History of India

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The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the
advancement of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the eventual blending of the Indo-Aryan
culture to form the Vedic Civilisation;[1] the rise of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism;[2][3] the onset of a
succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more than three millennia throughout various geographic
areas of the subcontinent, including the growth of Muslim dominions during the Medieval period intertwined
with Hindu powers;[4][5] the advent of European traders and privateers, resulting in the establishment of British
India; and the subsequent independence movement that led to the Partition of India and the creation of the
Republic of India.[6]

Considered a cradle of civilisation,[7] the Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished in the north-
western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilisation in South
Asia.[8] A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period,
from 2600 to 1900 BCE.[9] This civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later
followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation. The era saw the composition of the Vedas, the seminal texts of
Hinduism, coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities), and social stratification based on caste.
The Later Vedic Civilisation extended over the Indo-Gangetic plain and much of the subcontinent, as well as
witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms, Magadha,
Gautama Buddha and Mahavira propagated their Shramanic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century
BCE.

Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the
3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern
India started to flourish.[10][11] Wootz steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported
to foreign countries.[12][13][14] During the Classical period, various parts of India were ruled by numerous
dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu
religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period,
aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of
Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Middle East and the
Mediterranean. Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the
establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia (Greater India).[15][16]

The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj
that lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara Pratihara
Empire. Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most
notable being the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western Chalukya Empires. The Chola
dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Maldives and
Bengal[17] in the 11th century.[18][19] The early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the
development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the Hindu numerals were introduced.[20]

Muslim rule started in parts of north India in the 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was founded in
1206 CE by Central Asian Turks;[21] though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into modern
Afghanistan and Pakistan as early as the 8th century.[22] The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern
India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century. During this period, continued Hindu
resistance led to the emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably Vijayanagara, Gajapati, Ahom, as
well as Rajput states, such as Mewar. The 15th century saw the advent of Sikhism. The early modern period
began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent.[23] The
Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the
Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire and Mysore Kingdom to exercise control over large areas of the
subcontinent.[24][25]
From the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India
Company of the British Empire. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after
which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of
prolonged economic stagnation and major famines.[26][27] During the first half of the 20th century, a
nationwide struggle for independence was launched with the leading party involved being the Indian National
Congress which was later joined by other organisations. The subcontinent gained independence from the
United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan
and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states.

Contents
1 Chronology of Indian history
2 Prehistoric era (until c. 1750 BCE)
2.1 Stone Age
2.2 Indus Valley Civilisation
2.3 Dravidian origins
3 Vedic period (c. 1750 BCE–600 BCE)
3.1 Vedic society
3.2 Sanskritisation
3.3 Iron Age Kingdoms
3.4 Sanskrit Epics
4 "Second urbanisation" (c. 600 BCE–200 BCE)
4.1 Mahajanapadas
4.2 Upanishads and Shramana movements
4.3 Magadha dynasties
4.4 Persians and Greeks in northwest South Asia
4.5 Maurya Empire
4.6 Sangam Period
5 Classical to early medieval periods (c. 200 BCE–1200 CE)
5.1 Early classical period (c. 200 BCE–320 CE)
5.2 Classical period (c. 320–650 CE)
5.3 Early medieval period (c. 650–1200 CE)
6 Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526 CE)
6.1 Growth of Muslim population
6.2 Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests
6.3 Delhi Sultanate
6.4 Bhakti movement and Sikhism
6.5 Vijayanagara Empire
6.6 Regional powers
7 Early modern period (c. 1526 – 1858 CE)
7.1 Mughal Empire
7.2 Maratha Empire
7.3 Sikh Empire
7.4 Other kingdoms
7.5 European exploration and colonialism
8 Modern period and independence (after c. 1850 CE)
8.1 The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences
8.2 British Raj (c. 1858 – 1947)
8.3 Bengal Renaissance
8.4 Famines
8.5 The Indian independence movement
8.6 World War II
8.7 After World War II (c. 1946 – 1947)
8.8 Independence and partition (c. 1947–present)
9 Historiography
 10 See also
11 References
11.1 Notes
11.2 Citations
11.3 Sources
12 Further reading
12.1 General
12.2 Historiography
12.3 Primary
13 External links

Chronology of Indian history

 Chronology of India

James Mill (1774–1836), in his The History of British India(1817),[a] distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely
Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.[b][c] This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the
misconceptions it gave rise to.[d] Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern
periods".[e]

James Mill's
World History[f] ACMM[h][i] Chronology of Indian History[j][k][l][m]
Periodisation[g]

Early Complex Societes Prehistoric Era

?
(3500–2000 BCE) Indus Valley Civilisation

Early Vedic Period

(c. 1750 – 1200 BCE)

Ancient Civilisations Middle Vedic Period

(2000–500 BCE) (from 1200 BCE)
Ancient India Late Vedic period
(from 850 BCE)

Second urbanisation
Early empires[n]
Hindu civilisations (c. 600–200 BCE)[o]
Classical Civilisations
Disintegration[p] and regional states
(500 BCE-500 CE)
(c. 200 BCE–300 CE)[q]

Classical "Golden Age" (Gupta Empire)

India (c. 320–650 CE)[r]

Regional Indian kingdomsand Beginning of Islamic

Post-classical age
raids
(500–1000 CE)
(c. 650–1100 CE)[s]
Medieval
India Delhi Sultanate (north India)
Transregional nomadic
(1206–1526 CE)
empires
Vijayanagara Empire (south India)
(1000–1500 CE) Muslim civilisations (1336–1646 CE)

Mughal Empire
(1526–1707)

Modern age Maratha Empire

Modern India
(1500–present) British civilisations British rule
(c. 1750 CE–1947)

– Independent India

Notes and references for table

Notes Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":

Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It's the formative period for the Upanishads and
Brahmanism (Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the V edic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the
[t]
Upanishads. ), Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the
flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India. [u]
[v]
For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism", whereas the period between
200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the V edic religion and
Hindu religions".[w]
Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period".
According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal
enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the eVdic religion, developed in this time.[x]

References
 a. Khanna 2007, p.xvii
b. Khanna 2007, p.xvii
c. Misra 2004, p.194
d. Kulke 2004, p.7
e. Flood 1996, p.21
f. Bentley
g. Khanna 2007, p.xvii
h. Flood 1996, p.21
i. Stein
j. Smart 2003, p. 52–53
k. Michaels 2004
l. Muesse 2011
m. Flood 1996, p. 21–22
n. Thapar
o. Thapar
p. Thapar
q. Michaels 2004, p.39
r. Michaels 2004, p.40
s. Michaels 2004, p.41
t. Smart 2003, p. 52, 83–86
u. Smart 2003, p.52
v. Michaels 2004, p.36
w. Michaels 2004, p.38
x. Muesse 2003, p.14

Sources

Bentley, Jerry H. (June 1996), "Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in W

orld History", The American Historical
Review, 101 (3): 749–770, doi:10.2307/2169422
Flood, Gavin D. (1996),An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press
Khanna, Meenakshi (2007),Cultural History Of Medieval India, Berghahn Books
Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004),A History of India, Routledge
Michaels, Axel (2004),Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
Misra, Amalendu (2004),Identity and Religion: Foundations of Anti-Islamism in India , SAGE
Muesse, Mark William (2003), Great World Religions: Hinduism
Muesse, Mark W. (2011), The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction, Fortress Press
Smart, Ninian (2003),Godsdiensten van de wereld (The World's religions), Kampen: Uitgeverij Kok
Thapar, Romila (1977), A History of India. Volume One, Penguin Books

James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of
India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been influential, but has also been
criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient,
classical, medieval and modern periods", although this periodisation has also been criticised.[28]

Romila Thapar notes that the division into Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much
weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions",[29] neglecting the social-economic history which often
showed a strong continuity.[29] The division into Ancient-Medieval-Modern periods overlooks the fact that the
Muslim conquests occurred gradually during which time many things came and went off, while the south was
never completely conquered.[29] According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social
and economic changes", which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.[30][note 1]

Prehistoric era (until c. 1750 BCE)

Stone Age
Evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent is
recorded as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including
Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago.[31] Isolated remains of Homo
erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that
India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era,
somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago.[32][33] Tools crafted
by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been
discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent.[34][35] The ancient Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya
history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements[36] Pradesh, India (c. 30,000 years old).
and some of its major civilisations.[37][38]

The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Palaeolithic

hominid site in the Soan River valley.[39][40][41] Soanian sites are found in
the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and
Nepal.[42][43][44]

The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the

Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent
Stone age (6,000 BCE) writings of
occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago.
Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.
The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago
in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India.

The Edakkal Caves are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE,[45][46] from the Neolithic man,
indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilisation or settlement in Kerala.[47] The Stone Age carvings of
Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from South India.[48]

Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon
dated to 7500 BCE.[49] Neolithic agricultural cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE,
in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, represented by the Bhirrana findings (7570–6200 BCE) in
Haryana, India as well as Mehrgarh findings (7000–5000 BCE) in Balochistan, Pakistan;[36][50][51] and later in
Southern India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The first urban
civilisation of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation.[52]

Indus Valley Civilisation

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around

3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. It was Indus Valley Civilisation
centred on the Indus River and its tributaries which
extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[37] the
Ganges-Yamuna Doab,[53] Gujarat,[54] and south-eastern
Afghanistan.[55] The Indus civilisation is one of three in
the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and
Pharonic Egypt, was a cradle of civilisation in the Old
World. It is also the most expansive in area and
population.[56][57][58][59][60][61]

The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day

India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) "Priest King" of Indus Indus valley seals with
and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Valley Civilisation; the Bull, Elephant, and
Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's statue is carved from Rhinoceros, 2500–
earliest urban civilisations, along with Mesopotamia and steatite. 1900 BCE.
Ancient Egypt.[62] Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river
valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in
metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal
carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600

to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation
on the subcontinent. The civilisation included urban
centres such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Ropar,
Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India, as well as
Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day The Pashupati seal, Dholavira, one of the
Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of showing a seated and largest cities of Indus
brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-storeyed possibly tricephalic Valley Civilisation.
houses and is thought to have had some kind of municipal figure, surrounded by
organisation.[63] animals.

