5.

Religion:

Anthropological approaches to the study of religion (evolutionary, psychological and functional);

monotheism and polytheism;
sacred and profane;
myths and rituals;
forms of religion in tribal and peasant societies (animism, animatism, fetishism, naturism and totemism);
religion, magic and science distinguished;
magico- religious functionaries (priest, shaman, medicine man, sorcerer and witch).

Definition of Religion
EB Tylor: Religion is belief in Supernatural beings.

According to Spiro Religion is an institution consisting of culturally patterned interaction with culturally postulated superhuman
beings.
Emile Durkheim: A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things.
Approaches to the study of Religion:

Evolutionary Approach:

Edward Burnett Tylor, in his book Primitive Culture  

Animism: Human life : Sleep, Dream and Death. In trying to provide meaning to these, man came up with the concept of
soul, which is of two types: Free soul and Body soul.
Free soul can leave the body anytime and can comeback which is the reason for dream.  
Body soul once left cannot come back which is the reason for death. But after leaving the body, it can inhabit any
objects. This gave rise to Ancestor worship.
With Ancestors increasing generation after generation this led to Polytheism and subsequently monotheism. 

Savagery Animism, Fetishism

Barbarism Polytheism

Civilization Monotheism

Animism -> fetishism -> Polytheism  -> Monotheism  

Auguste Comte, usually considered the father of modern sociology, in his 'The Positive Philosophy'  has given three
stages in the evolution of human thinking. 
According to him, the three stages passed by human thinking are :
1. Theological or Fictitious stage: The thinking at this stage lacks any logic and scientific outlook.The primitive man
unable to discover the natural causes for such various happenings, attributes them to imaginary or divine forces.
Comte classifies theological stage into three more stages: 
Fetishism
Polytheism
Monotheism
2. Metaphysical or Abstract stage: With gradual improvement in thinking, human problems also became more
complex and theological thinking was not adequate to tackle these problems. Metaphysical thinking was invented to
resolve this. Under metaphysical thinking , it is believed that an abstract power or force guides and determines the
events in the world. It discards the belief in existence of God. 
3. Scientific or Positive stage: All of metaphysical knowledge is based on speculation and is at best inferential. Man
is not satisfied with these mere guess work. The modern thinking of scientific enquiry based on facts and these facts
are gathered by observation and experience. The facts help to generalize and draw conclusions and these
conclusions are subject to validation and once validated, these facts become established laws. The scientific thinking
is thoroughly rational and when rationality exists, there is no place for superstition.
Psychological Approach:
 Represented by Sigmund Freud and Robert Marret, Psychological Approaches are with view that religion started as a
psychological response to the various aspects that are characterized by emotional overtones. These emotional
aspects act as a anchor in giving religion a rationale for its existence. 
They are also known as emotional theories and believed that religion originated from fears, Fetishism or Animatism.
According to Sigmund Freud, the father of Psychoanalysis : A child regards his father as a symbol of absolute
power. As the child grows, the fathers ability to fulfill the needs of child decreases and Religion originates from the
belief in a cosmic father or God to fill the vacuum created by Biological father.
Functional Approach to the study of Religion:
Represented by Emile Durkheim and Max weber, the functional approaches of religion are basically taken by the
scholars to explain the role of religion in the life of the individual and the society.
Continuance of Social Group: Emile Durkheim in his book "Elementary forms of Religion" treated the totem as
symbolic of god,he inferred that the god is personification of the clan. All the objects of religious worship symbolize
social relationships and, indeed, play an important role in the continuance of the social group.
Religion Controls and affects Economic Life: Max Weber was of view that religion influences the economic system
of the believers. Capitalism grew in protestant nations like the USA but not in Italy where there was catholic
population.
Malinowski : He explained functional aspect of religion with reference to Trobriand Islanders, that religion is
intimately connected with various emotional states of individuals. Ex: Trobriand islanders used magical and religious
practices when they were fishing in the dangerous open seas, but not when they were in calm lagoons. Thus
according to him magic symbolizes the triumph(Victory) of hope over fear.
Radcliff Brown: Religion functions as a feeling of individual dependence on society and makes him adhere to
societal norms.

