issues to consider? Generally, alter­
for how these new technologies differ from conventional native cements are compatible with natural aggregate mate­
PCC technology. Often, the differences are minor and rials and, in some cases, alternative cements are used to
easily accommodated. In some cases, the differences could produce manufactured aggregates. It is important to verify
be significant, resulting in delays in construction or more aggregate performance through test mixtures. One poten­
serious concerns such as unacceptable performance that tial issue is the quality of the paste-aggregate bond for a
could result in cost overruns or other unforeseen risks. In specific combination of alternative cement and aggregate,
the worst case, life-safety issues could result if the concrete which could impact strength and permeability. Likewise,
produced does not meet the necessary design specifications. it is important to identify if the alternative cement accentu­
Discussed below are questions to be considered before ates ASR and, if so, reactive aggregates would need to be
designing or constructing with an alternative cement. This avoided. Obviously, aggregate shape and gradation impact
list is not intended to be all-inclusive or address all ques­ workability, and test mixtures should be prepared using the
tions and concerns. This list is provided to help establish a job mixture aggregate source and gradation when consid­
dialog with knowledgeable experts prior to specifying an ering adjustments to the paste fraction to affect workability.
alternative cement or working with an alternative cement in Do conventional admixtures work the same as with
construction. In all cases, the user or concrete producer will PCC and are they needed? It is important to understand
need to develop test mixtures to confirm key properties as what admixtures can or cannot be used as well as admix­
is currently done when approving PCC mixtures for use in ture combinations that should be avoided. In many cases,
construction. conventional admixtures function the same with alternative
cements as they do with portland cement concrete, but this
5.1-Mixture design should be confirmed with the producer and verified through
How is strength controlled? In normal PCC, strength can test mixtures.
be affected by changing the water-cement ratio (w/c) of the How does the alternative cement concrete compare
concrete mixture. With some alternative cements, there is with PCC in terms of permeability and how is perme­
a similar interrelation between w!c and strength, but with ability controlled and measured? With PCC, paste perme­
others, water serves only as a medium for the reaction and ability is strongly affected by w/c. Does this relationship
simply does not directly affect strength. In many cases, the hold true with an alternative cement? If not, how can the
ultimate strength is determined by the formulation of the user affect permeability? In general, how does the alterna­
alternative cement. In cases where w!c does affect strength, tive cement permeability compare to PCC? Can perme­
the user should seek guidance from the cement producer on ability be measured by conventional tests such as sorptivity
the range of w/c that can be realistically used and the corre­ or the rapid chloride penetration test? Generally, the user
sponding effect on strength. should consult the cement producer regarding approaches to
How is workability controlled? There is an indirect adjusting permeability.
linkage between strength and workability for PCC because How does the alternative cement concrete perform in
of the dependence on w!c for establishing strength. Although exposure to freezing and thawing? In many cases, alter-