During the late period of this civilisation, signs of a

gradual decline began to emerge, and by around
1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear
suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and
isolated farms. The Indian Copper Hoard Culture is attributed to this time, associated in the Doab region with
the Ochre Coloured Pottery.

Dravidian origins

Linguists hypothesized that Dravidian-speaking people were spread throughout the Indian subcontinent before
a series of Indo-Aryan migrations. In this view, the early Indus Valley civilisation is often identified as having
been Dravidian.[64] Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers Henry Heras, Kamil
Zvelebil, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the
ancient Indus Valley civilisation.[65][66] Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan
language "most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family".[67] Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating
the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of
many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish"
sign with the Dravidian word for fish "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive
description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book "Deciphering the Indus Script."[68] The discovery
in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stone celt
allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian
identification.[69][70] While, Yuri Knorozov surmised that the symbols represent a logosyllabic script and
suggested, based on computer analysis, an underlying agglutinative Dravidian language as the most likely
candidate for the underlying language.[71] Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras,
who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption.[72] While some scholars like
J. Bloch and M. Witzel believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian speaking area after the
oldest parts of the Rig Veda were already composed.[73] The Brahui population of Balochistan has been taken
by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were
formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages.[74]

Vedic period (c. 1750 BCE–600 BCE)

The Vedic period is named after the Indo-Aryan culture of north-west India, although other parts of India had a
distinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to
Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in
India.[75] The Vedic period, lasting from about 1750 to 500 BCE,[76][77] contributed the foundations of several
cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned
from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.[78]
Vedic society Spread of IE-languages

Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a

Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the
upper Gangetic Plain.[78] Most historians also
consider this period to have encompassed
several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into
the subcontinent from the north-west.[79][80]
The peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the
time of the Atharva Veda.[81] Many of the
concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later,
like dharma, trace their roots to Vedic Indo-European languages ca. 3500 BC
antecedents.[82]

Early Vedic society is described in the

Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to
have been compiled during 2nd millennium
BCE,[83][84] in the northwestern region of the
Indian subcontinent.[85] At this time, Aryan
society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral
groups, distinct from the Harappan
urbanisation which had been abandoned.[86]
Indo-European languages ca. 2500 BC
The early Indo-Aryan presence probably
corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured
Pottery culture in archaeological
contexts.[87][88]

At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan

society began to expand from the northwestern
region of the Indian subcontinent, into the
western Ganges plain. It became increasingly
agricultural and was socially organised around
the hierarchy of the four varnas, or social Indo-European languages ca. 1500 BC
classes. This social structure was characterised
both by syncretising with the native cultures of
northern India,[89] but also eventually by the
excluding of indigenous peoples by labeling
their occupations impure.[90] During this
period, many of the previous small tribal units
and chiefdoms began to coalesce into
Janapadas (monarchical, state-level
polities).[91]

In the 14th century BCE,[92] the Battle of the Indo-European languages ca. 500 BC
Ten Kings, between the Puru Vedic Aryan
tribal kingdoms of the Bharatas, allied with
other tribes of the Northwest India, guided by
the royal sage Vishvamitra, and the Trtsu-
Bharata (Puru) king Sudas, who defeats other
Vedic tribes—leading to the emergence of the
Kuru Kingdom, first state level society during
the Vedic period.[93]

Sanskritisation
Since Vedic times,[94][note 2] "people from
Since Vedic times,[94][note 2] "people from
many strata of society throughout the
subcontinent tended to adapt their religious
and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process
sometimes called Sanskritisation.[94] It is
reflected in the tendency to identify local
deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.[94]

Iron Age Kingdoms

Indo-European languages ca. 500AD
The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from
about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and
kingdoms — notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha.[95][96]

The Kuru kingdom was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the
Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200 – 800 BCE,[97] as well as with the composition of the
Atharvaveda (the first Indian text to mention iron, as śyāma ayas, literally "black metal").[98] The Kuru state
organised the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the orthodox srauta ritual to uphold the social
order.[99] Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, transforming
this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India.[100] When the Kuru
kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.[99]
The archaeological Painted Grey Ware culture, which flourished in the Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh
regions of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE,[87] is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala
kingdoms.[99][101]

During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even
farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state in India);[88] reaching its prominence under the king
Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya and
Aruni.[102] The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and
kingdoms, called mahajanapadas, all across Northern India.

Sanskrit Epics

In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.[103] The Mahabharata remains, today,
the longest single poem in the world.[104] Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these
two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts (which are both familiar with each other) went through
multiple stages of development over centuries. For instance, the Mahabharata may have been based on a small-
scale conflict (possibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually "transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards
and poets". There is no conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharata
have any historical basis.[105] The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age,
between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.[105][106] Some even attempted to date the events using methods of archaeo-
astronomy which have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted,
estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millennium BCE.[107][108]

"Second urbanisation" (c. 600 BCE–200 BCE)

During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Śramaṇa movement formed, from which originated Jainism
and Buddhism. In the same period the first Upanishads were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called "Second
urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges
plain.[109] The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Mauryan
Empire, was a distinct cultural area,[110] with new states arising after 500 BCE[web 1] during the so-called
"Second urbanisation".[111][note 3] It was influenced by the Vedic culture,[112] but differed markedly from the
Kuru-Panchala region.[110] It "was the
Kuru-Panchala region.[110] It "was the Indo-Aryan migration
area of the earliest known cultivation of
rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was
the location of an advanced Neolithic
population associated with the sites of
Chirand and Chechar".[113] In this region
the Shramanic movements flourished, and
Jainism and Buddhism originated.[109]

Mahajanapadas

In the later Vedic Age, a number of small

kingdoms or city states had covered the
subcontinent, many mentioned in Vedic,
early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far
back as 500 BCE sixteen monarchies and
"republics" known as the Mahajanapadas
—Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji
(or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa),
The Yamna culture 3500–2000 BC.
Kuru, Panchala, Matsya (or Machcha),
Shurasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and
Kamboja—stretched across the Indo-
Gangetic Plain from modern-day
Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharashtra.
This period saw the second major rise of
urbanism in India after the Indus Valley
Civilisation.[114]

Many smaller clans mentioned within

early literature seem to have been present
across the rest of the subcontinent. Some
of these kings were hereditary; other states
elected their rulers. Early "republics" such
as the Vajji (or Vriji) confederation Scheme of Indo-European migrationsfrom ca. 4000 to 1000 BCE
centred in the city of Vaishali, existed as according to the Kurgan hypothesis. The magenta area corresponds to the
early as the 6th century BCE and persisted assumed Urheimat (Samara culture, Sredny Stog culture). The red area
in some areas until the 4th century CE. corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-
The educated speech at that time was speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BCE; the orange area to 1000 BCE.
Sanskrit, while the languages of the (Christopher I. Beckwith (2009),Empires of the Silk Road, Oxford
general population of northern India are University Press, p.30)
referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen
kingdoms had coalesced to four major
ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of
Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa,
Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The life of
Gautama Buddha was mainly associated
with these four kingdoms.[114] This period
corresponds in an archaeological context
to the Northern Black Polished Ware
culture.

Upanishads and Shramana

movements
Around 800 BCE to 400 BCE witnessed
the composition of the earliest
Upanishads.[115][116][117] Upanishads
form the theoretical basis of classical
Hinduism and are known as Vedanta
(conclusion of the Vedas).[118] The older
Upanishads launched attacks of increasing
intensity on the ritual. Anyone who
worships a divinity other than the Self is
called a domestic animal of the gods in the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka
launches the most scathing attack on the
ritual by comparing those who value
sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is
endlessly overtaken by old age and
death.[119]

Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and Map of the approximate maximal extent of the Andronovo culture. The
formative Sintashta-Petrovka culture is shown in darker red. The location of
6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new
the earliest spoke-wheeled chariot finds is indicated in purple. Adjacent and
ascetic or shramana movements which
overlapping cultures (Afanasevo culture, Srubna culture, BMAC) are
challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.[116]
shown in green.
Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE), proponent of
Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563–
483 BCE), founder of Buddhism were the
most prominent icons of this movement.
Shramana gave rise to the concept of the
cycle of birth and death, the concept of
samsara, and the concept of
liberation.[120] Buddha found a Middle
Way that ameliorated the extreme
asceticism found in the Sramana
religions.[121]

Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th

Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a
theology that was to later become
Jainism.[122] However, Jain orthodoxy
believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras
predates all known time and scholars
believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c.
772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd
Tirthankara, was a historical figure.
Archaeological cultures associated withIndo-Iranian migrations(after
Rishabhanatha was the 1st EIEC). The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures have often been
Tirthankara.[123] The Vedas are believed associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. TheGGC, Cemetery H, Copper
to have documented a few Tirthankaras Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-
and an ascetic order similar to the Aryan movements.
shramana movement.[124]

Magadha dynasties

Magadha (Sanskrit: मगध) formed one of

the sixteen Mahā-Janapadas (Sanskrit:
"Great Countries") or kingdoms in ancient
India. The core of the kingdom was the
area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first
capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir)
then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha
expanded to include most of Bihar and
Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and
Anga respectively,[125] followed by much
of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The
ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily
mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is
also mentioned in the Ramayana,
Mahabharata and Puranas.[126] The
earliest reference to the Magadha people
occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are
found listed along with the Angas,
Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha
played an important role in the Early Vedic Period.
development of Jainism and Buddhism,
and
two of India's Vedic society
greatest empires, the
Maurya Empire and
Gupta Empire,
originated from
Magadha. These
empires saw
advancements in
Late Vedic era map showing the
ancient India's
boundaries of Āryāvarta with
science,
Janapadas in northern India,
beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in
mathematics,
India — Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, astronomy, religion,
Ceramic goblet from A steel engraving from
Videha. and philosophy and Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 the 1850s, which
were considered the BCE. depicts the creative
Indian "Golden activities of Prajapati, a
Age". The Magadha kingdom included republican Vedic deity who
communities such as the community of Rajakumara. presides over
Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs procreation and
called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into protection of life.
executive, judicial, and military functions.