 Rituals
Ritual is a service which involves a series of actions performed in affixed order in a particular situation, because it is their custom
to do so.
Origin: According to Emile Durkheim Totemism is the origin of religion and rituals are communication acts between people and
Totem/ God.
Significance of rituals:

Avoid Negatives: protect their village from crisis, illness, bad luck, omens, drought, scarcity of food and water,
gynecological troubles, difficulties and severe physical injuries.
Postive reasons: Reproduction, Well being, good crop.

Characteristics:

Belief system: All rituals are dependent upon some belief system for their complete meaning. 
Bind religious community together with a belief. Members of any religion may have different beliefs, but it is the
common religious rituals that give them a we feeling, a unity, togetherness.
Formalism: ritual uses a set of expressions in an organized and limited manner; anthropologists call it“restricted code”. Ex:
use of particular language while reading the holy book like Bible or Quran or Bhagvad Geeta or while reciting phrases or
prayers, mantras
Traditionalism: rituals follow tradition and generally repeat the historical actions, practices. .Rituals reflect tradition, history
and shows how humans have adapted, modified and absorbed these rituals.
Variation of rituals: Variation of rituals can be seen cross culturally and within culture too.
Ex: some rituals are preserved for priests in hinduism.
Gaya shraddha performed by Gayawal Brahmins.
Myths emerged from religion: According to James Frazer myths emerged out of rituals during natural process of religious
evolution . 
Magic(rituals based on magic) -> Religion -> Science
Myths changed over time but rituals remained constant.

Functions:

Rituals gives social control

Satisfy psychological needs
Maintains past-historical essence

Myths
 Greek word Mythos means fiction
Myth is defined as stories that represent a serious quest for an understanding and explanation of life and nature - Franz Boas

Characteristics:

Existed in every society and within society they exist in all spheres.
Myths are culture specific. For non members they may be irrelevant.
A societies Myths reflect self image of that society.

Functional theory:

Emile Durkheim explained myth based on the value a myth has for society.
A Myth can serve social functions like justifying social order.
Ex: Malinowski study of Pig clan and Dog clans in Trobriand Islanders provides explanations for the existing and changed
hierarchy
Ex: Purushasukta Myth justifies Varna system hierarchy
Myths are more than speculation of origin of things.
It is a device of education and learning of cultural and religious maintenance.

Structural Analysis of myth

Study of Myth: For Example, in his book ''The structural Study of Myth"  Levi-Strauss took various versions of Oedipus
myth. He Mentions myth is not to be read as a story, but must be broken down into its basic units i.e. mythemes and then
the relationship between these mythemes must be examined.
Examining the myths of different cultures, Levis Strauss shows that one tale can be converted into another through series of
simple operations. 
Converting the positive element of a myth into its negative
Reversing the order of elements
Replacing a male hero with a female hero
Preserve certain key elemets
Through these operations different myths can be proved to be constructed on a common structure
Cindrella a well known tale can be converted into "Ash Boy" with series of contrasts
Cindrelle -> Hero gender chnage -> Some binary opposition changes -> Ashboy

Monotheism and Polytheism

Monotheism:

Monotheism is a belief in the existence of one single God, or in the oneness of God
Among modern religions,monotheism characterizes the traditions of Christianity,Judaism and Islam and elements of this
belief are apparent in numerous religions
E.B Tylor(1832-1917) who is commonly considered the father of modern anthropology, expounded in his book ''Primitive
Culture'  the thesis that Monotheism is the final evolved form of religion with evolution following : Animism -> fetishism -
> Polytheism  -> Monotheism  
Criticism: Monotheism runs into difficulties in trying to answer the questions concerning, the origin of evil in a universe
under the Government of one God
Basic Monotheism :
The God of monotheism is the one god that is believed to exist
His essence and character are believed to be unique and fundamentally different from all other beings that can be
considered more or less comparable Ex: Gods of other religion, Demons.
God of Monotheism is conceived of as the creator of the world and man; he has not abandoned his creation but
continues to lead it through his power and wisdom
Exclusive Monotheism:
Only one God exits; other gods either simply do not exist at all, or, at most, they are false gods or demons; beings
that are acknowledged to exist but that cannot be compared in power or any other way with the one and only one
God.
This position is in Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
There are two types of exclusive monotheism: Ethical Monotheism and Intellectual Monotheism.
Ethical Monotheism: People choose one God who they think as supreme Ex: Shaivas and Vaishnavas in hinduism
 Intellectual Monotheism: One God is the logical result of questions concerning the origin of life Ex: Brahma is
Considered to be the origin of world according to ''Divine Theory''
Pluriform Monotheism
The various gods without loosing their independence, are at the same time considered to be manifestations of one
and the same divine substance.
Ex: Dasavatar concept in Hinduism 
Neur tribe of eastern Sudan consider 'Kwoth' , the Neur term of spirit. Kwoth is invisible and omnipresent. Kwoth
exists in many forms. A sacrifice to any form reaches the Kwoth
Religious Dualism
Believing in one representative for all the Good in the world and other representative for all the evil in the world.
Ex: Jesus and satan in Christianity
Ex: In Greek Mythology 'Zeus' whom they consider as supreme God was believed to have two sons 
Apollo - God of Reason, represents logical, rational and Benevolent and
Dionysus- represents irrationality and choas in the world
Polytheism
Polytheism is the belief in many Gods. Polytheism characterizes virtually all religions other than Judaism, Christianity
and Islam which share a common tradition of montheism, the belief in one God
Typically Polytheism cultures include belief in many demonic and ghostly forces in addition to the gods.
Henotheism
They worship only one God without denying the existence of other Gods. They believe that one God is the God of
their family or clan.
Ex: In Greek Mythology they believe in the existence of 12 Gods. Zeus considered as the supreme but all Gods
are worshiped by a different sect with an own temple
Unlimited Polytheism
This form constitutes extreme polytheism and is seen in the classical religions of Greece and Rome: each god has his
own name and his own shape.
There are difference in Power, status, function and sphere of influence but are equally divine.
In unlimited polytheism, the number of gods that are actually worshiped seldom exceeds a few hundred within one
religion but in India, millions of gods may be thought to exist

How do you relate concepts of Profane and sacred in Durkheim's theory of religion with a focus on the role of Totem

Emile Durkheim introduced these two words in his famous book 'The Elementary forms of Religious life(1912)'.
Sacred components are pure and associated with Mysterious fascinans. They include objects, living organisms, elements of
nature, places, holy days, ceremonies and other activities like pilgrimages. They are not utilitarian.
Profane Components are impure and associated with Mysterious tremendum. They include everything that is not sacred,
all the mundane things and activities.
Sacred is superior to the profane in dignity and expresses a superior seriousness. Sacred objects kept away from profane
and Mundane objects.
Sacred-Profane dichotomy is universal according to Emile Durkheim.
Sacred Space : Religious and profane life cannot coexist in the same space. Sacredness requires that special locations to be
set aside for religious rituals; for central Australians these may be landmarks associated with the mythical ancestors.
Sacred time:  Religious and profane life cannot coexist in the same time. Sacredness requires that special times to be set
aside for religious rituals; Mundane activities like hunting,fishing must be suspended for the duration of religious
Ceremonies.
Source of Sacredness :The source of Sacredness does not lie in the intrinsic properties or external dimension of object.
But, Sacredness is result of the 'Collective Conscience'. Ex: According to Emile Durkheim's theory the source of holiness of
the Ganga water is not because of this chemical composition or God revealed this fact, but it lies in the fact that holiness is
attributed to water by the collective thinking of the people.
Totemism: In Arunta Tribe of Australia Totemism is followed. They engrave their Totemic animal or plant on to a wooden
black, apply their blood to it and stamp the objects using this. All stamped objects are called churingas. They are
considered to be sacred and believed to have curative capabilities. They are believed to cure illness and cause fertility. They
are kept in isolation from profane objects. They don't consider the totem as god but consider close relation with it.
Criticism: Jack Goody crirticised Durkheims claim of universality of this dichotomy. Many societies do not have words that
translate to sacred and profane.

Sacred Profane dicotomy is universal phenomenon, even in modern Indians there are some kind of sacred objects like stones on
rings, sacred bracelets.
Animism:

Animism accoring to EBTylor in his Priitive culture is the belief in Spiritual beings. According to Edward Burnett Tylor
Animism is the origin of Religion.