(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18) 11

native cement pastes are less permeable than portland a non-Newtonian fluid, concrete has a nonlinear relationship
cement paste. For the cement paste portion of the concrete, between shear rate and shear stress. Changing the properties
this should lead to an increased level resistance to freezing of cement fraction of a concrete could significantly impact
and thawing. As with other properties, this should be veri­ the response to vibration. This should be tested in advance to
fied through test mixtures and testing. The current PCC identify any consolidation methods that might affect place­
test (ASTM C666/C666M) may or may not be applicable, ability or lead to segregation.
as some alternative cements cannot be cured in accordance How does the finishing window change? Finishing
with the test method. Also, the test is severe and does not concrete, including sawing, is a matter of correct timing.
mimic real exposure. The concrete industry has experience Given the range of set times observed for alternative
correlating the results of this test with field performance for cements, be sure to understand the length of the finishing
PCC mixtures. The same level of experience currently does window, which will impact overall concrete production and
not exist with alternative cement concretes. Therefore, resis­ placement rates.
tance to freezing and thawing is best established through Are there worker safety concerns? Like portland cement
field testing. It is important to consult with the producer reactions, alternative cement reactions are exothermic,
or examine other applications to establish the resistance to meaning they give off heat as they set. In some cases, the
freezing and thawing for the mixture. heat evolution with alternative cements is significant and
Another question centers on the need for air entrainment. could cause bums if the concrete comes in contact with a
If the paste is significantly lower in permeability, is air worker. Likewise, alkali-activated materials use activators
entrainment needed? In most construction where resistance that are highly caustic and could cause severe chemical
to freezing and thawing is an issue, the air content is speci­ burns. Proper safety equipment is required to work with these
fied. If air is not needed with a specific alternative cement materials and proper safety precautions must be enforced.
and a given exposure, entraining air could lead to strength What are the required curing procedures ? It is well
reduction while not entraining air could lead to issues with known that curing is a critical step in producing quality
contract compliance. If air entrainment is used, it is impor­ PCC. It is no different with an alternative cement concrete;
tant to determine which air-entraining agents are effective proper curing is required. However, unlike PCC, curing an
and which, if any, are not. Resistance to freezing and thawing alternative cement concrete could provide unique challenges
is an area where the functional performance of alternative that must be understood prior to specifying the material.
cement concrete mixtures needs more investigation. Although some alternative cements require the same wet
Are the alternative cement or the materials needed to curing as used with PCC, many will require heat curing,
produce the alternative cement available locally? Many and possibly, a C02 atmosphere. Steam may be required to
alternative cements require special materials to produce, provide the necessary heat, which requires special equip­
whether they are specifically processed for the alternative ment. Another factor is the curing time. For PCC, the tradi­
cement or an industrial waste material. In any case, the avail­ tional 7-day wet cure is understood. With some alternative
ability of the materials will not likely be as prevalent as port­ cement concrete, the curing times could be a day or less.
land cement concrete and costs to transport the alternative This is a positive impact because reduced curing times can
cement may be significant. help to increase placement and production. Overall, curing is
one of the more important factors to fully understand prior to
5.2-Construction specifying an alternative cement concrete, as it can affect the
Can the alternative cement concrete be mixed in the project drastically in either a positive or negative manner.
same size batches as PCC, and with the same mixer? The What is the rate of strength gain ? Related to curing is
set time of an alternative cement concrete can vary signifi­ the rate of strength development. For vertical construction,
cantly from that of PCC. Therefore, the size of the batch where moving forms is critical to production rates, strength
that can be mixed and placed may also vary. It is important development is key. Most alternative cements are character­
to establish the maximum batch sizes that can be prepared ized by a rapid rate of strength development relative to port­
while still allowing time to place and finish the concrete. land cement. This is a performance factor to verify through
Related to this, be sure to understand the mixing time and testing, but the alternative cement producer can provide
procedures required. These factors will affect production general times that will allow the engineer to determine how
rates of alternative cement concrete in comparison to PCC. using the alternative cement will affect production. Although
Are there issues with segregation when placing or the rate of strength gain is only one factor, it can be a signifi­
vibrating? It is likely that an alternative cement paste will cant one.
have a different viscosity than a portland cement paste and, Related to strength development, understanding the effect
therefore, it is reasonable to ask the producer if aggregate of ambient temperature is important. Both hot-and cold­
segregation could occur. The producer will be able to provide weather placements will limit what can be done with any
guidance in this area. As with other admixtures, the perfor­ cementitious system. In short, a maximum and minimum
mance of a viscosity modifier should be evaluated prior mixture temperature should be determined if the concrete is
to use. Do not take for granted that an alternative cement being placed in a climate with extremely hot conditions, cold
concrete responds to vibration in a manner like PCC. Being conditions, or both.