The Hindu epic Mahabharata calls Brihadratha the first

ruler of Magadha. Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the
Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas, mentions Magadha being
ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 600 BCE –
413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active
and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now West
Bengal. The death of King Bimbisara was at the hands of his son,
Prince Ajatashatru. During this period, Gautama Buddha, the
founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom.
He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in
Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha.[127] Manuscript illustration of theBattle of
The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. Kurukshetra.
The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by
Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine
Nandas, Mahapadma and his eight sons.
 Persians and Greeks
in northwest South
Asia

In 530 BCE Cyrus the

A Kuru punch-marked coin, one of the Great, King of the Persian
earliest example of coinage in India. Achaemenid Empire
crossed the Hindu-Kush
mountains to seek tribute
from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region
(modern Afghanistan and Pakistan).[129] By 520 BCE, during the The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most
reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the north-western subcontinent powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of
(present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the the era, located mainly across the fertileIndo-
rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far Gangetic plains, there were a number of
easternmost territories. The area remained under Persian control smaller kingdoms stretching the length and
breadth of Ancient India.
for two centuries.[130] During this time India supplied mercenaries
to the Persian army then fighting in Greece.[129] Under Persian
rule the
famous Magadha dynasties
city of

The Magadha state c. Coins during the One of the first The idol of Mahavira, the
600 BCE, before it Shishunaga dynasty of representations of 24th and last Tirthankara
expanded from its Magadha. Buddha, the founder of of Jainism.
capital Rajagriha — Buddhism.
under the Haryanka
dynasty and the
successor Shishunaga
dynasty.

Takshashila became a centre where both

Vedic and Iranian learning were
mingled.[131] Persian ascendency in
North-western South Asia ended with
Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia
in 327 BCE.[132]

By 326 BCE, Alexander the Great had

conquered Asia Minor and the
Achaemenid Empire and had reached the Asia in 323 BCE, the Nanda Empire and the Coin of Alexander the
Gangaridai in relation to Alexander's Empire and Great on horseback fighting
northwest frontiers of the Indian
neighbours. King Porus, 325–323
subcontinent. There he defeated King
BCE.[128]
Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near
modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and
conquered much of the Punjab.[133]
Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai of
Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River,
mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting
with his officer, Coenus, and after learning about the might of the Nanda Empire, was convinced that it was
better to return.

The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent.
The region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of
Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which
lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.

Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire

to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the Maurya Empire
Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan
Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries
of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam.
To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the
Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The
empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted
by Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar)
when he overthrew the Nanda Dynasty.[134]
Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne
around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a
large part of the subcontinent was under Mauryan The Maurya Empire Ashokan pillar at
suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around under Ashoka the Great. Vaishali, 3rd century
modern day Odisha) remained outside Mauryan control, BCE.
perhaps interfering with their trade with the south.[135]

Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted

for around thirty seven years until his death in about 232 BCE.[136] His campaign against the Kalingans in
about 260 BCE, though successful, lead to immense loss of life and misery. This filled Ashoka with remorse
and lead him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.[135] The empire began to decline after
his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the
Shunga Empire.[136]

The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times.
Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire
was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely
regulated by the government.[137] Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was
customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.[138]
During this period, a high quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported
to China and Arabia.[12]

Sangam Period

During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. During
this period, three Tamil Dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera
dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of southern India.[139]

The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars and culture of the Tamil people of this period.[140]
The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil
Kings, but who mainly wrote about the common people and their concerns.[141] Unlike Sanskrit writers who
were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and
social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to
different faiths and professions like farmers, artisans, merchants,
monks, priests and even princes and quite few of them were even
women.[141]

Classical to early medieval periods (c. 200

BCE–1200 CE)
The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the
end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the Tamilakam, located in the tip of South
"Classical" period of India.[142] It can be divided in various sub- India during the Sangam Period, ruled by
periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. Classical period begins Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the
after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of Pandyan dynasty.
the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BCE. The
Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of
Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these
centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century
BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.[11] During this period,
India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world,
having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1
CE to 1000 CE.[143][144]

Early classical period (c. 200 BCE–320 CE)

Satavahana Dynasty

The Śātavāhana Empire

was a royal Indian dynasty
based from Amaravati in
Ancient India during the rise of the
Andhra Pradesh as well as
Shunga and Satavahana empires.
Junnar (Pune) and
Prathisthan (Paithan) in
Reliefs depicting life of Buddha, Śātavāhana Maharashtra. The territory
Dynasty. (left) of the empire covered much of India from 230 BCE onward.
Indian ship on lead coin ofVasisthiputra Sri Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but
Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and declared independence with its decline. They are known for their
trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism which resulted in Buddhist
the 1st–2nd century CE. (right) monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to
Amaravati. The Sātavāhanas were one of the first Indian states to
issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a
cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-
Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India. They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva
dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect a huge part of India
against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular, their struggles with the Western
Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and
Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their
expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.

Shunga Empire
 The Shunga Empire was the ancient Indian dynasty from
Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian subcontinent
from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by
Pushyamitra Shunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire. Its
capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra
also held court at Besnagar, modern Vidisha in Eastern
Malwa.[145] Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was
succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers.
The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and
indigenous powers. They fought battles with the Kalingas,
Shunga royal family, West Bengal, India, 1st
century BCE.
Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and
Mitras. Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning
flowered during this period including small terracotta images,
larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great
Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art.
The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga
Empire played an imperative role in patronising Indian culture at a time when some of the most important
developments in Hindu thought were taking place. This helped the empire flourish and gain power.

Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures

The Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures of the Indian

subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-
Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids.

Indo-Greek Kingdom: The Indo-Greek Menander I (reigned

155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and
beyond the Hindu Kush, becoming a king shortly after his
victory. His territories covered Panjshir and Kapisa in modern
Afghanistan and extended to the Punjab region, with many
tributaries to the south and east. The capital Sagala (modern
Sialkot) prospered greatly under Menander's rule.[149] The
classical Buddhist text Milinda Pañha praises Menander, saying
there was "none equal to Milinda in all India".[150] Lasting for
The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom
almost two centuries, the kingdom was ruled by a succession of
Demetrius I (c. 205– c. 170 BCE),
more than 30 Indo-Greek kings, who were often in conflict with
wearing the scalp of an elephant, symbol
each other.
of his conquests in India.Metropolitan
Indo-Scythian Kingdom: The Indo-Scythians were descended
Museum of Art.[146][147][148]
from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia
to Pakistan and Arachosia to India from the middle of the 2nd
century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-
Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura. The power of the Saka rulers
started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Emperor
Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty.[151][152] Later the Saka kingdom was completely
destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire from eastern India in the 4th century.[153]
Indo-Parthian Kingdom: The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named
after its eponymous first ruler Gondophares. They ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
northwestern India,[154] during or slightly before the 1st century CE. For most of their history, the
leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present Punjab province of Pakistan) as their residence and
ruled from there, but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between Kabul and
Peshawar. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often
inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of Iranian tribes who lived
east of Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gondophares,
which means "Holder of Glory", were even related.
Indo-Sassanid Kingdom: The Sassanid empire of Persia, who was contemporaneous with the Gupta
Empire, expanded into the region of present-day Balochistan in Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian
 culture and the culture of Iran gave birth to a hybrid culture under the Indo-Sassanids.

Trade and Travels to India

The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all

over the Old World to India. Early writings and Trade and Travels to India
Stone Age carvings of Neolithic age obtained
indicates that India's Southwest coastal port
Muziris, in Kerala, had established itself as a major
spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE,
according to Sumerian records. Kerala was referred
to as the land of spices or as the "Spice Garden of
India". It was the place traders and exporters
wanted to reach, including Christopher Colombus,
Vasco da Gama, and others.[155]
Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road
transmission of Buddhism in the 1st or 2nd century
CE. The interaction of cultures resulted in several Silk Road and Spice The Pompeii Lakshmi
Chinese travellers and monks to enter India. Most trade, ancient trade ivory statuette was
notable were Faxian, Yijing, Song Yun and routes that linked India found in the ruin of
Xuanzang. These travellers wrote detailed accounts with the Old World; Pompeii. It is thought to
of the Indian Subcontinent, which includes the carried goods and ideas have come from
political and social aspects of the region.[156] between the ancient Bhokardan in the
Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of civilisations of the Old Satavahana realm in the
Southeast Asia came to be associated with the World and India. The first half of the 1st
economic activity and commerce as patrons entrust land routes are red, and century CE. It testifies
large funds which would later be used to benefit the water routes are to Indo-Roman trade
local economy by estate management, blue. relations beginning
craftsmanship, promotion of trading activities. around the 1st century
Buddhism in particular, travelled alongside the BCE.
maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and
literacy.[157] Indian merchants involved in spice
trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the
native inhabitants.[158]
The Greco-Roman world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India routes.[159]
During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and Ethiopians that
became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea.
According to Poseidonius, later reported in Strabo's Geography,[160] the monsoon wind system of the
Indian Ocean was first sailed by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 118 or 116 BCE. Poseidonius said a shipwrecked
sailor from India had been rescued in the Red Sea and taken to Ptolemy VIII in Alexandria.
Strabo, whose Geography is the main surviving source of the story, was sceptical about its truth. Modern
scholarship tends to consider it relatively credible. During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships
met to trade at Arabian ports such as Aden (called Eudaemon by the Greeks).[161] Another Greek
navigator, Hippalus, is sometimes credited with discovering the monsoon wind route to India. He is
sometimes conjectured to have been part of Eudoxus's expeditions.[162]