    Origin of Animism: Human life : Sleep, Dream and Death. In trying to provide meaning to these, man came up with the
concept of soul, which is of two types: Free soul and Body soul.

Free soul can leave the body anytime and can comeback which is the reason for dream.  
Body soul once left cannot come back which is the reason for death. But after leaving the body, it can inhabit any objects.
This gave rise to Ancestor worship.
With Ancestors increasing generation after generation this led to Polytheism and subsequently monotheism. 
Animism -> fetishism -> Polytheism  -> Monotheism

Examples:

 Malers of santhal paragana (Vidyarthi) : Belief in Gossain and evil spirits. Incidence of death, famine if spirits not worshipped.
Kamars and Bhuiya (SC Dube) : Belief in inner soul that wanders during sleep and moves away with death.
Korwas of Mirzapur (Majumdar) : Spirit presiding over crops, another over rainfall, another over cattle.  
Todas of Nilgiri : Believe in ancestral worship. They observe two death ceremonies -one green and other dry. They beat buffalo
to death to accompany dead ancestor.

Features

In philosophical terms- the doctrine of animism believes that all objects in the world have innate soul which is anima.
The soul is primarily responsible for development of human
They believed that souls can transmigrate from person to person, from the dead to the living, and from and into plants,
animals, and lifeless objects.
Animist believe that he is not a superior being.
Witchcraft or shaman is highly regarded as they are good at manipulating the spirits.

Criticism as Animism as early form of religion:

Tylors theory is not based on fieldwork.

Tylor considers early man as philosopher, but early man is more worried of survival and not soul.
Marret believes Animatism as earliest where no distinction between soul and body is made.
Belief in soul is one feature of religion, Tylor didn't explain addition of other features.

Though, this form of Animism was once present in all societies. It is slowly getting restricted to Tribal societies.

Animatism:

Animatism is the term coined by Robert Marett to refer to a belief in anything or anybody who is animate or endowed
with life, and that life is considered to have a supernatural power or force.
Marret argues that certain cultures belive "People, Animals, Plants and inanimate objects were endowed with certain
powers which were both impersonal and supernatural"
Primitive peoples treated the objects they considered animate as if these things has life feeling and will of their own, but
did not make distinction between body of an object and a soul that could enter or leave it. 
Ex: Alaskan Eskimos believe that glaciers are live objects which move and obstruct their paths. In an attempt to appease them
they conduct sacrifices to them.
Manaism of Melanesian society: They believe in single, universal, transferable supernatural power called Mana.
The performance of beings depends on amount of Mana present.
Tribla chief possessed largest amount of Mana. When he dies, Mana is transferred to whoever become the new chief.
According to Marret, these Melanesians were as primitive as early man. Hence Animatism is earliest form of religion.
Bongaism in India:
According to Majumdar, Bongaism is seen among Hos, Mundas .
Bonga is conceived as a power that pervades all space. It is indefinite and impersonal to start with.
This power gives life to all animals and plants, it encourages growth in plants, brings rain etc.
 He claimed Animatism is the first form of Religion which later transformed to Animism

Criticism of Animatism as earliest Religious form/:

RR Marret assumed Melanesian as primitive as early man.

He created philosopher out of early man. But early man is worried of survival.
Contradicts Tylor's theory.
Belief in supernatural is one feature of religion, he didnt explain addition of other features.

Totemism-a belief in which each human is believe to possess a spiritual connection with another physical being like animal or
plants, these are often called as spirit-being or totems and serve as their emblem or symbol.
Origin: According to Frazer Totemism originated from cooperative division of animal/ plant conservation. Each group raised and
protected one type of animal/plant.

This supernatural can be animal object or plant.

This object has significance to clan as a symbol of entity and clan believes having mystical relation with totem.
They have their own myths, beliefs and practices relating to the totem. They conduct special rituals to the totem.
Most of the times, each totemic clan is exogamous as they consider oneness of clan.
For example, in Orissa there is a tribe Bondo in which two phratries are there who have their different totems tiger and
cobra. The people of one clan can never imagine of hunting or killing their clan totem.
Arunta Tribe Totemism
In Arunta Tribe of Australia Totemism is followed. They engrave their Totemic animal or plant on to a wooden black, apply
their blood to it and stamp the objects using this. All stamped objects are called churingas. They are considered to be
sacred and believed to have curative capabilities. They are believed to cure illness and cause fertility. They are kept in
isolation from profane objects. They don't consider the totem as god but consider close relation with it.
Each society is divided into several segments such as clan and each segment recongises mystical relation with some
animal.
Taboo against killing of that totem animal.
Exogamy of clans.
Group worship of totem animal
ceremonial killing of the animal.
Totem worship by tatooing , totem skin cloths etc.

