DEPARTMENT OF THE NIGERIAN MERCHANT SAIL NAVY

OREINTATION UNIT

merchantsailnavy@yahoo.com

VOL. 1.

BY CAPTAIN JOHNLINUS OKORONWO

(COMMANDER GENERAL)

Chapter 1
APPRECIATION / INTRODUCTION
A brief history of the U.S Marine / Coast Guard

1790 Congress authorized the Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, to create a
maritime service to enforce customs. Alternately known as the system of cutters, Revenue
Service, and Revenue-Marine this service would officially be named the Revenue Cutter Service
in 1863. This service was placed under the control of the Treasury Department.

March 1799 the Congress authorized revenue cutter officers to board all ships of the United
States within four leagues of the U.S., if bound for the U.S. and then search and examine them,
certifying manifest, sealing hatches and remaining on board until they arrived in port. They
were also authorized to search ships of other nations in United States' waters and "perform
such other duties for the collection and security of the Revenue" as directed by the Secretary of
the Treasury.

March 1807 the Congress outlawed the importation of slaves into the United States. The
Revenue Marine enforced the law on the sea.

March 1819- Congress authorized the revenue cutters to protect merchant vessels of United
States against piracy and to seize vessels engaged in slave trade.

June 1917The Coast Guard is given powers to prevent sabotage at the nation’s harbors.

On 28 October 1919 Congress passed the National Prohibition Enforcement Act, otherwise
known as the Volstead Act. The Act authorized the Coast Guard to prevent the maritime
importation of illegal alcohol. This led to the largest increase in the size and responsibilities of
the service to that date.

1932The Coast Guard was assigned the responsibility for enforcing the Act.

1976 Coast Guard operations regarding the regulation of fisheries in U.S. waters was increased
greatly by the new Zone.
On 9 August 1982 the Department of Defense approved the use of Coast Guard law
enforcement detachments on board US Navy vessels during peacetime.

1799-1801 The Revenue Marine was first charged with protecting the nation’s coasts and its
interests on the high seas

1941-1945 (World War II) Many of the Coast Guard’s missions are augmented and expanded
during the conflict. New missions and responsibilities are added as well, including the operation
of Long Range Aids to Navigation facilities, the addition of the responsibilities of merchant
vessel inspection and documentation, and the licensing of merchant marine personnel.

1950-1953 (Korean War) On 18 January 1953 a Coast Guard PBM seaplane crashed during
takeoff after having rescued 11 survivors from a ditched U .S. Navy aircraft shot down off the
coast of mainland China. A total of nine servicemen lost their lives in this crash, including five
Coast Guardsmen.

A brief history of the Royal Navy

During the reign of Edward the Confessor (1004-1066), the maritime institution of the Cinque
Ports was established. This was composed of five ports, Dover, Hastings, Romney, Hythe and
Sandwich, later Rye and Winchelsea were added. Its purpose was for the prompt mobilisation
of merchant vessels into a navy to fight against pirates and enemy attacks.

In 1190 Richard I introduced the Laws of Oleron into England. These were a code of maritime
law originally enacted by his mother Eleanor of Aquitaine. The laws dealt with the rights and
responsibilities of ships’ captains in relation to discipline, mutiny, pay, cargoes, sickness on
board, and pilotage.

In 1340 the Battle of Sluys was the first naval battle fought in ships, although the fleet was
made up of mainly commandeered merchant vessels. This is deemed to be the first time a naval
dispatch had been sent, when the King wrote to his son, the Prince of Wales. The English fleet
being commanded by Edward III. Edward III became known as the ‘king of the seas’.

In 1415, the Henry V’s English invasion force was carried across the channel by 1500 ships and
boats, to fight in Agincourt. Henry V built the first ship of 1000 tons, followed by the Grace Dieu
of 1400 tons.

In 1495 Henry VII built the first dry dock at Portsmouth. Henry VIII inherited seven warships
from his father, which For his achievements Henry VIII was known as the father of the English
navy. From the Tudor period, England produced many eminent naval officers.

The British navy became the Royal Navy after the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II
in 1660. In 1661 Sir William Penn and Samuel Pepys established the Naval Discipline Act which
included the articles of war and founded In 1664 the Royal Marines were set up. Charles II
founded the Royal Society of London to encourage scientific knowledge of astronomy, biology,
geographical exploration, navigation and seamanship.

A brief history of the OF THE NIGERIAN NAVY And NIGERIAN MERCHANT SAIL NAVY

The Nigerian Navy from its humble beginning in 1956, as a seaward defence force has evolved
into its present state as a sub-regional maritime force. At present, the NN has in its inventory,
modern fighting ships equipped with state of the art weapon systems. The establishment of the
Nigerian Navy was predicated upon the need to ensure national survival and the protection of
the nation’s maritime interests.
To perform her roles as the caretaker of the nation’s maritime resources. The organization of
the Nigerian Navy is aimed at achieving maximum strategic as well as tactical advantages of the
3 elements of information, position and strength in the Nigerian Navy daily operation.
Furthermore, in order to ensure that the ships float, move and fight effectively at all times, the
dockyards and other support/logistic facilities are provided. Finally, it must be stated that the
protection of Nigeria’s maritime environment and the resources therein requires a virile navy
with a balanced fleet. Pandit Nehru, the great Indian Statesman, once said ‘To be secured on
land you must be supreme at sea.’ The Nigerian Navy remains committed to protecting
Nigeria’s citizens as well as the nation’s assets and interests at sea.

1748 The British Marine Department was established and was in charge of Security of the water
ways sea Coast, providing Labor Service in the Marine.

1854 British Merchant Navy was established using the Red Ensign/Red duster as their Flag.

1884 British Merchant Navy brought the Organization to Nigeria, the British Merchant Navy was
combining the job of:
1. Port Authority
2. Inland Water ways
3. Nigeria Navy

1914-1918 The Marine Department were recognized in Nigeria and recruitment took place
from Marine Department for soldiers to go into 1st World War against the Germans in
Cameroon.

1936 Active Duty Marine was registered and the Merchant Navy Officers in Nigeria took charge
of the Security Duties of the Nigeria Coast.