Kushan Empire

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now

Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent under Kushan Empire
the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises,
about the middle of the 1st century CE. They came of an
Indo-European language speaking Central Asian tribe
called the Yuezhi,[163][164] a branch of which was known
as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka
the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of
Afghanistan,[165] and then the northern parts of the Indian
subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near
Varanasi (Benares).[166]

Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism;

however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of
their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu
majority.[167][168]
Kushan territories (full Kushan king or prince,
They played an important role in the establishment of line) and maximum Greco-Buddhist art of
Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and extent of Kushan Gandhara, 2nd-3rd
China. dominions under century CE.
Kanishka (dotted line),
Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka: according to the
Rabatak inscription.
He played the part of a second Ashoka in the
history of Buddhism.[169]

The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus
valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The Kushans brought new
trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara Art, which reached its peak during Kushan Rule.

H.G. Rowlinson commented:

The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.[170]

By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva
I.[171][172]

Classical period (c. 320–650 CE)

Gupta Empire – Golden Age

Classical India refers to the period when much of the

Indian subcontinent was united under the Gupta Empire Gupta Empire – Golden Age
(c. 320–550 CE).[173][174] This period has been called the
Golden Age of India;[175] and was marked by extensive
achievements in science, technology, engineering, art,
dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy,
religion, and philosophy that crystallised the elements of
what is generally known as Hindu culture.[176] The
Hindu-Arabic numerals, a positional numeral system,
originated in India and was later transmitted to the West
through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine
symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero
was developed for the numeral system.[177] The peace Gupta Empire Meditating Buddha
and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled expansion from 320 CE from the Gupta era, 5th
the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in to 550 CE. century CE.
India.[178]

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting.[179] The Gupta
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting.[179] The Gupta
period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who
made great advancements in many academic fields. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the
Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, which continued
to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers –
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much of India under their leadership.[180]
Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the
region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and
regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Maritime Southeast Asia, and Indochina.

The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Alchon Huns, who
established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan.[181]
However, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north.[182][183]

Vakataka Dynasty

The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third

century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern
edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in
the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the western to the edges of
Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important successors of
the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaneous with the Guptas in
northern India.

The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts,
architecture and literature. They led public works and their monuments
The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut
are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of
Buddhist cave monument built under the
Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the
Vakatakas.
patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.[184][185]

Kamarupa Kingdom

Samudragupta's 4th century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions

Kamarupa (Western Assam)[186] and Davaka (Central Assam)[187] as
frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by
Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from
Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire
Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times
Purnea and parts of West Bengal.[188]

Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha

dynasty (c. 655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from
Madan Kamdev ruins
their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur
(Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three
dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura, an immigrant from
Aryavarta. [189] In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller
Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the
Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120 –
1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155 – 1255 CE) dynasties.[190]

Pallava Dynasty
The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the
North, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian
subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sankrit inscriptions in a script
called Grantha.[191] Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian
countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very
important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and
other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating
temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple
architecture and sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.[192]

Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I

(571 – 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the
Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region for about six hundred years until
the end of the 9th century.[193]
The Shore Temple (a UNESCO
Kadamba Dynasty World Heritage site) at
Mahabalipuram built by
Kadambas originated from Karnataka, Narasimhavarman II.
India; the dynasty was founded by
Mayurasharma in 345 CE which at later
times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an
indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its
rulers. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi
possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its
peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom even
the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital
alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga
Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa
(pinnacle) on top, Doddagaddavalli.
Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule
the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as
a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the
Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties known
as the Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal.

Alchon Huns

The Indo-Hephthalites (or Alchon Huns) were a nomadic

confederation in Central Asia during the late antiquity Alchon Huns
period. The Alchon Huns established themselves in
modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th
century. Led by the Hun military leader Toramana, they
overran the northern region of Pakistan and North India.
Toramana's son Mihirakula, a Saivite Hindu, moved up to
near Pataliputra to the east and Gwalior to the central
India. Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula's merciless
persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries,
though the description is disputed as far as the
authenticity is concerned.[194] The Huns were defeated by
alliance of Indian rulers, Maharaja (Great King)
Yasodharman of Malwa and Gupta Emperor
Narasimhagupta in the 6th century. Some of them were
driven out of India and others were assimilated in the
Indian society.[195]

Empire of Harsha
Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was
the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger brother of
Rajyavardhana, who were members of the Pushyabhuti
dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-day Haryana.

After the downfall

of the prior Gupta
Empire in the
middle of the 6th
century, North The defeat of the Vishnu nicolo seal
India reverted to Alchon Huns under representing Vishnu
smaller republics Mihirakula by King with a worshipper
and monarchical Yashodharman at (probably Mihirakula),
states. The power Sondani in 528 CE. 4th–6th century CE.
vacuum resulted The inscription in
Ruins of Harsha Ka Tila
in the rise of the cursive Bactrian reads:
Vardhanas of "Mihira, Vishnu and
Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and Shiva". British
monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the Museum.
death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of
the empire crowned Harsha emperor at an assembly in
April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja when he was merely 16 years old.[196] At the height of his
power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East till Kamarupa, and South
until Narmada River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh state) his capital, and ruled till
647 CE.[197]

The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists
and religious visitors from far and wide.[197] During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from Surya
worship.[198] The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account
of him, praising his justice and generosity.[197] His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of Harsha") written by
Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar, besides mentioning the defence wall, a moat
and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (white mansion).[199][200]

Early medieval period (c. 650–1200 CE)

Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE.[142] This period also
covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism,[201] which began after the end of the Gupta Empire,[201] and the
collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century CE;[201] the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading to the
Tripartite struggle; and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India[202] and
the end of the Later Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some
aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th
century.

From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism,
Jainism or more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts.[3] This period
produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of
the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

North-Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after the Alchon Huns invasion, who followed
their own religions at the beginning such as Tengri, but later Indian religions. Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion
of Sindh (modern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The Chach Nama records many
instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun.[203]
In the 7th century CE, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of
Surya Sun temples of Late Classical India
Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals
against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaṭṭa's contribution to
the decline of Buddhism in India.[204] His dialectical success
against the Buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian
Tathagata, who reports that Kumārila defeated disciples of
Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others.[205]

In the 8th century, Adi Shankara travelled across the Indian

subcontinent to propagate and spread the doctrine of Advaita
Vedanta, which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying the
main characteristics of the current thoughts in
Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated
Hinduism.[206][207][208] He was a critic of both Buddhism and
to the deity Surya. The temple complex was
Minamsa school of Hinduism;[209][210][211][212] and founded built by the third ruler of theKarkota dynasty,
mathas (monasteries), in the four corners of the Indian Emperor Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th
subcontinent for the spread and development of Advaita century CE. It is one of the largest temple
Vedanta.[213] complex on the Indian Subcontinent.

Ronald Inden writes that by the 8th century CE symbols of Hindu

gods "replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of
the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god
comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given Konark Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by
increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship".[214] Although Emperor Narasimhadeva I (AD 1238–1264) of
Buddhism did not disappear from India for several centuries after the Eastern Ganga dynasty, it is now a World
the eighth, royal proclivities for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva Heritage Site.
weakened Buddhism's position within the sociopolitical context
and helped make possible its decline.[215]

Emperor Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India

during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta
dynasty. His empire collapsed after his death.

From the 8th to the

10th century, three
dynasties contested
for control of northern Sun Temple, Modhera, was built by Bhima I of
India: the Gurjara Chaulukya dynasty in 1026 CE.
Pratiharas of Malwa,
the Palas of Bengal,
and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later
assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas
fragmented into various states, notably the Paramaras of Malwa,
the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the
Tomaras of Haryana, and the Chauhans of Rajputana. These were
some of the earliest Rajput kingdoms.[216] One Gurjar[217] Rajput
of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody
conflicts against the advancing Turkic sultanates. While Chandela
Rajput dynasty is credited for the Khajuraho Temple Complex,
The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of
famous for their nagara-style architectural symbolism and their
empires — the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, the
Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, and the Palas of
erotic sculptures.[218]
Bengal.
The Chola empire emerged as a major power during the reign of
Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded
parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century.[219]
Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724 CE–760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised
influence in northwestern India from 625 CE until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in his
Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and
Central Asia.[220][221][222]

The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-
7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the
advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as
being patrons of art and literature.

Chalukya Empire

The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India
between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as
three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as
the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the
middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their
independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and
rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule
of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South
India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political
atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large
Virupaksha temple in Dravidian style at
empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India- Pattadakal, built 740 CE.
based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between
the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth
of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture
called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami
in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.

The Chaulukya dynasty of Gujarat were a branch of the Chalukyas. Their capital at Anhilwara (modern Patan,
Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in Classical India, with the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.