Fetishism: The term Fetishism is derived from word feticos meaning skillfully made objects which has supernatural power.
Ex: Jewellery, peace of wood, stone , blood, bone , claws etc.
Ex: Fetishism is practiced in Bondo where Sword is a fetish object. Henry pressler in his primitive religions in India. 

Bondo consider that sword to be supernatural.

Festival in honour is carried: That sword which is hidden in tree is brought down by priest. It is worshipped. Fowl and goat
sacrificed to it. 

According to August Comte , Religion originated from Fetishism.

Naturism: It is worship of nature because of belief that supernatural power has manifestation in things of nature.
According to this belief roaring of clouds, lightening and Earth quakes etc are manifestations of supernatural.

Examples:
Santhals, Mundas , Hos: Identify Sun as Sing Bonga, i.e Supreme God
Bondos: Sun, Earth, fire and water regarded as supernatural beings and worshipped.
Dongria Khond: Worship mother earth. Believe that blood shed from sacrifice of buffalo to godess Earth is essential for
good harvest.
 Ganga river is worshiped to tame the river not to flood.

Religion, Magic and Science Distinguished

 Every society at some time or other and in some form or other has magic, religion and science as important part of it.
Magic: According to Frazer, Magic is a technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating the supernatural.
Religion: is defined as any set of attitudes, beliefs and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether that force is gods,
spirits or ghosts.
Science: is a branch of learning dealing mainly with the measurable and systematic principles, with knowledge gain through study
or practice.
Though all share some similarities, but the dissimilarities are more visible and clear than the similarities. Some major differences
among them are:

Principle : Science is considered as the open source of thought and belief based on empirical studies and it is open to
test and debate. Religion is considered as sacred and not to be questioned, with no empirical testing and to be observed.
Magic involves some uniform science principles to yield same result all the time.
Emotion: Science is individualistic and lacks emotions, but religion and magic involves emotion. While magic can have
emotion varying from the protection of dear one’s to the destruction of enemy, the religion is considered of having
emotions towards care and brotherhood.
Orientation: While magic and science are oriented towards a desired end, religion lacks any one direction.
Taboos: Magic and religion practices some taboos but science lacks any taboo.
Magic and Science are everywhere uniform in their principles whereas religious diversities are more common everywhere.
While science and magic are individualistic, religion is more collective. Magical Practitioners and scientists goes through
their activities as a private individual or individuals functioning much less a groups. Religious activities are carried out by
groups or by representatives of groups.

Shaman

Shaman Is a socially recognised person believed to have special supernatural powers that are used on behalf of clients for
a variety of purposes.

    Features:

The requirement for entry in the profession of shamanism differ from society to society. Such as in Eskimos child strongly
inclined towards drumming is identified as shaman. While in Angami Naga, child who shows tendency towards dreaming is
given this role.
Shaman is generally a male, and  found in egalitarian societies and he does not possess regular secular power. He is not an
authority and performs his roles as a member within society.
He has fairly high status in his society.
Shaman has guardian spirit and spirit healer which visit him in trance, and dreams.

    Functions of shaman

Since tribals does not differentiate between illness of natural and supernatural nature, shaman serves as medicine man for
all types of illnesses. Methodology used is going into trance. Magic is also used.
Shaman helps people in practical matters of getting food resources, finding water resources etc
In coastal communities of south America shaman makes an annual spiritual trip to bottom of the sea to persuade sea
godess to ensure abundance of sea resources for one more year.
He brings news from supernatural in terms of warnings of natural calamities .
Shamanism also has important function for the society as variety of symbolic acts of shamanistic performances bring
together various religious beliefs, practices and people.
Shamanism in decline in modern Tribal regions due to advent of modern medicines and penetration of Primary health
centres.