1939: During the 2nd World war, the Merchant Navy were the 1st to go into the 2nd world war
for them to fight against the Germans on a vessel called S.S ANTHONIA and 28,000 Merchant
Navy Officers lost their lives. But a ship Called “Man of War “ was given to a group of volunteers
to fight against Crime.
1948 The Queen of England set up a recruitment of about 200 Royal Navy from each country,
and all where under the formation of the Merchant Navy to fight against the enemies, when
Nigeria was still under the British Government, The Queen of England love the duties of the
Merchant Navy, so she employed them as Guard.

On 1 June 1956, the Nigeria Defence Force commenced operation with 11 assorted ships and
craft inherited from the colonial Marine Department of the Royal Navy.

On 1 May 1958, the Nigeria Defence Force was legally established as a force and re-designated
Royal Nigerian Navy. The prefix ‘Royal’ was a mark of allegiance to the Queen of England.

1st Oct 1960 the Federal Republic Of Nigeria got her Independent.

However, on Nigeria’s attainment of a republican status in 1963, the prefix ‘Royal’ was dropped
and this gave birth to the Nigerian Navy.

The modern day Nigerian Navy subsequently came into being legally through the Act of
Parliament No 21 of 1964.

2000 Merchant Navy came up with a good formation and mobilization in Nigeria but was
unsuccessful.

2009 Merchant Navy Succeeded only to register as a Maritime Workers Union.

2010 May 18th MERCHANT NAVY MARITIME ACADEMY LTD was registered as an Institution.

2012 Adams and Agaba teamed up to bring Merchant Navy into existence as the 4th Arm Forces
after the 1st Reading at the Senate in Nigeria, but was still on pending.

19thOctober2015, MERCHANT NAVY CHARITABLE SEAFARES CARE ASSOCIATION OF NIGERIA

known as (MERNACSCAN) Was Registered in Nigeria.

2019 December 10th, MERCHANT SAIL NAVY INTERNATIONAL SECURITY LTD known as SAIL
NAVY Was Registered in Nigeria and Certificate was issued to the National President,
Commander General in the Person of CAPTAIN JOHNLINUS OKORONKWO.

The Association Uniform White Up And Down as Liberty, Navy Blue up and Down which is the
Action Rig, And Sail Navy T-Shirt which is the Gunboat.

The Merchant Sail Navy color is Navy Blue which stand for Peace, White which stand for Love
and Navy Blue which stand for Power.

The Nigerian Merchant Sail Navy Motto is SAFETY, FIRST SAFETY ALWAYS.
THERE ARE 3 TYPES MARINE DEPARTMENT

1. Active Duty Marine

2. Reserve Marine
3. Civilian Marine

1. The Active Duty Marine are the Country Navy(SHIP), they are SOLDIERS example
Nigeria Navy,they provide security at Sea, Air and Land in Nigeria and they fight
against foreign aggression in Nigeria. They uses Navy or Naval I.D Card.

2. The Reserve Marine are the Merchant Sail Navy, they are the RESERVE MARINERS,
they protect lives and properties, they provide security at Sea, Air and Land in
Nigeria and they carry out the marine policing duties. They uses Sail Navy I.D Card.

3. The Civilian Marine are the Seafarers, they work only as ship workers, serving
onboard (Ship) or Serving on Land (Shipping Companies) they promote the country
economy growth through the maritime system. They uses the Marine Company I.D
Card which they work under with the Company name boldly written on it.

The Duties of Nigerian Merchant Sail Navy are :

1. To Carry on the Business of protecting lives and Properties

2. Implementing the Objectives of the Local Content Act and other Relevant Shipping Laws
3. To Carry on the Business of Establishing Ship building Company.
4. To Establish a World Standard Maritime Institution and Provide Professional Maritime
Training.
5. To provide Security Equipment and to Provide Professional Security Service.
6. To provide trained Security Dogs
7. To Carry on the business of promoting Agriculture.
8. Stopping of Illegal Oil Activities.
9. To Regulate Maritime Activities and Prevent illegal oil Production such as Bunkering.
10. To Carry on the business of General contracts, and General Merchandise.
11. To borrow or raise money In such manner as the Company shall deem fit, for the
purpose of carrying out it’s businesses.
12. To do all such other things as may be considered incidental or conducive to the
attainment of the above objects or any of them.
 NATO
PHONETIC IN ALPHABET

A- Alpha N- November
B- Bravo O- Oscar
C- Charlie P- Papa
D- Delta Q- Quebec
E- Echo R- Romeo
F- Foxtrot S- Sierra
G- Golf T- Tango
H- Hotel U- Uniform
I- India V- Victor
J- Juliet W- Whiskey
K- Kilo X- X Ray
L- Lima Y- Yankee
M- Mike Z- Zulu

EXAMPLE: JOHN (JULIET OSCAR HOTEL NOVEMBER )

PHONETIC IN NUMBERS

i. NADA ZERO
ii. UNA ONE
iii. BISSO TWO
iv. TERRA THREE
v. KARTE FOUR
vi. PANTA FIVE
vii. SOXI SIX
viii. SETTE SEVEN
ix. OKTO EIGHT
x. NOVE NINE

EXAMPE: 1990 (NADA NOVE NOVE NADA)

 Chapter 2
FIRE FIGHTING

Index
Abbreviations/ Acronyms
Introductory Note
Fire / Conflagration / Phenomenology of Combustion / Fire Classes /
Fire Extinction
Forms of Combustion
Manifestations and combustion products
Extinction Methods
Extinguishing Agents
Means of First Intervention
Safety Signs and Symbols

Abbreviations/ Acronyms

R - Right
L - Left
Fig. - Figure
nº - Number
p. - Page
Introductory Note

There’s an old saying that prevention is always more effective and cheaper than the cure.

The irrefutability of the popular aphorism quoted above, the growing preoccupation with questions
based on safety and the fact that collective and personal safety are an inherent principle of basic human
necessities, in the concept of citizenship and in communal and individual wellbeing, makes training in
this area play a role of extreme importance.