Rashtrakuta Empire

Founded by Dantidurga around 753,[223] the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled

from its capital at Manyakheta for almost two centuries.[224] At its
peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges River and Yamuna River
doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of
political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary
contributions.[225][226]

The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were
strongly influenced by Jainism.[227] Govinda III and Amoghavarsha
were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced Kailasa temple at Ellora Caves,
by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha, who ruled for 64 years, was also an Maharashtra, India.
author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on
poetics.[224][228] Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian
style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are
the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain
Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the
world.[229] The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics.
The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra lived in the Rashtrakuta Empire and his text had a huge impact

on the medieval south Indian mathematicians who lived after him.[230] The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised
on the medieval south Indian mathematicians who lived after him.[230] The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised
men of letters, who wrote in a variety of languages from Sanskrit to the Apabhraṃśas.[224]

Pala Empire

The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I,[231][232][233] it was ruled by a

Ancient universities of India
supported by the Palas Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian
subcontinent. Though the Palas were followers of the Mahayana and
Tantric schools of Buddhism,[234] they also patronised Shaivism and
Vaishnavism.[235] The morpheme Pala, meaning "protector", was used as
an ending for the names of all the Pala monarchs. The empire reached its
peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have
conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India
in the northwest.[235] The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era
of Bengal in many ways.[236] Dharmapala founded the Vikramashila and
Nalanda is considered one of the first
revived Nalanda,[235] considered one of the first great universities in
great universities in recorded history.
recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the
It was the centre of Buddhist learning
Pala Empire.[236][237] The Palas also built many viharas. They maintained
and research in the world from 450 to
1193 CE. It reached its height under
close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and
the Palas. Tibet. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire. The
Arab merchant Suleiman notes the enormity of the Pala army in his
memoirs.[235]

Chola Empire

Medieval Cholas
rose to prominence Chola Empire
during the middle of
Landscape of Vikramashila
university ruins, the seating and
the 9th century C.E.
meditation area. Established by and established the
Emperor Dharmapala. greatest empire
South India had
seen.[238] They
successfully united the South India under their rule and
through their naval strength extended their influence in
the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.[219]
Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra
Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Chola Empire under Brihadeeswara Temple
Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, Rajendra Chola c. 1030 entrance Gopurams,
economic and cultural power in South Asia and South- CE. Thanjavur.
East Asia. [239][240] Rajendra Chola I's navies went even
further, occupying the sea coasts from Burma to
Vietnam,[241] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands.
The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which
Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast
Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.[242]

They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and
occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese empire in
the east.[243] Rajaraja Chola I and his equally distinguished son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the
whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.[244] Under the Cholas, the
South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola
period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental
architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before
achieved in India.[245]

Western Chalukya Empire

The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India,
between the 10th and 12th centuries.[246] Vast areas between the Narmada River in
the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control.[246] During
this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna
Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were
subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when
the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century.[247] The
Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional
style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that
of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering
the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the
Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the
Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.[248] This was an
important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in
literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language
of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great
mathematician Bhāskara II.[249][250]

Early Islamic intrusions into the Indian subcontinent

The early Islamic literature indicates that the conquest of the Indian subcontinent
was one of the very early ambitions of the Muslims, though it was recognised as a Kirtimukha relief at
Kedareswara Temple in
particularly difficult one.[251] After conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad
Balligavi, Shimoga district.
Caliphate incorporated parts of what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan around
720.

The book Chach Nama chronicles the Brahmin dynasty's period, following the demise of the Rai Dynasty and
the ascent of Chach of Alor to the throne, down to the Arab conquest by Muhammad bin Qasim in the early 8th
century CE, by defeating the last Hindu monarch of Sindh, Raja Dahir.

In 712, Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim

conquered most of the Indus region in modern-day
Pakistan for the Umayyad Empire, incorporating it as the
"As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah,
72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh,
Pakistan. After several incursions, the Hindu kings east of
Indus defeated the Arabs during the Caliphate campaigns
Somnath temple in ruins, Front view of the present in India, halting their expansion and containing them at
1869 Somnath Temple Sindh in Pakistan. The south Indian Chalukya empire
The Somnath temple was first attacked by Muslim Turkic under Vikramaditya II, Nagabhata I of the Pratihara
invader Mahmud of Ghazni and repeatedly demolished dynasty and Bappa Rawal of the Guhilot dynasty repulsed
by successive Muslim invaders, each time being rebuilt the Arab invaders in the early 8th century.[252]
by Hindu rulers.
Several Islamic kingdoms (sultanates) under both foreign
and, newly converted, Rajput rulers were established
across the Northwestern subcontinent (Afghanistan and Pakistan) over a period of a few centuries. From the
10th century, Sindh was ruled by the Rajput Soomra dynasty, and later, in the mid-13th century by the Rajput
Samma dynasty. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India,
particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian
peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and
Christianity, often in puritanical form. Mahmud of Ghazni in the early 11th century raided mainly the north-
western parts of the Indian sub-continent 17 times, but he did not seek to establish "permanent dominion" in
those areas.[253] While Suhaldev of Shravasti, who is said to have defeated and killed the Ghaznavid general
Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud in the early 11th century.[254][255]

Hindu Shahi

The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul Valley and Gandhara (modern-day
Pakistan and Afghanistan) from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd
century to the early 9th century.[256] The Shahis are generally split up into two
eras: the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought
to have occurred sometime around 870. The kingdom was known as the Kabul
Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 to 670, when the capitals were located in
Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as Hund[257] for its
new capital.[258][259][260]

The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is known for his struggles in defending his
kingdom against the Ghaznavids in the modern-day eastern Afghanistan and
Pakistan region. Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids
and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both in the reign of Sebuktigin and in
that of his son Mahmud, which initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu
Shahi struggles.[261] Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to
pay an indemnity.[261] Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the
battlefield once more.[261] Jayapala however, lost control of the entire region
between the Kabul Valley and Indus River.[262]

Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus. Sixth-century "image ofHindu
When Jaipal went to the Punjab region, his army was raised to 100,000 deity, Ganesha, consecrated by
horsemen and an innumerable host of foot soldiers. According to Ferishta: the Shahi King Khingala."
(Gardez, Afghanistan)

The two armies having met on the confines of Lumghan,

Subooktugeen ascended a hill to view the forces of Jeipal, which
appeared in extent like the boundless ocean, and in number like the
ants or the locusts of the wilderness. But Subooktugeen considered
himself as a wolf about to attack a flock of sheep: calling,
therefore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to glory, and
issued to each his commands. His soldiers, though few in number,
were divided into squadrons of five hundred men each, which were
directed to attack successively, one particular point of the Hindoo
line, so that it might continually have to encounter fresh
troops.[262]

However, the army was hopeless in battle against the western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of
Ghazni.[262] In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the
Qarakhanids north of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni once more and upon suffering yet another defeat
by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day Peshawar. After the Battle of Peshawar, he committed
suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahi dynasty.[261][262]

Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala,[261] who along with other succeeding generations of the
Shahiya dynasty took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznvids but were
unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the Kashmir Siwalik Hills.[262]
Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526 CE)
The late medieval period is defined by the
disruption to native Indian elites by
Muslim Central Asian nomadic
clans;[263][264] leading to the Rajput
resistance to Muslim conquests. The
growth of Hindu and Muslim dynasties
and empires, built upon new military
technology and techniques.[265] The rise
of theistic devotional trend of the Bhakti
Built during the course of the 15th The Mehrangarh Fort at Jodhpur was
movement and the advent of Sikhism.
century by Rana Kumbha, the walls built by Rao Jodha in 1459. The fort
of the fort of Kumbhalgarh extend is gained through series of seven
Growth of Muslim population over 38 km, claimed to be the gates, one of the most famous gate
second-longest continuous wall after being the Fateh Pol, which
Like other settled, agrarian societies in the Great Wall of China. symbolises Rajput resistance to
history, those in the Indian subcontinent Muslim conquests with the Rajput
have been attacked by nomadic tribes victory over the Mughals.
throughout its long history. In evaluating
the impact of Islam on the sub-continent,
one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia. In
that sense, the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier
invasions during the 1st millennium.[266] What does however, make the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim
invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the
successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems
that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics, even
influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though the non-Muslim population
was left to their own laws and customs.[263][264] They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways
were very different from the existing cultural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture which was
mixed in nature, though different from both the ancient Indian culture and later westernised modern Indian
culture. At the same time it must be noted that overwhelming majority of Muslims in India are Indian natives
converted to Islam. This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures.[267]

The growth of Muslim dominion resulted in the destruction and desecration of politically important temples of
enemy states,[268] cases of forced conversions to Islam,[269] payment of jizya tax,[270] and loss of life for the
non-Muslim population.[271]

Rajput resistance to Muslim con quests

Before the Muslim expeditions into the Indian subcontinent, much of North and West India was ruled by Rajput
dynasties. The Rajputs and the south Indian Chalukya dynasty were successful in containing Arab Muslim
expansion during the Caliphate campaigns in India; but later, Central Asian Muslim Turks were able to break
through the Rajput defence into the Northern Indian heartland. However, the Rajputs held out against the
Muslim Turkic empires for several centuries. They earned a reputation of fighting battles obeying a code of
chivalrous conduct rooted in a strong adherence to tradition and Chi.[272]

The Rajput Chauhan dynasty established its control over Delhi and Ajmer in the 10th century. The most famous
ruler of this dynasty was Prithviraj Chauhan. His reign marked one of the most significant moments in Indian
history; his battles with Muslim Sultan, Muhammad Ghori. In the First Battle of Tarain, Ghori was defeated
with heavy losses. However, the Second Battle of Tarain saw the Rajput army eventually defeated, laying the
foundation of Muslim rule in mainland India.[273]
The Mewar dynasty under Maharana
Hammir defeated and captured
Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars
as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a
huge ransom and relinquish all of
Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi
Sultanate did not attack Chittorgarh for a
few hundred years. The Rajputs re-
established their independence, and
Rajput states were established as far east
as Bengal and north into the Punjab. The
Kirti Chittorgarh Fort is the largest fort on the Indian Vijay
Tomaras established themselves at
Stambh subcontinent; it is one of the sixHill Forts of Stambha
Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar built the
Rajasthan.
fortress which still stands there.[274]
During this period, Mewar emerged as
the leading Rajput state; and Rana
Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.[274][275] The next great
Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in
scope – he planned to conquer the much sought after prize of the Muslim rulers of the time, Delhi. But, his
defeat in the Battle of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.[274] However, Maharana Pratap
of Mewar, a 16th-century Rajput ruler, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He
survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittorgarh Fort.[276]