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

12 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18)

5.3-Design properties to actual on-site implementation, making long-term perfor­

The last category of factors is clearly the most impor­ mance data unavailable or difficult to find. With more expe­
tant but also represents the biggest challenge to alternative rience, the necessary design information will be obtained
cement use. That is, obtaining the needed material design and alternative cement concrete will be increasingly used as
properties. There are numerous concrete properties that an alternative for PCC in a broader array of applications.
should be established to design with an alternative cement.
Examples not already addressed include : CHAPTER 7-RE FERENCES
(a) Compressive strength (including strength gain/degra- Committee documents are listed first by document number
dation with time) and year of publication followed by authored documents
(b) Stiffness (elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio) listed alphabetically.
(c) Volumetric expansion
(d) Ductility (toughness) ASTM International
(e) Tensile strength ASTM C666/C666M- 15-Standard Test Method for
(f) Temperature effects (strength degradation, coefficient Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
of thermal expansion)
(g) Time-dependent properties (shrinkage/creep) British Standards Institution
(h) Bond BS 4248 (2004)--Specification for Supersulfated Cement
(i) Durability
(j) Resistance to fluid transport German Institute of Standardization
(k) Resistance to sulfate attack DIN 42 10 ( 1959)-Sulfathiittenzement. Deutsches Institut
(I) Resistance to acids, chemical attack fur Normung e. V. (withdrawn 1970)
(m) Resistance to alkali-aggregate reaction
The challenges are that most of these properties are not Authored documents
easily or quickly measured and in many cases, there are no Bakharev, T.; Sanjayan, J. G.; and Cheng, Y. B., 1999,
standard tests, or the applicability of existing tests has not "Effect of Elevated Temperature Curing on Properties of
been demonstrated. Additionally, in most cases, it has not Alkali-Activated Slag Concrete," Cement and Concrete
been demonstrated that existing design methods apply when Research, V. 29, No. 10, pp. 16 19- 1625. doi: 10.1016/
using alternative cements. An early adopter of an alternative S0008-8846(99)00 143-X
cement is faced with determining these properties before Bakharev, T.; Sanjayan, J. G.; and Cheng, Y. B., 2001,
proceeding with a design, as was described briefly in some "Resistance of Alkali-Activated Slag Concrete to Alkali­
of the case studies presented. Given these challenges, it is Aggregate Reaction," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 31,
likely that alternative cements will be used initially in appli­ No. 2, pp. 331-334. doi: 10. 1016/S0008-8846(00)00483-X
cations where life safety is not an issue or long-term dura­ Bakharev, T.; Sanjayan, J. G.; and Cheng, Y. B., 2003,
bility is not required. As the industry gains experience with "Resistance of Alkali-Activated Slag Concrete to Acid
alternative cements, knowledge of the necessary material Attack," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 33, No. 10, pp.
design properties will be amassed and alternative cements 1607-16 1 1. doi: 10. 1016/S0008-8846(03)00125-X
will be used in more applications where at one time only Beaudoin, J. J., and Ramachandran, V. S., 1975, "Strength
PCCs could be used. Development in Magnesium Oxychloride and Other
Cements," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 5, No. 6, pp.
CHAPTER 6-SUMMARY 617-630. doi: 10. 1016/0008-8846(75)90062-9
Alternative cements present an exciting opportunity for Bligh, R., and Glasby, T., 20 14, "Development of
construction. These cements have a lower carbon footprint Geopolymer Precast Floor Panels for the Global Change
and embodied energy than portland cement and, therefore Institute at University of Queensland," ASEC 2014-Struc­
offer new opportunities to improve the sustainability of tural Engineering in Australasia-World Standard Confer­
construction. In many cases, these cements provide enhanced ence, Christchurch, New Zealand, July.
performance over portland cement. There are numerous Brough, A. R., and Atkinson, A., 2002, "Sodium Silicate­
alternative cement technologies available; some are Based, Alkali-Activated Slag Mortars: Part !-Strength,
commercially available and have been used in many appli­ Hydration and Microstructure," Cement and Concrete
cations while some are still in development. Anyone electing Research, V. 32, No. 6, pp. 865-879. doi: 10.1016/
to use an alternative cement concrete needs to examine how S0008-8846(02)007 17-2
that material compares to PCC. In other words, establish Burris, L.; Kurtis, K.; and Morton, T. , 2015, "Novel Alter­
the functional equivalence. In some applications, the alter­ native Cementitious Materials for Development of the Next
native cement concrete can be used as a direct replacement Generation of Sustainable Transportation Infrastructure,"
for PCC. In more demanding applications, where either life Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 40 pp.
safety is at stake or long-term durability is required, the user Chatterjee, A. K., 1996, "High Belite Cements-Present
will likely need to perform a significant amount of testing Status and Future Technological Options: Part I," Cement
prior to design or construction. Some alternative cements and Concrete Research, V. 26, No. 8, pp. 1213-1225. doi:
are fairly new compared to PCC and have had less exposure 10.1016/0008-8846(96)00099-3