This manual was elaborated, due to this preoccupation, with the intention of collecting a conjunction of
guides which may help the development of training regarding elementary aspects of safety, such as, first
intervention means and safety signs. Thus, the purpose of this document is to:

- Contribute towards training in the safety area;

- Collect information, norms and bibliographical sources necessary to train the
school community in this area;
- Create a document, in writing, that serves as a basis for training regarding means
of first interventions and safety signs/symbols.
-

This manual is divided in five captures which deal with the following aspects:

1. fire/conflagration – definition and its importance/ damage to Humanity;

2. phenomenology of combustion – approach the aspects susceptible to influence this reaction:
3. fire classes – reference to the types of fires related to combustible materials;
4. fire extinction – explanation of the methods/means and agents used to put out/control fires;
5. safety signs and symbols – principle aspects to be taken into consideration regarding the
interpretation/identification of evacuation signs and extinction devices are referenced.

We hope this manual will be easy to consult and turn into a valuable informative instrument and
promote a better culture on the responsibility of safety, very same discovery. However, when Men
loose control of a Fire, conflagration starts, with all the losses and damage that it can cause. Therefore,
we can say that conflagration is all or any type of non circumscribed fire, considered a reaction of
combustion, in other words, a chemical reaction initiated and developed by an activated reaction,
capable of combining a combustible element with an oxidizing agent.
 Table nº 1 – Components of the fire triangle
All and any type of substance, which in the
Fuel presence of oxygen and activation energy is
capable of burning.
It is the gas, that when present, causes fuel
to burn, in its general form oxygen is
Oxygen considered a typical oxidizing agent found in
normal air (in an approximate proportion of
21%).
It is the source of energy that when
Activation
manifested in the form of heat can provoke
energy
the ignition of combustibles.

These three components form the Triangle of Fire. This representation was acceptable for a long
time; meanwhile, many anomalous phenomena produced during a fire can not be completely explained
by this triangle.
A union sustained by these three elements, leads to the fourth element, the Chain reaction, which is
produced in a continuous manner.

The reason for using a tetrahedron and not a square is that each of the four elements is directly adjacent
and in connection with the others, as indicated in the figure above.
Forms of Combustion
Combustion becomes easy if the combustible element has the following characteristics: division state of
the material, for example a piece of paper burns quicker if it is torn into small pieces. In addition, if you
close the doors and windows of a room which contains a fire’s focal point, without renewing the
oxidizing agent, the velocity of the fire diminishes. Therefore, we can conclude that the velocity of
combustion depends on two factors: the division degree of the combustible and the degree of renewal
or supply of the oxidizing agent.

The reactions of combustion can be classified into five types, according to its velocity.

Types of Combustion

A chemical reaction between organic materials in

Spontaneous which the concentration of temperature can reach
combustion the ignition temperature without the introduction
of external heat.
Is reproduced in sufficiently low temperatures in
Slow combustion which the emission of light does not occur
(oxidation of metals and fermentation).
Produces a strong emission of light, incandescent
Live combustion
and with flames.
Live combustion, in which the propagation velocity
Deflagration
is inferior to the speed of sound (340 m/s).
Live combustion with the propagation velocity
superior to the speed of sound, in which the
mixture of gases with the air has ideal conditions.
Explosion The explosion is without a doubt, a sudden and
violent dilation exercised on the area in which it
takes place, destroying it and producing a loud
noise (detonation).

The proper and visible results of combustion are: smoke, flames, heat and gases.

Manifestations and combustion products

In most cases, the smoke and gas released are more dangerous for the individual than the actual flames.
Smoke is an irritant and can provoke damage to the respiratory system and/or irritate eyes. Gases may
be toxic, such as carbon monoxide, the principle cause of victims during fires.
Combustion products can be shown either isolated, or together, in the following form:

Gases: result from the modification in the composition of the combustible. Smoke: appears due to
incomplete combustion, in which small particles become visible, varying in colour, size and quantity.

Flames: the most visible result of combustion. It is a zone of incandescent gases visible around the
surface of the material in combustion. Flames are no more than the combustion of gas.

Heat: is the energy released by combustion, being primarily responsible for the spread of fire
considering that it heats up the entire environment, in addition to combustible products which may be
present, elevating its temperatures to flammable temperatures and therefore allowing the fire to
continue. After referring to the processes that trigger fires, the following presents the forms of
classifying them.

Considering the various combustible materials, it has been internationally agreed to group these
according to the following:

Table nº 3 – Types of Combustion

Class A Class B Class C Class D
Solid Liquid Gaseous Metal
Combustibles Combustibles Combustibles Combustibles
(generally of or easily
organic Liquefied
origin) Solids

 Wood  Gasoline  Butane  Magnesium

 Coal  Varnishes  Propane  Aluminium
 Paper  Wax  Acetylene  Sodium
 Cloth  Alcohol  Hydrogen  Uranium
 Straw  Tar  Hexane  Lithium
 …  …  …  …
The four mentioned classes are going to facilitate the selection of the most adequate strategy applicable
to extinguish a certain fire. Each category requires an appropriate way of extinction and method.
methods that will act upon one or more of these elements in order to extinguish a fire.

Extinction Methods

There are four methods to extinguish a fire (each one valid for one or more fire classes).

Table nº 4 – Extinction Methods

It is the most common method and
consists in lowering the temperature of
Cooling
the combustible element and the
environment, below its ignition point.
It is the method which consists in
Smothering/ isolating the combustible element and
extinguishing oxygen, or reduces their concentration
within the environment.
It is the method which consists in
Dilution or elimination separating the combustible element
of combustible element from the heat source or the
environment of the fire.
This method modifies the chemical
Control of flames or
reaction, altering the release of free
interruption of the chain
radicals produced in the combustion
reaction
and therefore delaying its development.
Knowing the fundamentals of extinction, the following is questioned, what is used to put out the fire?
 Extinguishing Agents
There are various extinguishing agents which have a specific action on each of the four elements stated
above (Tetrahedron of fire), which are used to manufacture the first intervention devices (portable
extinguishers, detection devices and networks).

The selection of the appropriate agent fundamentally depends on the fire class and the characteristics
of the combustible element, as shown in Table 5. This table is intended to give a global view of the link
between fire classes and the efficiency of extinguishing agents and devices available.

