Aristotle (2018) and (2020)
1.What is hamartia? Describe the six elements of tragedy as mentioned by Aristotle.
2018
Hamartia is a literary device that reflects a character’s tragic or fatal flaw, or mistake in
judgment, that ultimately leads to their downfall. This term originated with Aristotle as a
means of describing an error or frailty that brings about misfortune for a tragic hero.
Aristotle wondered about many things, including drama. He came to the conclusion that
there were 6 elements of drama. They are: plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and
spectacle.
Plot (“Mythos”)
When we think of a movie or play, the first thing we probably think of is the plot. The plot is
the progression of events from A to Z, from beginning to end. Our knowledge of the situation
grows as the story goes on, even if it’s being told in a non-chronological order (see Citizen
Kane or Harold Pinter’s “Betrayal”).
Aristotle explains that plot shows a “reversal of fortune” – in other words, the situation in a
play or film may start out good and become bad (see MacBeth) or start out bad and become
good (see most romantic comedies, or any story with a happy ending).
In Aristotle’s view, plot serves as the foundation of the drama. It reflects life in that it consists
of a series of actions that lead to results. It’s mostly the plot that makes a story interesting or
un-interesting – humans are creatures of action, and we understand action.
Character (“Ethos”)
For Aristotle, the characters in a drama are secondary to the plot. Characters are mainly
representative of certain morals or qualities (i.e., their character) and how those morals or
qualities affect the outcome of the plot.
For example, in Greek plays, it was often the hubris (excessive pride) of a character that
would lead to tragedy – Oedipus Rex comes to mind. Similarly, in Star Wars, Anakin
believed he could save his wife from death but this overconfidence actually led to her death.
In this way, we get a certain commentary on how certain traits are positive or negative, how
they can lead to good or bad. A character’s personality or choices contribute directly to that
“reversal of fortune” (in Aristotle’s view, the main “point” of the plot) mentioned earlier.
Thought (“Dianoia”)
The thought of a drama is its theme. One theme of Hamlet is uncertainty, for example, while
Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner explores what it means to be human.
There may literally be a specific thought (recognition or realization) that prompted an author
to create the work, something that’s then woven throughout the story.
Diction (“Lexis”)
By diction, Aristotle meant the language through which the story is presented. Information
can be presented verbally (whether that’s through speech or song) or non-verbally (facial
expressions, a written note in a movie).
Aristotle considers it important that a work strikes the proper balance between poetic and
prosaic (regular) diction. If a play is all poetic and so no one understands it, what’s the point?
Regular speech provides clarity while poetic speech provides beauty and stimulates thought
– they have to work together, however.
Melody (“Melos”)
Melody refers to music and how it’s implemented in the story. Of course, back in ancient
Greek plays, there was a chorus that would comment on the events and – at certain
moments – dance and sing.
Melody also refers to the natural flow of events. Like a piece of music, plot has a certain flow
that has to feel natural in order to “function” properly.
Spectacle (“Opsis”)
Spectacle refers to what a film or play looks like. In a play, fancy costumes and
meticulously-designed set pieces help the audience become more invested in the narrative.
The same thing happens with films. Think of Star Wars – the fact that it’s set in space adds
something to it, and its spectacle (combined with a classic “hero’s journey” narrative) made it
incredibly popular when it first aired in 1977 and even today.
2. Write notes on the following:
i) Catharsis
ii) Mimesis (2018)
i) Catharsis.
Catharsis is the the release of emotions such as pity, sadness, and fear through
witnessing art. Catharsis involves the change of extreme emotion to lead to internal
restoration and renewal. Catharsis was first linked to drama, especially to tragedy, by the
Greek philosopher Aristotle. The theory was that, through viewing tragedy, people learned to
display emotions at a proper amount and lessen excessive outbursts of emotion in daily life.
The word catharsis comes from the Greek word katharsis, which means “purification” or
“cleansing.” Aristotle created the definition of the literary term catharsis based on the medical
use of purgative drugs or herbs which cleansed the body. He used this metaphor for
literature cleansing the emotions and/or mind.
The term Catharsis was used as a metaphor in Poetics by Aristotle, to explain the impact of
tragedy on the audiences. He believed that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic artistic
work, and that it marked its quality. He further said, in Poetics:
“Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; …
through pity [eleos] and fear [phobos] effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these
emotions” (c. 350 BCE, Book 6.2).
Here are some examples of catharsis in literature:
In William Shakespeare’s historical drama Julius Caesar, Caesar was betrayed by his
comrade, Brutus, and was brutally murdered. Brutus feels an overwhelming amount of guilt
due to this action and catharsis occurs when he commits suicide bringing a purge of
emotions.