(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18) 13

Chi, M., 20 12, "Effects of Dosage of Alkali-Activated Gifford, P. M., and Gillott, J. E., 1996a, "Freeze-Thaw
Solution and Curing Conditions on the Properties and Dura­ Durability of Activated Blast Furnace Slag Cement
bility of Alkali-Activated Slag Concrete," Construction Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, V. 93, No. 3, May-June,
& Building Materials, V. 35, pp. 240-245. doi: 10.10 16/j. pp. 242-245.
conbuildmat.20 12.04.005 Gifford, P. M., and Gillott, J. E., 1996b, "Alkali-Silica
Christiansen, M. U., 20 13, "An Investigation of Waste Reaction (ASR) and Alkali-Carbonate Reaction (ACR) in
Glass-Based Geopolymers Supplemented with Alumina," Activated Blast Furnace Slag Cement (ABFSC) Concrete,"
PhD in Civil Engineering, Department of Civil and Envi­ Cement and Concrete Research, V. 26, No. 1, pp. 21-26. doi:
ronmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University. 10. 1016/0008-8846(95)00182-4
Cole, W. F., and Demediuk, T., 1955, "X-Ray, Thermal Glasby, T.; Day, J.; Genrich, R.; and Aldred, J., 2015,
and Dehydration Studies on Magnesium Oxychlorides," Geopolymer Concrete Aircraft Pavements at Brisbane West
Australian Journal of Chemistry, V. 8, No. 2, pp. 234-251. Wellcamp Airport, Concrete 2015 Conference, Melbourne,
doi: 10.1071/CH9550234 Australia.
Collins, F. G., and Sanjayan, J. G., 1999, "Workability and Hardjito, D.; Wallah, D. M.; Sumajouw, J.; and Rangan,
Mechanical Properties of Alkali- Activated Slag Concrete," B. V., 2004, "On the Development of Fly Ash-Based
Cement and Concrete Research, V. 29, No. 3, pp. 455-458. Geopolymer Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, V. 101, No.
doi: 10.10 16/S0008-8846(98)00236-l 6, Nov.-Dec., pp. 467-472.
Collins, F. G., and Sanjayan, J. G., 2000, "Cracking Justnes, H., 2008, "Rapid Repair of Airfield Runway in
Tendency of Alkali-Activated Slag Concrete Subjected to Cold Weather Using CAC Mortar," Calcium Aluminate
Restrained Shrinkage," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 30, Cements: Centenary Conference 2008, IHS BRE Press.
No. 5, pp. 791-798. doi: 10. 1016/S0008-8846(00)00243-X Klein, A., 1966, "Expansive and Shrinkage-Compensated
DeCristofaro, N.; Meyer, V.; Sahu, S.; Bryant, J.; and Cements," U.S. Patent No. 3251701.
Moro, F., 20 17, "Environmental Impact of Carbonated Kuhl, H., 1908, "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Zement
Calcium Silicate Cement-Based Concrete," Proceedings of aus Hochofenschlacke," Germany Patent No. 237777.
the 1st International Conference on Construction Materials Lea, F. M., 1970, The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete,
for Sustainable Future, Zadar, Croatia, Apr. 19-21, 9 pp. London, Edward Arnold Publish Ltd.
Diaz-Loya, E. 1.; Allouche, E. N.; and Vaidya, S., 201 1, Lloyd, R. R.; Provis, J. L.; and van Deventer, J. S. J.,
"Mechanical Properties of Fly-Ash-Based Geopolymer 20 10, "Pore Solution Composition and Alkali Diffusion
Concrete," ACIMaterials Journal, V. 108, No. 3, pp. 300-306. in Inorganic Polymer Cement," Cement and Concrete