Adequacy between the type of fire and the extinguishing agents

Extinguishing Agents

Dry Chemical Water

Fire Extinction
Classes Method
Special CO2 Foam Halons
ABC BC (Metal Jet Pulverizing
Powder)
Yes Yes
Excellent No No No Yes Yes Excellent Yes

Cooling or Fast Only Only Has an Good penetration, fast Fast

A
Flame Control Reduction Controls Controls extinguishing cooling of Reduction
of Flames - of Flames
Small Small and cooling combustibles and
Surfaces Surfaces action cinder
Yes Yes
Excellent Excellent No Yes Yes Excellent No Yes Yes

Cloud Cloud Foam cover

Flame Does not Forms a
powder powder prevents fire
Control, leave Vapour
B protects protects from Jet Fast
Extinguishing, residues, Cloud
operator operator - reigniting spreads Reduction
Cooling does not which
Fast Reduction of and cools off the fire of Flames
contaminate the liquid cools and
Flames
food combustibles inhibits

C Flame Control Yes Yes No Yes No No No Yes

Yes
No No Excellent No No No No No

Forms a
Lack of O2 or Crust on
D
Cooling the Metals
DANGER EXPLOSION DANGER EXPLOSION
and
Eliminates
O2

Fires Flame Yes Yes No Yes No No Admissible Yes

Involving Control Excellent Excellent
Electricity Non- Non-
conductible conductible
Non conductible up to
- does not Conductor Conductor Up to 500 V does not
6000 V
leave leave
residues residues

Means of First Intervention

Portable extinguishers, detection devices and networks are considered means of first intervention. In
the case of portable extinguishers, such as the case of FDSS’s, verify, before use, if they are adequate for
the type of fire according to the extinguishing agent. In the case of FDSS’s, such as water and portable
extinguishers, the inscription on the device should be consulted which includes besides the fire classes
its capacity, inspection date and users’ instructions.

Means of first intervention

Means of 1st Extinguishing
Agent General Use Procedures
Intervention
Verify adequacy to the type
of fire
Maintain extinguisher in a
vertical position
Short discharge to verify that
 Dry Chemical its in working order
Portable  CO2 After taking individual safety
Extinguishers  Foam measures (not to become
 Water encircled by the fire and
 Halons observe the wind direction),
advance in the fire’s
direction
Aim at the base of the fire,
not the flames
 Verify adequacy to the type
of fire
Open metal casing and
release the fire hose reel
Open the nozzle and stretch
the hose in direction of the
fire’s centre
Fire Detectors and
Open the water valve
Sprinkler Systems  Water
After taking individual safety
(FDSS)
precautions (not to become
encircled by the fire and
observe the wind direction),
advance in the fire’s
direction
Aim at the base of the fire,
not the flames

These devices are available at the location and destined to be used in first interventions and can be used
either by those who use the installations, or by the first intervention teams.

The location and identification of these devices, as well as the evacuation routes, are regulated by a part
of the emergency plan and have proper safety signs.

The safety signs presented in this chapter are related to situations of fire and panic generators.
Therefore, those which indicate means of evacuation will be addressed, as well as those which indicate
fire-fighting equipment, in view of Portuguese and International norms which have common aspects,
such as colour and forms. In addition, there are also graphic symbols which can be associated, giving
rise to a variety of signs that are possible of being created.
 Symbology used in Safety Signs

Forms and
Signs Symbols Description
Colours

Emergency Exit Green

Evacuation Background: Means

Emergency Stairs

Fire-hose

Firefighting Background: Red

Equipment Symbol: White

Extinguisher

Arrows indicate a
route or a location.
Vertical and upwards:
in front
Background: Red
Vertical and
or Green
downwards: exit
( according to the
Common Horizontal to the
type of signal
Symbology right: right
associated to it)
Horizontal to the left:
left
Symbol: White
Oblique downwards:
lower level (floor)
Oblique upwards:
upper level (floor)

The school should have autonomous illuminated blocks that guarantee a sufficient level of light,
conditions for an evacuation in an orderly fashion, with the least human casualties possible. With such a
vast and complex theme like safety, speaking of fire situations or other panic generators is no less than a
drop in the ocean, but the importance of human life is not measured by statistics. Helping to protect
through training, is undoubtedly more beneficial than bearing in mind the rescue. The greatest
pretention of this manual is being able to contribute in some way, in this noble intention through
training/information.

We hope that this manual is not an end in itself, but instead an instrument to be consulted, and flexible
in the sense that it can be constantly altered and restructured in order to promote change.
 Chapter 3

MARINE NAUTICAL

Have you wondered what are the ship parts and their function? Well, you are not alone; it is this
curiosity to know about ships lead me to pursue my career as a marine engineer. Chances are, you have
watched a film related to ship or want to pursue career in navy; wondering how are they structured and
what are their parts called ! While a ship may be of many types from small to large and merchant to
military; they all have two points in common.

1- One they are made of steel and composite material and second; they all have three main parts i.e
Navigation bridge, hull and Engine room. You can learn more about different types of ships based upon
their size and use on our earlier post; “Types of Ships and What Do They Do ? “. A ship has both visible
and invisible but structural parts. While common visible parts of a ship are; rudder, anchor, bow, keel,
accommodation, propeller, mast, bridge, hatch coves and bow thrusters.

2- On other hand invisible but structural part of ship consists of; bulkheads, frames, cargo holds, hopper
tank, double bottom, girders, cofferdams, side shell etc. Understanding ship construction is hard and
uneasy with common terms such as front, left, right and back; so we will look into some of the common
nautical terms used on ship. For a person facing bow ( The most forward part of the ship ) for a moving
ship; the side to his left hand is called port while on his right is called starboard.

Similarly; the side to his front is forward and that to his back is called astern. Since we have gone
through a transformation from floating vessel to large ships; we will learn about parts of ship that is
common to all.
 Different Parts Of Ship And Their Function
Function: While most ships move from port to port; many have to wait outside for the berth. With
increased shipping over times and growing number of ships it become more and more common to wait
for long for berth. So to secure them in place against the natural forces such as wind and tide current;
anchor are used in ship. They acts as a holding hand securing them to a definite place with their flute
hooked deep into sea bed and weight of chain along with its resultant force keeping the ship fixed to its
place.

1 ) Anchor
An anchor is a heavy metal piece attached to the chain cables and is stored or secured in the hose pipe
during the voyage / ship operation. It can be either permanent or temporary with an additional sub class
of sea anchors. All ships carrying anchors are of the temporary type; as they are not always fixed to the
same position and often lowered at different position depending upon need. Together with its chain
cables, connecting devices, windlass and chain stopper it is called anchor gear.