William Shakespeare is a master of catharsis, as you can see in many of his great tragedies.
In Romeo and Juliet, the two star-crossed lovers eventually commit suicide. The audience,
often in tears by this point, experiences a feeling of catharsis. As the play closes, the two
families in the story make peace with one another, offering a feeling of closure.
ii) Mimesis
Mimesis is a term used in philosophy and in literary criticism. It is basic principle of
creating art. It is a Greek word which means imitation and self-presentation. Plato and
Aristotle both have spoken about this and both have different opinion about it. Plato who
took mimesis to be unifying concept where Aristotle against Plato took mimesis as a limiting
or differentiating concept.
In his theory of Mimesis, Plato says that all art is mimetic by nature; art is an imitation
of life. He believed that ‘idea’ is the ultimate reality. Art imitates idea and so it is imitation of
reality. He gives an example of a carpenter and a chair. The idea of ‘chair’ first came in the
mind of carpenter. He gave physical shape to his idea out of wood and created a chair. The
painter imitated the chair of the carpenter in his picture of chair. Thus, painter’s chair is twice
removed from reality. Hence, he believed that art is twice removed from reality. He gives first
importance to philosophy as philosophy deals with the ideas whereas poetry deals with
illusion – things which are twice removed from reality. So to Plato, philosophy is superior to
poetry. Plato rejected poetry as it is mimetic in nature on the moral and philosophical
grounds. On the contrary, Aristotle advocated poetry as it is mimetic in nature. According to
him, poetry is an imitation of an action and his tool of enquiry is neither philosophical nor
moral. He examines poetry as a piece of art and not as a book of preaching or teaching.
Aristotle’s ‘mimesis’ does not refer to the imitation of Idea and appearances, like that of
Plato. He argues that each area of knowledge is imitation in the sense that as a human
being we all learn through imitation. However, he carefully makes a distinction between
different kinds of knowledge. For instance,he claims that art and philosophy deal with
different kind of truth; philosophy deals with concrete and absolute truth, whereas art deals
with aesthetic and universal truth.
3) What is Catharsis? How does it work in the context of tragedy? What purpose does
it serve ? 2020
Catharsis, the purification or purgation of the emotions (especially pity and fear)
primarily through art. In criticism, catharsis is a metaphor used by Aristotle in the Poetics to
describe the effects of true tragedy on the spectator. The use is derived from the medical
term katharsis (Greek: “purgation” or “purification”).
Catharsis explains importance of tragedy. In Aristotle’s eyes, tragedy is the purgation
of emotions such as pity and fear that defines concept of catharsis. Whole “Poetics” of
Aristotle emphasizes on catharsis of pity and fear. Thus, the word became matter of
controversy between the critics. Aristotle defines tragedy and says that when protagonist,
who is mixture of good and bad qualities, suffers and falls from prosperity to adversity, it
causes the catharsis of pity and fear.
Purgation and purification best describe catharsis. Undoubtedly, Aristotle lays great
importance on pity and fear and when spectators witness pain of the hero they feel pity for
him. In a tragedy, the reader/spectator puts himself in place of the tragic hero and thinks
what he could do if he were the hero. Every person feels the same as felt by tragic hero.
Feelings and emotions are there in everyone. These are natural and everyone possesses
them. What makes difference is their suppression. Some can suppress them easily whereas
others cannot. Ultimately feelings of pity and fear arise and the same increase with every
hardship faced by the tragic hero.
A tragedy, in true words, is the purgation of these feelings and emotions. Catharsis,
thus is synonymous for relief that is observed by every person after purgation of feelings. We
know that feelings, no matter what their type is, create disturbance until they are released. A
true tragedy, first provoke these feelings and then gives relief from them. Hence, catharsis
has also been defined as the purgation of feelings that arise while observing a tragedy.
After seeing sufferings of the hero, it is certain that feelings of pity and fear arouse and the
spectator refuses to take such steps, which cause sufferings. If we see the word catharsis in
this context then it reveals that Catharsis is merely used for the purpose of teaching. Of
course, spectator learns something from tragedy and every tragedy has a subject, which
indeed has a moral lesson. Perhaps Aristotle uses this word for the purpose of teaching. It is
necessary to remember that Aristotle emphasizes too much on the main character and says
that he must be the combination of good and bad qualities. If the character is mixture of
good and bad, the spectator, after witnessing sufferings does not dare to take such steps but
if he is too good, it will be unjustified for a good man to suffer and instead of learning he will
show his sympathy. If he is totally a bad person, then his sufferings are good because he
deserves it. It is clear that Aristotle kept morality on his mind while defining tragedy. So, the
word catharsis may be used for morality and for teaching purposes in the “Poetics”.