Douglas, E.; Bilodeau, A.; and Malhotra, V. M., 1992, Research, V. 40, No. 9, pp. 1386-1392. doi: 10.1016/j.
"Properties and Durability of Alkali-Activated Slag cemconres.20 10.04.008
Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, V. 89, No. 5, pp. 509-516. Lu, H. P.; Wang, P. L.; and Jiang, N. X., 1994, "Design
Douglas, E., and Brandstetr, J., 1990, "A Preliminary of Additives for Water-Resistant Magnesium Oxychloride
Study on the Alkali Activation of Ground Granulated Blast­ Cement Using Pattern Recognition," Materials Letters, V. 20,
Furnace Slag," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 20, No. 5, No. 3-4, pp. 2 17-223. doi: 10. 1016/0167-577X(94)90090-6
pp. 746-756. doi: 10.10 16/0008-8846(90)90008-L Melo Neto, A. A.; Cincotto, M. A.; and Repette, W.,
Duran Ati�, C.; Bilim, C.; (:elik, 0.; and Karahan, 0., 2008, "Drying and Autogenous Shrinkage of Pastes and
2009, "Influence of Activator on the Strength and Drying Mortars with Activated Slag Cement," Cement and Concrete
Shrinkage of Alkali-Activated Slag Mortar," Construc­ Research, V. 38, No. 4, pp. 565-574. doi : 10.1016/j.
tion & Building Materials, V. 23, No. 1, pp. 548-555. doi: cemconres.2007. 11.002
10.10 16/j.conbuildmat.2007. 10.0 11 Misra, A. K., and Mathur, R., 2007, "Magnesium Oxychlo­
Fernandez-Jimenez, A., and Palomo, A., 2003, "Activating ride Cement Concrete," Bulletin of Materials Science, V. 30,
FLY-Ashes: Enlarging the Concept of Cementitious Mate­ No. 3, pp. 239-246. doi: 10.1007/sl 2034-007-0043-4
rial," Role of Concrete in Sustainable Development - Interna­ Newman, E. S.; Gilfrich, J. V.; and Wells, L. S., 1952,
tional Symposium Celebrating Concrete: People and Practice, "Heat Generation in the Setting of Magnesium Oxychlo­
Dundee, UK, Thomas Telford Services Ltd., London. ride Cements," Journal of Research of the National Bureau
Fernandez-Jimenez, A.; Palomo, A.; and Lopez-Bomb­ of Standards, V. 49, No. 6, pp. 377-383. doi: 10.6028/
rados, C., 2006, "Engineering Properties of Alkali-Activated jres.049.040
Fly Ash Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, V. 103, No. 2, Oh, J. E.; Monteiro, P. J. M.; Jun, S. S.; Choi, S.; and
Mar.-Apr., pp. 106- 112. Clark, S. M., 20 10, "The Evolution of Strength and Crystal­
Fernandez-Jimenez, A.; Palomo, J. G.; and Puertas, F., line Phases for Alkali-Activated Ground Blast Furnace Slag
1999, "Alkali-Activated Slag Mortars: Mechanical Strength and Fly Ash-Based Geopolymers," Cement and Concrete
Behaviour," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 29, No. 8, Research, V. 40, No. 2, pp. 189-196. doi: 10.1016/j.
pp. 13 13- 1321. doi: 10. 1016/S0008-8846(99)00154-4 cemconres.2009. 10.010
Fryda, H.; Lamberet, S.; and Dunster, A., 2008, "Calcium Palomo, A., and Lopez dela Fuente, J. 1., 2003, "Alkali­
Aluminate Cement Concrete in an Old Marine Structure," Activated Cementitious Materials: Alternative Matrices for
Calcium Aluminate Cements: Centenary Conference 2008, the Immobilization of Hazardous Wastes-Part I, Stabiliza-
France, IHS BRE Press 2008.