The Chittorgarh Fort is the largest in India; it is a symbol for Rajput resistance. Chittorgarh Fort was sacked
three times during the 15th and 16th centuries by Muslim armies. In 1303 Allauddin Khilji defeated Rana
Ratan Singh; in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the Sultanate of Gujarat defeated Bikramjeet Singh; and in 1567 Akbar
defeated Maharana Udai Singh II, who left the fort and founded Udaipur. Each time the men fought bravely
rushing out of the fort walls charging the enemy, but lost. Following these defeats, Jauhar was committed thrice
by many of the wives and children of the Rajput soldiers who died in battles at Chittorgarh Fort. The first time,
this was led by Rani Padmini wife of Rana Rattan Singh who was killed in the battle in 1303, and later by Rani
Karnavati in 1537.[277]

Delhi Sultanate

The historian Dr. R.P. Tripathi noted:

Delhi Sultanate

The history of Muslim sovereignty in India

begins properly speaking with Iltutmish.[278]

The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim sultanate based in

Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of Turkic, Turko-
Indian[279] and Pathan origins.[280] It ruled large parts of
the Indian subcontinent from the 13th century to the early
16th century.[281] The context behind the rise of the Delhi
Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting
much of the Asian continent, including the whole of Qutub Minar is the Delhi Sultanate under
southern and western Asia: the influx of nomadic Turkic world's tallest brick various dynasties.
peoples from the Central Asian steppes. This can be minaret, commenced by
Qutb-ud-din Aybak of
traced back to the 9th century, when the Islamic Caliphate
the Slave dynasty.
began fragmenting in the Middle East, where Muslim
rulers in rival states began enslaving non-Muslim
nomadic Turks from the Central Asian steppes, and
raising many of them to become loyal military slaves called Mamluks. Soon, Turks were migrating to Muslim
lands and becoming Islamicized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and
conquered large parts of the Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to Afghanistan, before
turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent.[282]

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi
Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.[283] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large
areas of northern India, while the Khilji dynasty conquered most of central India while forcing the principal
Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states.[281] However, they were ultimately unsuccessful in
conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The
resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature,
religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various
Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers
of Sanskritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi
Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana
(1236–1240).

During the Delhi Sultanate, there was a synthesis between Indian civilization and Islamic civilization. The latter
was a cosmopolitan civilization, with a multicultural and pluralistic society, and wide-ranging international
networks, including social and economic networks, spanning large parts of Afro-Eurasia, leading to escalating
circulation of goods, peoples, technologies and ideas. While initially disruptive due to the passing of power
from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian
subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a
significant impact on Indian culture and society.[284]

From 1 CE to 1000 CE, the Indian population and economy were stagnant with no growth for a thousand years.
During the Medieval Delhi Sultanate era, between 1000 and 1500, India began to experience population and
GDP growth for the first time in a thousand years, with the population increasing nearly 50% and the GDP
increasing nearly 80% by 1500.[285] In terms of GDP per capita, India's per-capita income was lower than the
Middle East from 1 CE (16% lower) to 1000 CE (about 40% lower), but by the late Delhi Sultanate era in 1500,
India's GDP per capita had increased to being almost on-par with the Middle East.[286]

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire had invaded and conquered most of Asia and Eastern Europe.
However, the Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate. A major factor in
their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic
cavalry warfare as the Mongols, as a result of having similar nomadic Central Asian roots. It is possible that the
Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.[287]

A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din
Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[288] The Sultan's army was defeated on 17
December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army
had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the
sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.[289]
The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi revived briefly under the Lodi Dynasty, but it
was a shadow of the former.

Bhakti movement and Sikhism

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism[291] and later
revolutionised in Sikhism.[292] It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and
Kerala), and spread northwards.[291] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching
its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[293]

The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism
(Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.[294][295][296] The movement
was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from
 theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita
Vedanta.[297][298]
Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the
first Guru,[299] and the ten successive Sikh gurus. After the death
of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikh scripture, Guru
Granth Sahib, became the literal embodiment of the eternal,
impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the
spiritual guide for Sikhs.[300][301][302]

Vijayanagara Empir e

The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his The Dasam Granth (above) was
brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty.[303] The empire is named composed by Sikh Guru Gobind Singh.
after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day The major narrative in the text is on
Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[304] Chaubis Avtar (24 Avatars of Hindu god
Vishnu), Rudra, Brahma, the Hindu
warrior goddess Chandi and a story of
Rama in Bachittar Natak.[290]

The empire's legacy includes many

monuments spread over South India, the
best known of which is the group at
Hampi. The previous temple building
Vijayanagara market place atHampi, Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple
traditions in South India came together in
along with the sacred tank located on at Hampi. the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The
the side of Krishna temple. mingling of all faiths and vernaculars
inspired architectural innovation of
Hindu temple construction, first in the
Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the
protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama
founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of
great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south
India.[305] Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water
management systems for irrigation.[306] The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new
heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.[307]

The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting
Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when
Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in
the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously
maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.[308] Many important monuments were either
completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara went into decline after the
defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565).

Regional powers

For two and a half centuries from the mid 13th century,
politics in Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Regional powers
Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar
Empire, which originated as a political heir of the
Hoysala Empire and Pandyan Empire.[309] However,
there were other regional powers present as well. The
Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate;
and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to
Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the
expanding Vijayanagara Empire.[310] In the north, the
Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western
and Central India. Their power reached its zenith under
Rana Sanga, during whose time Rajput armies were
constantly victorious against the Sultanate armies.[311] In
the south, the Bahmani Sultanate was the chief rival of
the Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for
the Vijayanagara.[312] In the early 16th century
Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the "Sala fighting the Rang Ghar, built by
last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power, after which the Lion," the emblem of Pramatta Singha in
Bahmani Sultanate collapsed.[313] It was established Hoysala Empire. Ahom Kingdom's
either by a Brahman convert or patronised by a Brahman Hoysala administration capital Rongpur, is one
and from that source it was given the name Bahmani.[314] and architecture would of the earliest pavilion
In the early 16th century, it collapsed and split into five influence Vijayanagara of outdoor stadia in the
Empire, their political Indian subcontinent.
small Deccan sultanates.[315]
heir.
In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong
regional power to reckon with, associated with a high
point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire
stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.[316] In Northeast India, the Ahom
Kingdom was a major power for six centuries;[317][318] led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively
defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts.[319] Further east in
Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and
developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.[320][321][322]

Early modern period (c. 1526 – 1858 CE)

The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526–1858 CE, corresponding to the rise and fall of
the Mughal dynasty. This period witnessed the cultural synthesis of Hindu and Muslim elements reflected in
Indo-Islamic architecture;[323][324] the growth of Maratha and Sikh imperial powers over vast regions of the
Indian subcontinent with the decline of the Mughals; and came to an end when the British Raj was founded.[23]

Mughal Empire

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and

Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern day Mughal Empire
Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and
established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith
covered modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and
Bangladesh.[325] However, his son Humayun was
defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year
1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After
Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and his Hindu
general Hemu Vikramaditya had established secular rule
in North India from Delhi till 1556. After winning Battle
of Delhi, Akbar's forces defeated Hemu in the Second
Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556. Taj Mahal, built by the The Mughal Empire at
Mughals. its greatest extent, in the
The famous emperor Akbar the Great, who was the early 18th century.
grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship
with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing
of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the
jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas,
and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Persian
culture and Indo-Saracenic architecture. Akbar married a Rajput princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a
son, Jahangir, who was part-Mughal and part-Rajput, as were future Mughal emperors.[326] Jahangir more or
less followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign
of Shah Jahan was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most
famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid,
Delhi, and the Lahore Fort.

The Mughal era is considered to be "India's last golden age".[327] It was the second largest empire to have
existed in the Indian subcontinent,[328] and surpassed China to be become the world's largest economic power,
controlling 24.4% of the world economy,[329] and the world leader in manufacturing,[330] producing 25% of
global industrial output.[331] India's GDP growth increased under the Mughal Empire, with India's GDP having
a faster growth rate during the Mughal era than in the 1,500 years prior to the Mughal era.[332] India's
population growth also accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and
demographic upsurge that boosted the Indian population by 60%[333] to 253% in 200 years during 1500–
1700;[334] the Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian
history prior to the Mughal era.[333][332] The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal
agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production,[335] a proto-industrializing economy that began
moving towards industrial manufacturing,[336] and a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time.[327]

The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. During the Mughal era, the
dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor
states – including the Maratha Empire – which fought an increasingly weak Mughal dynasty. The Mughals had
a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived
Sultanates of Delhi had failed. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority
were ruled by the Mughal emperors, most of whom showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu
culture.

The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb and also started
its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji. Historian Sir. J.N. Sarkar
wrote, "All seemed to have been gained by Aurangzeb now, but in reality all was lost."[337] The same was
echoed by Vincent Smith: "The Deccan proved to be the graveyard not only of Aurangzeb's body but also of his
empire".[169] Aurangazeb is considered India's most controversial king.[338] He was less tolerant than his
predecessors, reintroducing the jizya tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time
building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,[339] employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial
bureaucracy than his predecessors, and opposing Sunni Muslim bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.[340]
However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as
increasing brutality and centralisation, which may have played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after
Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively less pluralistic policies on the general
population, which may have inflamed the majority Hindu population.