Priest
Priesthood is the manifestation of developed religion. But it can also be found in the relatively ordered primitive
societies where cultures are rich and complex.
Priests are usually the full time male specialists who officiate at public events. They enjoy a very high status in the
community;
A priest's power lies with the office which he holds and not with him directly as that of a Shaman. Succession of the
office is hereditary

SORCERER OR WITCH
Anthropologists have classified Black magic or hostile magical practices into sorcery and witchcraft on the basis of the
demonstrability of techniques. 
    Sorcery: Sorcery includes several magical practices directed towards harming target individual with disease or death. Sorcerer,
may recite a spell, stick thorns into image of the victim etc . The techniques of sorcery can be demonstrated.

A Sorcerer may involve supernatural beings like guardian spirit or ancestral spirit who aid him in harming an enemy.
Object Intrusion: It is most common among tribes in India. Pins or sharp objects are stuck into a representation of the
intended victim.
Manipulation of object: In this sorcerer uses tricks to manipulate things , that were once part of intended victim like hair,
nails.
Principle: Sorcery achieves its result by affecting the individual emotional state. The effectiveness of sorcery depends on
the awareness of the victim that a magical ritual is being performed against him or her. 

Witchcraft

Witchcraft is an inborn and often an unconscious capacity to work evil. Witches are humans with supernatural powers.
A magical performance is perhaps responsible for the recognizable changes in the internal organs of the body,which can
only be revealed by post- mortem examination.
In many societies they are believed to have powers like converting to animals, Invisibility and power to fly.
According to Evanspitchard, the Azande of sudan belive that witchcraft to be a physical condition of the intestines that
allows the soul of witch to go out at night and harm others

Differences

Sorcerers often use different materials for their magic, so when evidences of their malpractice is found, they are killed by
the communal vengeance. But in case of the witchcraft, for the absence of evidences, genuine witches are not always
marked out. It is believed that the witches possess certain evil substances within their body by which they harm other
people.
Sorcery is acquired but Witchcraft is inherited.

SImilarities

Both use Supernatural powers in harming the individuals

Sorcerer and Witch both are the malevolent practitioners. So they enjoy a very low socio- economic status in all societies.
A Sorcerer and a Witch may be of any sex and usually they are the part-timers.
Both of them are dreaded, as they know the way to invoke the supernatural power for causing illness,injury and death.
Remedy is same for both

Remedy: In almost all primitive societies there are either witch doctors or medicine men or Shamans to act against the evils
created by the Sorcerers and Witches.
Witchcraft accusitions in contemporary society: For reasons like stranied relations, caste, property, family fueds etc
In Ajmer district of Rajasthan-> Old women beaten to death for property being true reason
In Kota district -> Women lynched for causing harm to children. True reason is caste

Magic and Religion distinguished

Magic according to Frazer is a technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating the supernatural.
Similarities: W.J Goodey came up with magico religious continuum .

Concept: Both are non empirical, intangible and not measurable things
Superntural beings: Both believe in.
Functionaries and Place: Both involve set of functionaries such as priest, shaman
Coexistence: 
Tikopia by Ramond Firth
Vapei tribe of Manipur: Christianity + Belief in spirit
Malinowski says Primitive people not concerned with analytical distinction between magic and religion, they blend both
Function: Both are ways of overriding emotional stress, fear and pressure.
Technique: Both follow ritualistic and strict techniques
Rituals continued from magic to religion according to Frazer.

Differences:

Notion of God: Religion: God is viewed as supernatural power having control on natural and social order
Magic: Notion of different spirits and hierarchy of spirits 
Practitioners attitude : priest< God
Magic : Magician > Supernatural , can force and control supernatural.
Goal: Religion: Non utilitarian, collective and non instantaneously achievable.
Magic: Utilitarian, Individualistic and pertains to material world . Instantaneously achievable.
Relation between Practitioner and follower: Religion: entire community is involved 
Magic: Relation is professional and client individual relation exists.
Condition of practitioner: Religion: Devotional
Magic: Trance Ex: Azande 
Rituals: Religion; Fixed in advance, public in nature and mostly during day time
Magic: Never fixed in advance, secretly held in night time
Significance for society: Religion: Social Integration and solidarity. Ethic code of conduct
Magic: Created sections of society and divisive forces. promotes interests of sections