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

14 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDE FOR ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS (ACI ITG-10R-18)

tion of Boron," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 33, No. Cements," l Oth International Congress on the Chemistry of
2, pp. 285-295. Cement, Paper No. 4iv029, Gothenburg, Sweden, June 2-6,
Phair, J. W., 2006, "Green Chemistry for Sustainable 12 pp.
Cement Production and Use," Green Chemistry, V. 8, No. 9, Thomas, R. J.; Howe, A.; and Peethamparan, S., 2014,
pp. 763-780. doi : 10.1039/b603997a "Alkali-Activated Cement-Free Concrete : Development of
Puertas, F.; Martinez-Ramirez, S.; Alonso, S.; and Practical Mixtures for Construction," 93rd Annual Meeting
Vazquez, T., 2000, "Alkali-Activated Fly Ash/Slag Cements: of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, Jan.
Strength Behaviour and Hydration Products," Cement and 12- 16.
Concrete Research, V. 30, No. 10, pp. 1625-1632. doi: Valek, J.; Hughes, J. J.; and Groot, C., eds., 2012, Historic
10.10 16/S0008-8846(00)00298-2 Mortars-Characterization, Assessment and Repair,
Quillin, K., 200 1, "Performance of Belite-Sulfoaluminate RILEM, Paris, France, Springer Science & Business Media.
Cements," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 3 1, No. 9, pp. Van Jaarsveld, J. G. S.; Van Deventer, J. S. J.; and Lukey,
1341- 1349. doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(0 1)00543-9 G. C., 2003, "The Characterisation of Source Materials in
Ramseyer, C., and Perez, V., 2009, "Highway Panel Fly Ash-Based Geopolymers," Materials Letters, V. 57, No.
Replacement-CSA Concrete in California," Proceedings, 7, pp. 1272- 1280. doi: 10. 1016/S0 167-577X(02)00971-0
National Conference on Preservation, Repair, and Rehabili­ Wang, S., and Scrivener, K. L., 1995, "Hydration
tation of Concrete Pavements, St. Louis, MO, U.S. Depart­ Products of Alkali-Activated Slag Cement," Cement
ment of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, and Concrete Research, V. 25, No. 3, pp. 561-571. doi:
Board, Washington, DC, Apr., 9 pp. 10. 1016/0008-8846(95)00045-E
Redden, R., and Neithalath, N., 2014, "Microstructure, Wang, S.; Scrivener, K. L.; and Pratt, P. L., 1994, "Factors
Strength, and Moisture Stability of Alkali-Activated Glass Affecting the Strength of Alkali-Activated Slag," Cement
Powder-Based Binders," Cement and Concrete Composites, and Concrete Research, V. 24, No. 6, pp. 1033-1043. doi :
V. 45, pp. 46-56. doi: 10. 1016/j.cemconcomp.20 13.09.011 10.1016/0008-8846(94)90026-4
Scrivener, K. L., and Capmas, A., 2003, "Calcium Alumi­ Wastiels, J.; Wu, X.; Faignet, S.; and Patfoort, G., 1994,
nate Cements," Lea :S Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, "Mineral Polymer- Based on Fly Ash," The Journal of
fourth edition, P. C. Hewlett, ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Resource Management and Technology, V. 22, pp. 135-141.
Oxford, pp. 7 13-782. Yadav, R. N.; Gupta, P.; Chandrawat, M. P. S.; Dagar, N.;
Shi, C., 1996, "Strength, Pore Structure and Permeability and Yadav, R., 2012, "Effect of Temperature of Gauging
of Alkali-Activated Slag Mortars," Cement and Concrete Solution on Setting Characteristics and Moisture Ingress
Research, V. 26, No. 12, pp. 1789-1799. doi: 10.10 16/ of Magnesium Oxychloride Cement - An Eco-Friendly
S0008-8846(96)00174-3 Cement," Journal of Current Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Shi, C.; Krivenko, P.; and Roy, D. M., 2006, Alkali-Acti­ Sciences, V. 2, No. 3, pp. 149- 156.
vated Cements and Concretes, Taylor & Francis Group, Yadav, R. N.; Singh, U.; Gupta, P.; and Sharma, M.,
Abingdon, UK. 2013, "Influence of lnert Filler on Cementing Properties of
Sofi, M.; van Deventer, J. S. J.; Mendis, P. A.; and Lukey, Magnesium Oxychloride Cement MOC With MOC Friendly
G. C., 2007, "Engineering Properties of Inorganic Polymer Cement," Indian Journal of Applied Research, V. 3, No. 1,
Concretes (IPCs)," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 37, pp. 1-3.
No. 2, pp. 25 1-257. doi: 10.10 16/j.cemconres.2006. 10.008 Yang, C.; Pu, X.; and Wu, F., 1999, "Studies on Alkali­
Sorel, S., 1867, "On a New Magnesium Cement," Comptes Silica Reaction (ASR) Expansions of Alkali- Activated Slag
Rendus -Academie des Sciences, France, V. 65, pp. 102- 104. Cement Mortars," 2nd International Conference on Alkaline
Su, M.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, L.; and Li, D., 1997, "Prelimi­ Cements and Concretes, P. V. Krivenko, ed., Kiev, Ukraine,
nary Study on the Durability of Sulfo/Ferroaluminate pp. 101- 108.