The empire went into decline thereafter. The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from Marathas
and Afghans. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum
and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of the Maratha
Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent
8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice
Mughal general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire,
the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This
essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal
army at the Battle of Karnal.[341] After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many
treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[342] The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The
remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857
War of Independence, and the remains of the empire were formally taken over by the British while the
Government of India Act 1858 let the British Crown assume direct control of India in the form of the new
British Raj.

Maratha Empire

The early 18th century saw the rise of Maratha suzerainty

over the Indian subcontinent. Under the Peshwas, the Maratha Empire
Maratha Empire consolidated and ruled over much of
South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent
for ending the Mughal rule in India.[343][344][345]

The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by

Chatrapati Shivaji, a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle
clan who was determined to establish Hindavi Swarajya.
Sir J.N. Sarkar described Shivaji as "the last great
constructive genius and nation builder that the Hindu race
has produced".[346] However, the credit for making the
Marathas formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa Political map of Indian Shaniwarwada palace
Bajirao I. Subcontinent in 1758. fort in Pune, it was the
The Maratha Empire seat of the Peshwa
Historian K.K. Datta wrote about Bajirao I: (orange) was the last rulers of the Maratha
Hindu empire of India. Empire until 1818.
He may very well be regarded as the second
founder of the Maratha Empire.[347]

By the early 18th century, the Maratha Kingdom had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule
of the Peshwas (prime ministers). In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, Delhi itself in
Battle of Delhi (1737). The Marathas continued their military campaigns against Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of
Bengal and Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. Gordon explained how the Maratha
systematically took control over new regions. They would start with annual raids, followed by collecting
ransom from villages and towns while the declining Mughal Empire retained nominal control and finally taking
over the region. He explained it with the example of Malwa region. Marathas built an efficient system of public
administration known for its attention to detail. It succeeded in raising revenue in districts that recovered from
years of raids, up to levels previously enjoyed by the Mughals. For example, the cornerstone of the Maratha
rule in Malwa rested on the 60 or so local tax collectors who advanced the Maratha ruler Peshwa a portion of
their district revenues at interest.[348] By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across practically the
entire subcontinent.[349]

The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However,
the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.[350] The
defeat of Marathas by British in third Anglo-Maratha Wars brought end to the empire by 1820. The last
peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. With the defeat of the
Marathas, no native power represented any significant threat for the British afterwards.[351] As noted by
Charles Metcalfe, one of the ablest of the British Officials in India and later acting Governor-General, wrote in
1806:

India contains no more than two great powers, British and Mahratta, and every other state
acknowledges the influence of one or the other. Every inch that we recede will be occupied by
them.[352][353]
The Marathas also developed a potent navy circa 1660s, which at its peak, dominated the territorial waters of
the western coast of India from Mumbai to Savantwadi.[354] For a brief period, the Maratha Navy also
established its base at the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal.[355] It would engage in attacking the British,
Portuguese, Dutch, and Siddi Naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambitions. The Maratha Navy
dominated till around the 1730s, was in a state of decline by the 1770s, and ceased to exist by 1818.[356]

Sikh Empire

The Sikh Empire, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political
entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian
Subcontinent. The empire, based around the Punjab region, existed
from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa,
under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839) from an
array of autonomous Punjabi Misls.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated many parts of northern India into

an empire. He primarily used his highly disciplined Sikh Khalsa Army
that he trained and equipped with modern military technologies and
Harmandir Sahib (The Golden Temple) is
technique. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and
culturally the most significant place of
selected well qualified generals for his army. He continuously defeated
worship for the Sikhs.
the Afghan armies and successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh Wars. In
stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and
Kashmir, the Peshawar Valley, and the Derajat to his empire.[357][358]

At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north,
to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the
empire weakened, leading to the conflict with the British East India Company. The hard-fought first Anglo-
Sikh war and second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire; making it among the last areas
of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.

Other kingdoms

There were several other kingdoms which ruled over parts of India in the later medieval period prior to the
British occupation. However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the Marathas.[349] The rule of
Wodeyar dynasty which established the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India in around 1400 CE by was
interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore
fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against
the British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the French.

The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire.
However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748 as a
result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas.

Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif
Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in
1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Kingdom of Mysore and Hyderabad State
became princely states in British India in 1799 and 1798 respectively.

The 18th century saw the whole of Rajputana virtually subdued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha
War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterwards Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In
1817, the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly
became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers
from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other
Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the
British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.[359] Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to
 Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made
in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The Rajputana
Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being
Udaipur State, Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.

After the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the
Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold Kashmir to
Mysore Palace in the evening, the official Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state of Jammu and
residence and seat of theWodeyars, the rulers Kashmir, the second largest princely state in British India, was
of Mysore of the Mysore Kingdom, the royal created by the Dogra dynasty.[360][361]
family of Mysore.
After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Palaiyakkarar states
emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and
flourished till the advent of the British.[362] Around the 18th
century, the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.[363]

European exploration and colon ialism

Western explorers and traders

Umaid Bhawan Palacein Rajasthan, one of the
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama successfully
world's largest private residences. Built by
discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the
Maharaja Umaid Singh, the ruler of the
Princely State of Jodhpur.
way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set
up trading posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. Goa became

the main Portuguese base until it was

annexed by India in 1961.[364]

The next to arrive were the Dutch, with

their main base in Ceylon. They
established ports in Malabar. However,
their expansion into India was halted,
after their defeat in the Battle of
Colachel by the Kingdom of
Travancore, during the Travancore- Eustachius De Lannoyof the Dutch
The route followed inVasco da
Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered East India Company surrenders to
Gama's first voyage (1497–1499).
from the defeat and no longer posed a Maharaja Marthanda Varma of the
large colonial threat to India.[365][366] Kingdom of Travancore after the Battle
of Colachel.
In the words of the noted historian,
Professor A. Sreedhara Menon:

A disaster of the first magnitude for the Dutch, the battle of Colachel shattered for all time their
dream of the conquest of Kerala.

The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish
political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British—who set up in the west coast port of
Surat in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although these continental European
powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they
eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of
Pondichéry and Chandernagore,[367][368] and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.[369]

Expansion of the British East India Company rule in India

In 1617 the British East India Company was given permission by Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in
India.[370] Gradually their increasing influence led the de jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them
dastaks or permits for duty-free trade in Bengal in 1717.[371]

The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal
province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the
Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, in which the Bengal Army of the
East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the French-
supported Nawab's forces. This was the first real political foothold with
territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was
appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.[372]
This was combined with British victories over the French at Madras,
Wandiwash and Pondichéry that, along with wider British successes
during the Seven Years' War, reduced French influence in India. The
British East India Company extended its control over the whole of
Bengal. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the
rights of administration in Bengal from de jure Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the
next century engulfed most of India.[373] The East India Company
monopolised the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation
system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal-like
structure in Bengal, often with zamindars set in place.

As a result of the three Carnatic Wars, the British East India Company Map of India in 1857 at the end of
gained exclusive control over the entire Carnatic region of India.[374] Company rule.
The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay
and Madras; the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–1799) and later the Anglo-
Maratha Wars (1772–1818) led to control of the vast regions of India. Ahom Kingdom of North-east India first
fell to Burmese invasion and then to British after Treaty of Yandabo in 1826. Punjab, North-West Frontier
Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849; however, Kashmir was
immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely
state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the Anglo-
Nepalese War of 1814–16 and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In 1854, Berar was
annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later.

After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated
expansion of Company territories.[375] This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company
and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states or native
states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.

By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian subcontinent. Their policy was sometimes
summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and
social and religious groups.[376]

Indian indenture system

The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million
Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar)
plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the
development of large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion and Mauritius) to
Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population.

Modern period and independence (after c. 1850 CE)

The rebellion of 1857 and its con sequences

The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers

employed by the British East India in northern and central India against
the Company's rule. The rebels were disorganised, had differing goals,
and were poorly equipped, led, and trained, and had no outside support
or funding. They were brutally suppressed and the British government
took control of the Company and eliminated many of the grievances
that caused it. The government also was determined to keep full control
so that no rebellion of such size would ever happen again.[377]
Attack of the mutineers on the Redan
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East India Battery at Lucknow, 30 July 1857.
Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of
India as a number of provinces. The Crown controlled the Company's
lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely
states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual
state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the
independent nation in 1947–48.[378]

British Raj (c. 1858 – 1947)

After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its

infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The
Indian Penal Code came into being.[379] In education, Thomas
Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in his
famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing the
use of English as the medium of instruction. By 1890 some 60,000
Indians had matriculated.[380] The Indian economy grew at about 1%
per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%.
However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow
significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th
century which was the fourth largest in the world.[381] The British Raj The British Indian Empire at its greatest
invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation extent (in a map of 1909). Theprincely
systems in addition to railways, telegraphy, roads and ports.[382] states under British suzerainty are in
However, historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic yellow.
history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer at the
end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment
occurred because of the British.[383]

In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal
and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be for efficient administration but the
people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the
organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed.
Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India John
Morley consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for
Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The
Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for
Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.[384] Several
socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the All India Muslim League in
1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. It was
internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus.[385] The
Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu

interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.[386] Sikhs founded the Shiromani
interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.[386] Sikhs founded the Shiromani
Akali Dal in 1920.[387] However, the largest and oldest political party Indian National Congress, founded in
1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.[388]

Bengal Renaissance

The Bengal Renaissance refers to a social reform

movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth Bengal Renaissance
centuries in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent
during the period of British rule dominated by Bengali
Hindus. The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have
started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) and
ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), although
many stalwarts thereafter continued to embody particular
aspects of the unique intellectual and creative output of
the region.[391] Nineteenth century Bengal was a unique
blend of religious and social reformers, scholars, literary
giants, journalists, patriotic orators, and scientists, all
merging to form the image of a renaissance, and marked Rabindranath Tagore is Swami Vivekananda
the transition from the 'medieval' to the 'modern'.[392] Asia's first Nobel was a key figure in
laureate and composer introducing Vedanta and
During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual of India's national Yoga in the Western
awakening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance. anthem. world,[389] raising
This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, interfaith awareness and
particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry making Hinduism a
system, the caste system, and religion. One of the earliest world religion.[390]
social movements that emerged during this time was the
Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism
and atheism as the common denominators of civil
conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.[393] It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and
intellect across the Indian subcontinent.