An anchor is made of five major parts; shank, crown, stock, flute and tripping ring. A shank is a fixed
stem structure which is fitted together with flute by the tripping pin passing through the shank hole.
Together; these connecting structures along with stack ( A crossbar that helps turn the anchor to assist
flute to dig into ground ) are known as anchor crown. The fluke on respect is the key part of an anchor
which actually dig deep into the ground to hold the ship in place.

2 ) Bow
A bulbous bow is the one that you will see in most ships including that used for commercial shipping. It
can be identified easily by its distinct bulging bulb like shape just under the waterline; and has an
advantage of increased fuel efficiency of a ship by 10 to 15 percent. On another hand a ship with
inverted bow design have its part of hull and bow; upside down much like that of a submarine with
extended waterline. This on one hand improve its water drag while on another restricts its reserve
buoyancy and speed in bad weather.

A bow is the front most part of a ship which cuts the water along its sides as the ship proceeds. The key
two requirement for a bow is to have; minimum drag possible or so called resistance between the water
and the ships hull and must be tall enough to avoid water splashing to easily on top of it. In all the
different bow types tested so far in the history only a handful of them pass the test of time; bulbous
bow, Inverted bow and an Axe bow.

Such a bow type is usually used for ships involved in anchor handling, laying deep sea pipes and
offshore. An Axe bow type have a vertically stem line hull structure; along with a deep Axe like structure
in the foremost part of the ship. It is one of the parts of ship which due to its design capabilities; helps
improve the speed of ship for same power.

Function: Have you feel that extra effort you have to make to walk through water? That is due to water
drag and its resistance to your body motion. So to reduce similar negative forces on ships body; bow are
placed on ship assisting easy propulsion.
3 ) Bow Thrusters
A bow thruster is a propeller like device fitted on both side of ships bow. It is used to increase the
maneuverability of a ship in congested waters under very slow speed like that in canals or near ports.
For most designs you will only found a tunnel passing through ships bow with an impeller in place. It is
for this distinct look; bow thrusters are also referred to as tunnel thrusters. The impeller can rotate in
both direction; clockwise and anticlockwise generating bidirectional thrust capabilities.

Having bow thrusters greatly affects the overall running cost of a ship by reducing part of port cost for
tug ( A small boat used by port authorities to help safely dock a ship ) assistance. For ships having bow
thrusters it is required to have proper markings on both sides above waterline. These thrusters are
mostly powered electrically using a prime mover attached to the impeller shaft using a bevel gear
assembly. For some ships they are also powered hydraulically where electrical option is not possible or is
unfeasible.

Function: A ship is maneuvered using propulsion and rudder angle variation. A rudder is a blade like
structure situated at aft of propeller which moves horizontally across the medium to steer a ship.
Rudder angle is changed by a value to get desired change in ship direction. But what if the speed of ship
is too slow to be effectively controlled by rudder angle? This is where the bow thrusters came into
picture assisting captain to steer ship even at very low speed.

4 ) Accommodation
It is a place on ship where the crew resides or live. Together with offices, crew cabins, gym, prayer room
( Few ships ), salon, recreation room, laundry, hospital and galley it is the heart of a ship next to engine
room and bridge. A salon on board is the common area or living space for its crew, passengers and any
visiting authorities to interact; and often include common room and dinning space. On another hand
galley is just a nautical term for kitchen; where food is prepared.

Being one of the key parts of ship; accommodation accounts for major systems on board including; fresh
water system, refrigeration system ( domestic ), garbage disposal system, sewage treatment plant and
air conditioning for accommodation block. Under international and local maritime laws of flag state it is
required to have accommodation of all vessels including; passenger ship, cargo ship, salvage ship, tug
and dredger above the summer load line situated aft or amidships of the ship structure.

Function: An accommodation accounts for the living space of the ship. Under maritime labor convention
( MLC 2006-2007 ); it is required by law to provide adequate accommodation facilities to ships crew and
officers along with proper recreational facilities. In this it is stated to have proper provision for safety,
accommodation, health and accidents of crew on board ship. It is now required to have hospital
accommodation, proper ventilation, lighting, head space, heating with adequate size of crew cabins.

5 ) Deck
A deck is a floor or covering to the ships hull structure. A ship can have different decks at different
section or parts of ship; namely upper and lower deck or deck 1, deck 2 and deck 3 in a sequential
downward way. What it means is that; the topmost deck exposed to weather is called main deck or
weather deck. The levels and floors below weather deck is called deck 1, while one below deck 1 is
called deck 2 and so on. On other hand decks or floors that does not extends from aft to forward are
generally called as level.

Based on the position and level a ship’s deck can be divided into six main types; main deck, poop deck,
upper deck, lower deck, weather deck and Foredeck. The main deck on the ship which run through its
entire length is called main deck. For most ships it also the top most deck and so also called the upper
deck; but in war ships its a separate deck below the upper deck. The deck below upper deck is called
lower deck while any part of ship which is exposed to open weather is called whether deck.
The deck situated in the aft side of a ship is called poop deck; while the part of deck situated in between
accommodation and forecastle is called fore deck.

Function: One of many parts of ship; a deck is the plane that holds the hull structure providing different
celling floor to the ship. The other job it do is to provide space and floor for the equipment and people
to stand and work while protecting them from outside weather.

6 ) Ships Hull
A hull is that part of ship that extends below the waterline to cover and protect water from getting in.
You can consider it as the shell which protects the inside treasures from outside environment.
Everything that is stored and situated within the main ship structure is covered and protected by the
ships hull. It includes the key parts of the ship such as bow, deck, the bottom keel and the both sides of
the ship. They are made up of series of plates jointed together called stakes along with other structural
member such as plating and stiffeners.

A stiffener consists of structural parts such as longitudinal and transverse frames, bulkhead stiffness,
girders and beam. While ships plating consists mainly of deck platting along with bottom, bulkhead and
side platting. Ships hull are designed as such to offer minimum resistance to water, is feasible and
economical to construct without losing on much needed cargo space. One can easily calculate and
improve the overall efficiency of a ship calculating and reducing hull’s resistance to ships motion.