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

 ®
•

OCI
 ®
•

OCI
 American Concrete Institute
Always advancing

As ACI begins its second century of advancing concrete knowledge, its original chartered purpose
remains "to provide a comradeship in finding the best ways to do concrete work of all kinds and in
spreading knowledge." In keeping with this purpose, ACI supports the following activities:

Technical committees that produce consensus reports, guides, specifications, and codes.

Spring and fall conventions to facilitate the work of its committees.

Educational seminars that disseminate reliable information on concrete.

Certification programs for personnel employed within the concrete industry.

Student programs such as scholarships, internships, and competitions.

Sponsoring and co-sponsoring international conferences and symposia.

Formal coordination with several international concrete related societies.

Periodicals: the ACI Structural Journal, Materials Journal, and Concrete International.

Benefits of membership include a subscription to Concrete International and to an ACI Journal. ACI
members receive discounts of up to 40% on all ACI products and services, including documents, seminars
and convention registration fees.

As a member of ACI, you join thousands of practitioners and professionals worldwide who share
a commitment to maintain the highest industry standards for concrete technology, construction,
and practices. In addition, ACI chapters provide opportunities for interaction of professionals and
practitioners at a local level to discuss and share concrete knowledge and fellowship.

American Concrete Institute

38800 Country Club Drive
Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Phone: +1.248.848.3700
Fax: +1.248.848.3701
www.concrete.org
American Concrete Institute
Always advancing

38800 Country C l u b Drive

Farmington H i l l s , Ml 48331 USA

+1 . 248.848.3700

www.con crete.org

The A m e r i c a n C o n c rete I n stitute (AC I ) is a l e a d i n g a utho rity a n d resou rce

worldwide for the deve l o p m e nt a n d d i stri bution of c o n s e n s u s-based

sta n d a rd s a n d tec h n i c a l reso u rces, ed ucati o n a l pro g r a m s , and certifi cati o n s

for i n d ivid u a l s a n d o rga n i zati o n s i nvo lved i n c o n c rete d es i g n , c o n st r u ct i o n ,

a n d materia l s , w h o s h a re a co m m itment to p u rs u i n g the best u s e o f c o n crete.

I n d ivi d u a l s i nterested in the a ctivities of ACI a re e n c o u ra g e d to explore the

ACI website fo r m e m b e rs h i p o p p o rtu n ities, c o m m ittee activities, and a wide

va ri ety of c o n crete reso u rces. As a vo l u nteer m e m be r-d riven o rg a n izati o n ,

A C I i nvites p a rt n e rs h i p s a n d w e l c o m e s a l l con crete p rofess i o n a l s w h o w i s h to

be p a rt of a res pecte d , c o n n ecte d , soc i a l g ro u p t h at p rovides a n op portu n ity

for p rofessi o n a l g rowth, n etwo r k i n g a n d e nj oy m e nt.

9 1ij�Jl�ll lll�ll�ll l