Famines

During Company rule in India and the British Raj, famines in India, often
attributed to failed policies of British colonial government, were some of
the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–78 in which
6.1 million to 10.3 million people died,[395] the Great Bengal famine of
1770 where up to 10 million people died,[396] the Indian famine of 1899–
1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died,[397] and the Bengal famine
of 1943 where up to 3.8 million people died.[398] The Third Plague
Pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India.[399]
Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian
Victims of the Great Famine of
subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750,[400] had reached
1876–78 in British India, pictured in
389 million by 1941.[401]
1877. The famine ultimately covered
an area of 670,000 square kilometres
(257,000 sq mi) and caused distress The Indian independence movement
to a population totalling 58,500,000.
The death toll from this famine is The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule two-
estimated to be in the range of thirds of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over
5.5 million people.[394] the princely states that accounted for the remaining one-third of the area.

One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,[402] leading Indians to
One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,[402] leading Indians to
seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its
rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",[402] "racial
discriminations",[403] and "the revelation of India's past".[404]

The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to
advise the British viceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in
1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The
councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative
councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior
officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups
such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs.[405] The civil service was
increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding
the more senior positions.[406]
Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab, Bal
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj as the Gangadhar Tilak of Maharashtra, and
Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal, the
destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I
triumvirate were popularly known as
shall have it"[407] became the source of inspiration for Indians. Tilak was
Lal Bal Pal, changed the political
backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat
discourse of the Indian independence
Rai, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the movement.
Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of all imported items and the
use of Indian-made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal
Bal Pal. Under them, India's three big provinces – Maharashtra, Bengal
and Punjab shaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. In
1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak,
advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British
Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by
leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other
Mahatma Gandhi, leader of the
hand wanted reform within the framework of British rule.[408]
Indian independence movement, and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder
The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in
of Pakistan (Bombay, 1944).
recognition of India's support during the First World War and in response
to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed
measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which
introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and
appointed British officials shared power.[409]

From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the
British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule
using non-violent methods like non-co-operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. However,
revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others
adopted a militant approach like the Indian National Army that sought to overthrow British rule by armed
struggle. The Government of India Act 1935 was a major success in this regard.[408]

World War II

During the Second World War (1939–1945), India was controlled by the United Kingdom, with the British
holding territories in India including over five hundred autonomous Princely States; British India officially
declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939.[410] The British Raj, as part of the Allied Nations, sent over
two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis powers. Additionally,
several Indian Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign during the War. India
also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the China Burma India Theatre.
Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in
the European theatre against Germany, in North Africa against
Germany and Italy, against the Italians in East Africa, in the
Middle East against the Vichy French, in the South Asian region
defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in
Burma. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as
Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August
1945. Over 87,000 Indian soldiers (including those from modern
day Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh) died in World War II.

The Indian National Congress, led by Mohandas Karamchand Indian infantrymen of the7th Rajput Regiment
Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Maulana Azad, denounced about to go on patrol on theArakan front in
Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India Burma, 1944.
was independent. Congress launched the Quit India Movement in
August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the
government until independence was granted. The government was ready for this move. It immediately arrested
over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders, and then moved to suppress the violent reaction of Congress
supporters. Key leaders were kept in prison until June 1945, although Gandhi was released in May 1944
because of his health. Congress, with its leaders incommunicado, played little role on the home front. The
Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.

Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with
Germany or Japan to gain independence. Japan helped him set up the Indian National Army (INA) which
fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma. Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free India,
a government-in-exile based in Singapore. It controlled no Indian territory and was used only to raise troops for
Japan.

By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory
of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the Provisional Government of
Free India on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan
crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the mainland of South Asia
reached its farthest point on India territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of
Imphal on 3 July 1944.

The region of Bengal in India suffered a devastating famine during 1940–43.

After World War II (c. 1946 – 1947)

In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen
frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian
Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. The mutinies were
rapidly suppressed. Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India and in eight of the eleven provinces
Congress candidates won.

Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced
its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an interim
government.

Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over
the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively
Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were
to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of
leadership.
Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August
1946 as Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting,
peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which
resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later
called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946". The communal
violence spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), to
Noakhali in Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), in
Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces (where Muslims were
attacked by Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which
Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims. Dead and wounded after the Direct
'
Action Day', which developed into
Independence and partition (c. 1947–pr esent) pitched battles as Muslim and Hindu
mobs rioted across Calcutta in 1946, the
The British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being year before independence.
partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan.
Following the controversial division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal,
rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of
India, leaving some 500,000 dead.[411] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded
in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created
nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).[411] In
1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.

Historiography
Historiography is the study of the history and methodology of the discipline of history. The term historiography
also denotes a body of historical work on a specialised topic. In recent decades there have been four main
schools of historiography regarding India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common
"Orientalist" approach, with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in
serious scholarship.[412]

The "Cambridge School", led by Anil Seal,[413] Gordon Johnson,[414] Richard Gordon, and David A.
Washbrook,[415] downplays ideology.[416] However, this school of historiography is criticised for western bias
or Eurocentrism.[417]

The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the
Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical events.
This school of historiography has received criticism for Elitism.[418]

The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in
precolonial India and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's
movement as a device of the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own
ends. Again, the Marxists are accused of being "too much" ideologically influenced.[419]

The "subaltern school", was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash.[420] It focuses attention
away from the elites and politicians to "history from below", looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry,
riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the colonial era
before 1947 and typically emphasises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist school.[421]

More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history to support their demands for "Hindutva"
("Hinduness") in Indian society. This school of thought is still in the process of development.[422] In March
2012, Diana L. Eck, professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Studies at Harvard University, authored in
her book "India: A Sacred Geography", that idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British or the
Mughals and it wasn't just a cluster of regional identities and it wasn't ethnic or racial.[423][424][425] [426]
See also
Economic history of India
History of the Republic of India
Indian maritime history
Linguistic history of the Indian subcontinent
Military history of India
Outline of ancient India
The Cambridge History of India
Timeline of Indian history

References
Notes
1. See also Tanvir Anjum, Temporal Divides: A Critical Review of the Major Schemes of Periodization in
Indian History (http://www.academia.edu/6647852/Temporal_Divides_A_Critical_Review_of_the_Major
_Schemes_of_Periodization_in_Indian_History).
2. See also Michael Witzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State (http://www.e
jvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf).
3. The "First urbanization" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.[109]

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Further reading
General

Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar. From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India (2010)

Basham, A. L., ed. The Illustrated Cultural History of India (Oxford University Press, 2007)
Brown, Judith M. Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy (2nd ed. 1994) online
Buckland, C.E. Dictionary of Indian Biography (1906) 495pp full text
Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751
– c. 1970 (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2007), 890pp;
since 1947
James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000)
Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York City: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
Khan, Yasmin. The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War (2015)
Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India (4th ed.). New York: Routledge.
Archived from the original on 23 March 2008.
Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002) excerpt and text search
Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia
Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Concise History of Modern India (2006)
Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885 (2006), 192pp
Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
Riddick, John F. The History of British India: A Chronology (2006) excerpt
Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998); 5000 entries excerpt
Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)
Sharma, R.S., India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005)
Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India, 1885–1947 (2002)
Senior, R. C. (2006). Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.
ISBN 0-9709268-6-3.
Singh, Upinder. A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century
(2008)
Singhal, D.P. A History of the Indian People. (1983)
Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned
Spear, Percival. A History of India. Volume 2. Penguin Books. (1990) [First published 1965]
Stein, Burton. A History of India (1998)
 Tapan, Habib, and Irfan Raychaudhuri, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India; Volume 1: c.
1200 – c. 1750 (1984), essays by scholars
Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004) excerpt and text search
Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (1934) 690 pages;
scholarly survey, 1599–1933 excerpt and text search
Tomlinson, B. R. The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of India)
(1996)
Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. (6th ed. 1999)

Historiography
Bannerjee, Dr. Gauranganath (1921). India as known to the ancient world. Humphrey Milford, Oxford
University Press, London.
Bayly, C. A. "State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years", Economic History Review,
(November 1985), 38#4 pp 583–596, online
Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of
History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", History Today 57#9 (2007) pp 34+.
online
Elliot, Henry Miers; John Dowson (1867–77). The History of India, as told by its own historians. The
Muhammadan Period. London: Trübner and Co.
Kahn, Yasmin. "Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War' in Martin Gegner
and Bart Ziino, eds., The Heritage of War (Routledge, 2011) pp 177–193.
Lal, Vinay, The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India (2003).
Palit, Chittabrata, Indian Historiography (2008).
Warder, A. K., An introduction to Indian historiography (1972).

Primary

The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.
online edition

External links
Hans William Brown research collection on 19th-century missionary work in India, 1882–1932, Ms.
Coll. 1033, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of
Pennsylvania

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