4. Write notes on the following:
i) Aristotle's concept of mimesis
ii) Willing suspension of disbelief (2020)
i) Aristotle's concept of mimesis:
Aristotle states that all human actions are mimetic and that men learn
through imitation. In particular, ‘mimesis’ is the distinguishing quality of an artist.
‘Mimesis’, particularly, becomes a central term when Aristotle discusses the nature
and function of art. In the Poetics, he defines tragedy as:
‘as an imitation of human action that is serious,complete and of a certain magnitude; in
language embellished with everykind of artistic ornament, the various kinds being found in
different parts of the play; it represents man in action rather than using narrative, through pity
and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotion’
Aristotle is interested in the form of imitation and goes on to consider plot,
character, diction, thought, spectacle and song as constituting elements of a typical
tragedy. The action of plot must be complete in itself with a proper beginning,
middle and an end. All parts of action must be equally essential to the whole. Each
part of the tragedy is imitation itself. Character in tragedy imitates the action of
noble man who has to be a man of some social standing and personal reputation, but he has
to be presented us in terms of his weaknesses because it is his weakness that will make his
fall believable. Aristotle thinks that all types of art are mimetic but each may differ in the
manner, means, and object of imitation. Music imitates in sound and rhythm, painting in color
and poetry in action and word.
Aristotle’s ‘mimesis’ does not refer to the imitation of Idea and appearances, like that
of Plato. He argues that each area of knowledge is imitation in the sense that as a human
being we all learn through imitation. However, he carefully makes a distinction between
different kinds of knowledge. For instance, he claims that art and philosophy deal with
different kind of truth; philosophy deals with concrete and absolute truth, whereas art deals
with aesthetic and universal truth.
Mimesis, as Aristotle takes it, is an active aesthetic process. He argues that
‘imitation is given us by nature and men are endowed with these gifts, gradually
develop them and finally create the art of poetry’ .The poet does not imitate reality but brings
reality into existence through ‘mimesis’. The poet recreates and reorganizes already known
facts and presents them in a fresh and attractive way. therefore, though audiences know the
story of Sophocles’s Oedipus, they go and
watch it. The reality as presented to us through ‘mimesis’ is superior and universal
not only because we are pleased to learn through imitation but also because such
reality is better.
ii) Willing suspension of disbelief:
Suspension of disbelief or willing suspension of disbelief is a term coined in 1817 by the
poet and aesthetic philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who suggested that if a writer could
infuse a "human interest and a semblance of truth" into a fantastic tale, the reader would
suspend judgment concerning the implausibility of the narrative. Suspension of disbelief
often applies to fictional works of the action, comedy, fantasy, and horror genres. Cognitive
estrangement in fiction involves using a person's ignorance or lack of knowledge to promote
suspension of disbelief.
The phrase "suspension of disbelief" came to be used more loosely in the later 20th
century, often used to imply that the burden was on the reader, rather than the writer, to
achieve it. This might be used to refer to the willingness of the audience to overlook the
limitations of a medium, so that these do not interfere with the acceptance of those
premises. These fictional premises may also lend to the engagement of the mind and
perhaps proposition of thoughts, ideas, art and theories.
Suspension of disbelief is often an essential element for a magic act or a circus
sideshow act. For example, an audience is not expected to actually believe that a woman is
cut in half or transforms into a gorilla in order to enjoy the performance.
Coleridge's original formulation
Coleridge coined the phrase in his. Biographic Literaria published in 1817, in the context of
the creation and reading of poetry.Chapter XIV describes the preparations with Wordsworth
for their revolutionary collaboration Lyrical Ballads (first edition 1798), for which Coleridge
had contributed the more romantic, gothic pieces including "The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner". Poetry and fiction involving the supernatural had gone out of fashion to a large
extent in the 18th century, in part due to the declining belief in witches and other
supernatural agents among the educated classes, who embraced the rational approach to
the world offered by the new science. Alexander Pope, notably, felt the need to explain and
justify his use of elemental spirits in "The Rape of the Lock", one of the few English poems of
the century that invoked the supernatural. Coleridge wished to revive the use of fantastic
elements in poetry. The concept of "willing suspension of disbelief" explained how a modern,
enlightened audience might continue to enjoy such types of story.
The term suspension of disbelief or willing suspension of disbelief has been defined as
a willingness to suspend one's critical faculties and believe something surreal; sacrifice of
realism and logic for the sake of enjoyment.