Function: Made of steel the key role of ships hull is to maintain its water tight integrity and reduce water
drag. And so hull plays a major role in determining overall efficiency of a ship. Ships hull are thus coated
with special paints that not only reduce frictional drag but also avoid marine growth which further
increase the resistance to ships motion. Thus ships hull are cleaned and repainted with special coating
during dry dock operation.
7) Kneel
A keel is a part of ships hull that is responsible for providing strength to the ships structure; spreading
stress and load equally along its longitudinal sides. Due to its this property to hold and support ship
structure it is often termed as the backbone of the ship. In simple terms it provide stability to a ship and
increase its effective speed. The introduction of keel in shipping reduce much of the work regarding
stabilizing ship structure.

It was first known to be used by vikings to reduce lateral movement of their boats at the time. A keel is
nothing but a thick plate that runs longitudinal across the ship from stern to stern; passing through the
centerline of ships bottom structure. There are three main types of keels used in marine industry; flat
keel, duct keel and bar keel. A flat keel is used in all major ships in operation; bar keels are used when
the ship has to work in shallow water while duct keels are preferred for offshore vessels and double hull
tankers.

Function: Being one of the key parts of ship; it helps stabilize and support ship structure. It also plays an
important role increasing the effective speed of a ship. With displacement of ship dependent upon the
depth of keel from water line; it is helpful to measure draft and reserve buoyancy of ship.

The distance between the upper deck and the load line accounts for the minimum freeboard of a ship.
Under international convention on load line ( ICLL 1966 ); it is required by law to maintain a minimum
freeboard at all times. This puts a cap on the amount of cargo a ship can load. By law it is required by
ships to load only up to the load line marking for the designated water type. Thus it is a must for ships to
have proper load line marking amidships on either side of the ships hull.
8 ) Freeboard
A freeboard stands for the part of ships hull located above the waterline. It is the distance between the
upper deck of ship and the point of waterline. The freeboard of a ship is not fixed but rather depends on
the amount of cargo it carries. It is required at all times to maintain a minimum freeboard at all times to
avoid ship from sinking. Thus to ensure safety of ships at sea; load line marking is used to ensure
maximum possible draft for safe voyage.

Function: The role of freeboard among different parts of ship is to maintain ships stability and avoid it
from sinking. Under ICLL 1996 ( International convention on load line ) following load line marking are
put on ships hull; Tropical Freshwater, Freshwater, Tropical, Summer, Winter and Winter North Atlantic.
These load lines ensure that the ship have minimum sufficient freeboard at all times for safe voyage.

9 ) Engine Room
An engine room is the power house of the ship located in the lowest most deck on aft of the ship. It
contains important machinery such as main engine, auxiliary engine ( Alternator ), shafting, boiler, fresh
water generator, air compressor, calorifier, purifier, incinerator, pumps, heat exchangers, workshop
machineries etc. If you ask a mariner about engine room the first thing he might tell; its hot, noisy and
full of vibration. The average temperature of engine room is always above 45 degree centigrade.

All the machinery in engine room is well segregated across different places on three different decks
named utility deck, weather deck and machinery deck. With all the propulsion and auxiliary machinery
installed in place it is also called as the heart of the ship. All the machinery in engine can be controlled
from a control room called Engine control Room or ECR in short. It is the only place in engine room
where you will get relief from hot temperature and much of the noise.

Function: The key role of engine room is to hold all the key machinery and auxiliaries required for
different operations on board ship. On deck one it usually has control panels for diesel generators and
pump, workshop, store room, settling tanks, service tanks, fresh water expansion tanks, Inert gas
platform, deck air compressor, air bottles etc. On deck two it contains; Fuel oil heaters, purifiers, boilers,
main air compressor, diesel generators, fresh water generator etc. While the deck 3 mainly consist of
main engine, different supporting coolers, oily water separators etc.
10 ) Funnel
A funnel is what from which the exhaust gases are released into atmosphere. You can consider it as the
chimney of the ship. Since the introduction of mechanized ship; it has been an integral part of the ships
structure. The cross section or width of these funnel largely depends on the amount of exhaust engine
room produce. In early days of shipping it was used to release everything that the ship emits; but
nowadays it is used within the limits of controlled emission with shoot collection in place to reduce
pollution.

All the shoot that is collected in the shoot collection tank is then later discharged to the port authorities.
If not possible they are discharged overboard via an eductor recording the time and amount in garbage
record book. If you look up-close carefully; will find that these funnels are in fact not that straight but
inclined to an angle. This is done deliberately to assist the flow of flue gas away from the navigation
bridge and ships deck.

Function: Being one of the parts of ship the function of a funnel is to safely release exhaust gas
produced in engine room to the outside atmosphere. Together with the forward motion of the ship and
funnel inclination towards the aft; exhaust gas is easily moved away from ship avoiding possible
hindrance to ship navigation.

11 ) Navigation Bridge
If engine room is the heart of the ship; navigation bridge is its brain. It is an wide platform on top of the
accommodation from which the ship is controlled. They are many a times aided with additional narrow
passage called bridge wing; to allow broader and better view of the outside to safely maneuver the ship.
The main part of the bridge from which the ship is controlled and steered is called pilot house.
According to the maritime rules and regulation it should be constructed such that; it provide a clear view
from 1200 port to 1200 starboard from conning position.

It is the position in the navigation bridge from which the duty officer command, monitor and maneuver
a ship. Under normal condition an able seaman is present with duty officer in the navigation bridge.
Under dangerous maneuvers or near port; captain is present in the navigation room with assisting duty
officer, able seaman and a pilot ( If provided ). A ships bridge is equipped with equipments including;
gyroscope, radar, magnetic compass, auto pilot, sonar, rudder angle indicator, G.P.S, ships horn,
navigation lights, signaling flags etc.

Function: Out of various parts of ship; the function of navigation bridge is to provide ample space for
officers to look out and maneuver safely. It also holds necessary equipments and controls to change
ships speed and its direction while monitoring outside sea condition and establishing proper means of
communication.

12 ) Forecastle
A forecastle is the foremost parts of ship. It accounts for the front part of the ships upper deck and is not
more than 7% of total deck length. It can be easily identified on a ship structure by a sudden rise in the
fore deck near the ships bow. In earlier days forecastle of a ship was used for a specific purpose of taking
defensive positions by the soldier in the military vessel. These days it is used most for holding and
securings major ships parts.

It is the hose for anchoring tools and ground tackles with parts including but not limited to; windlass,
haws pipe, anchor chain, chain block, open rail, deck flange, gear box, hydraulic motor, anchor, bollard
and foremast. It is the part most used for anchoring operation and checking or maintaining navigation
lights on foremast.

Function: Being one of the key structural parts of ship; a forecastle or the foremost part of the fore deck
it hold all the necessary equipments required for anchoring operation. On navy ships apart from holding
anchoring tools and equipment a forecastle also holds strategic defensive guns position.

13 ) Propeller
It is a fan like mechanical device with blades fitted on the shaft. It rotates with the shaft to produce
much needed thrust to propel a ship. The propeller of a ship produce this thrust by converting the
rotational energy of its blades to pressure energy. This is done by using the difference in pressure
generated on its near and far side of the blade to push the water aside. Together with its parts; hub,
blades and its faces it produce the required thrust for propulsion using newtons third law of motion.

Newtons third law of motion states that; for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The
propeller of the ship push the water backwards creating a net resultant force of equal magnitude that
makes the ship move forward. A propeller is a part of ship propulsion system which includes; engine its
shafts ( including intermediate & propeller shaft ) and propeller. Being one of the vital parts of ship; a
propeller is made of non corrosive alloys such as aluminum and manganese bronze.

Function: A ship would be useless if it does not move; so propellers are installed on ship to provide it a
forward motion. So the function of propeller in ship is to provide much needed thrust to propel the ship.
A propeller can be divided in four main types based on its number of blades; while of two main types
based on its pitch. Based upon its pitch a propeller can be of either fixed pitch propeller or controllable
pitch propeller. Similarly based upon number of its blades; it can be of three blade, four blade, five or six
blade type.

14 ) Rudder
If propeller is the parts of ship that propels then rudder is the one that makes it steer. Situated in the aft
of propeller; it is a flat hollow structure that moves from port to starboard turning on its axis to help
steer the ship. A rudder is consist of parts such as; rudder trunk, main rudder blade, movable flap, hinge
system, links and rudder carrier bearing. The rudder steers the ship following newtons third law of
motion similar to that of propeller.

It moves to a direction producing resistance to water flow forcing them to move to the other side. In this
very process it produce much needed resultant force for the ship to turn it to the opposite side of the
altered water flow. Based on its construction a rudder can be balanced, semi balanced and of
unbalanced type. A balanced rudder is the one which have more than 20% of its part forward to its
turning axis. Similarly a semi balanced is the one with less than 20% of its part outside or forward to its
turning axis; while none for unbalanced rudder type.

Function: A rudder is the parts of ship that make it steer. Based on the newtons third law of motion it
generates enough resultant force to steer a ship to desired direction. The movement of a rudder is
controlled by steering gear system. A rudder must be capable of moving from 35 degree port to 35
degree starboard; with the ability of steering gear to move from 35 degree on one side to 30 degree on
another in not more than 28 seconds.

15 ) Mast
A mast is a vertical ship structure mounted on top of bridge and forward of the forecastle towards the
ships bow. It accounts for the support platform for the ships derrick and hold necessary equipments
such as radars, navigation light and ships horn in case of foremast. They are made of high tensile steel
with added rigidity based on the size of derricks it holds. Other than that a ships main mast is also used
to hoist ships flag.

Function: Out of different parts of ship the main job of mast is to hold necessary equipment such as
radar receiver, navigation lights, ships horn, flags and derricks in some case.
 Chapter 4

MARINE FLAG AND SIGNAL

NUMBERS AND SIGNAL
 Chapter 5

MARITIME SAFETY AND SECURITY

1. Introduction

This provide an overview of the issue of safety and security in maritime transport globally based on
the outcome of an analysis held in the Hellenic Institute of Transport. The analysis presented in the
next pages was based on thorough review and surveys that have been implemented in both
geographical areas aiming to provide an overview of the current status of maritime safety and
security in the examined areas leading to a comparative analysis between Europe and Southeast
Asia over the examined topics.

This comparative analysis has emerged from the need to identify the gaps and missing links
regarding critical issues (such as maritime safety and security) having considerable impact on the
increasing trading relations between the two geographical areas. The aim of the analysis and of this
paper is to map the current situation and to provide key recommendations for the improvement of
the current situation in the area of maritime safety and security.

2. Safety and Security in Maritime transport

2.1. Overview,
During the centuries the sea has been always considered a potentially hazardous and dangerous
working environment. Today, following the significant changes that took place in international trade
and transport, ship operators face new factors as well as pressures. The structure of the global
marketplace requires that goods and materials be delivered not only to the geographical location
where they are required but also within a very precise timeframe. Goods in transit are carefully
factored-in to the supply chain and, as therefore, the transportation industry – which embraces
both shipping and ports – has become a key component of a manufacturing sector which sets its
store by providing a complete “door-to-door” service.

As a consequence, safety and efficiency have become two sides of the same coin: accidents are not
only undesirable outcomes in themselves; they also have a negative impact on the supply chain that
is at the heart of the new global economy.

Following the above and taking into consideration the global character of maritime transport as well
as the identified need for standardization in the processes which would lead to increased levels of
safety and security, a number of International Organizations have been established aiming to create
a regulatory framework for maritime transport. The most important of those is the International
Maritime Organization, IMO; however it must be mentioned that there are also other associations
involved in this field such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), Secure Trade in APEC Region (STAR), United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UN-ECE), Container Security Initiative (CSI), Custom-Trade Partnership
against Terrorism (CTPAT) and Smart and Secure Tradelanes (SST).
 2.2. The role of International Maritime Organization (IMO) and its regulatory
framework
The main activities and tasks of IMO since its establishment have been to develop and maintain a
comprehensive regulatory framework for international shipping. Its mandate was originally limited
to safety-related issues, but very soon it has been expanded to include other issues closely
interrelated with shipping such as environmental, legal matters, technical co-operation and many
topics affecting the overall efficiency of shipping – such as for example how to deal with stowaways
or how a cargo manifest should be transmitted to the authorities ashore; piracy and armed robbery
against ships. Most recently IMO has focused its activities in the security topic which has obtained a
key importance nowadays, following the recent terrorist attacks of 2001.

The main responsibility of IMO is to ensure the highest practicable and globally acceptable
standards aiming to improve maritime safety and security and, help prevent marine pollution takes
on a new dimension. The direct output of this work is a comprehensive body of international
conventions, supported by guidelines and recommendations addressing almost all activities taking
place within the shipping industry.

The measures of IMO fall into three categories:

 Measures aiming at the prevention of accidents, casualties and environmental damage from
ships in the first place. This category comprises of conventions setting standards for ship
design, construction, equipment, operation and manning.
 Measures which try to mitigate the negative effects of accidents such as for example rules
concerning distress and safety communications, the provision of search and rescue facilities
and oil spill clean-up and response mechanisms, all fall into this category
 Measures concerned with the aftermath of accidents and, in particular, with establishing a
mechanism for ensuring that those who suffer the consequences of an accident – and this
refers, in particular, although not exclusively, to pollution victims – can be adequately
compensated.

The most significant Regulations/ Conventions applied by IMO regarding safety and security in
maritime transport are:

• Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS): The SOLAS Convention in its successive forms is generally
regarded as the most important of all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant
ships. The first version was adopted in 1914, in response to the Titanic disaster, the second in
1929, the third in 1948, and the fourth in 1960. The main objective of the SOLAS is to specify
minimum standards for the construction, equipment and operation of ships, compatible with
their safety. Flag States are responsible for ensuring that ships under their flag comply with its
requirements, and a number of certificates are prescribed in the Convention as proof that this
has been done. Control provisions also allow Contracting Governments to inspect ships of other
Contracting States if there are clear grounds for believing that the ship and its equipment do not
substantially comply with the requirements of the Convention - this procedure is known as port
 State control.Thecurrent SOLAS Convention includes Articles setting out general obligations,
amendment procedure and so on, followed by an Annex divided into 12 Chapters.
• The International Ship and Port Facility code (ISPS): It was established in 2002 and sets
out detailed standards and requirements relating to the security of the ship and the immediate
ship/port interface, within an international framework for cooperation among Governments and
their agencies, local administrations, shipping companies, port authorities and aiming to detect
security threats and take measures to prevent security incidents affecting ships and port facilities
used in international trade. The ISPS Code entered into force on 1 July 2004 and noncompliance
by either ports and/or vessels will preclude these from participating in international trade.

Nowadays, considerable progress has been achieved with the regulatory framework implied from all
the regulatory associations and the IMO. However, there is still room for further improvements
since not all countries comply with the regulations and international standards on maritime safety
and security as presented following this paper.

2.3. Facts and figures concerning Maritime Safety

The overall safety level of shipping over the years has been steadily improving at a global level, as
indicated to the facts and figures provided below:

According to casualty statistics produced by Lloyds Register of Shipping 1 between 1966 and 1985
there were never fewer than 300 ships lost annually, with worst years, 1978 and 1979, when
together 938 losses occurred (around 6.7 ships per thousand in the world fleet). Those numbers
began to decrease significantly in 1980 and has continued on a downward curve ever since. In 1990,
the number of annual losses accounted less than 200, while, by 2004, the overall figure had
approached the 100 mark (Figure 1). Nowadays, relatively few ships actually sink at sea. The vast
majority of so-called “losses” are actually those which are damaged and “written off” by the hull
insurers as being beyond economical repair - described by underwriters as “constructive total
losses”.

Figure 1: Total ship lost 2000-2005 (source IMO Secretariat database, 2005)
The same trend is presented in the figures produced by the United Kingdom P&I Club, which insures
around 20% of the world's ships. According to this source, similar reductions in insurance claims for
third party liability, such as incidents involving personal injury, cargo damage, pollution or damage
to property (e.g. other ships or port equipment) have been noted. The decrease in the number of
large claims is all the more significant given the increasing value of claims that are made.

Finally, regarding the topic of environmental pollution, according to the International Salvage Union,
the numbers of major ship casualties and significant pollution incidents have decreased sharply. In
1974 there were 26 oil spills in excess of 700 tonnes while in 2004, there were just five such spills.

As in all transport sectors, lives are sadly lost as a result of accidents. However, the loss of life in
shipping is in fact relatively modest and the overall trend is one of reduction in the number of
fatalities, which is all the more impressive in view of the growth in the number of ships in the world
fleet. In the next table, data from LR/ Fairplay relating to lives lost on cargo ships show a continuing
downward trend – and this covers the entire international industry, which employs over one and a
quarter million people, plus many more employed in coastal trades.

Table 1: Lives lost at sea compared to total seafarers and passengers

2000 2005
Lives lost 296 214
Estimated total number of
676.388 1.336.631
seafarers & passengers (*1.000)
Source: Shippax, IMO Secretariat data for 2005 2

2.4. Facts and Figures concerning Maritime Security

Further to the safety and its recognized importance in maritime transport, maritime security is a
high priority topic today, as practices and procedures have had to adapt to demand for increased
security surrounding shipping and ports, which has led to new international rules and regulations
being established. Countries, which are involved in maritime transport and industry, all over the
world, focus their activities in enhancing the safety of maritime transport and also in trying to follow
the new ‘maritime security philosophy’, by ratifying an important number of international
Regulations and Conventions.

Maritime security is an integral part of IMO's responsibilities. A comprehensive security regime for
international shipping entered into force on 1 July 2004. The mandatory security measures, adopted
in December 2002, include a number of amendments to the 1974 Safety of Life at Sea Convention
(SOLAS), the most farreaching of which enshrines the new International Ship and Port Facility
Security Code (ISPS Code), which contains detailed security-related requirements for Governments,
port authorities and shipping companies in a mandatory section together with a series of guidelines
about how to meet these requirements in a second, non-mandatory section.
It must be noted that besides the overall security concept, the sector of shipping in general and IMO
in particular strongly concern about acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships which are mainly
occur in the area of Asia (Figure 4). The fight to prevent and suppress these acts is linked to the
measures to improve security on ships and in port facilities, adopted in December 2002. A statistical
overview of the piracy incidents and their consequences from the year 2000 to 2005, is provided in
the following figures.

Figure 2: Piracy incidents globally (Source IMO)

Figure 3: Consequences from piracy incidents globally

Based on the results of a recent study conducted by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
International Maritime Bureau (IMB), the reported piracy attacks (data 2006) world-wide are on the
decline. The IMB report also notes that the Malacca Straits – which is considered one of the most
dangerous areas in terms of piracy attacks - have been dropped from Lloyd’s of London’s list of
dangerous waterways. However, there are still some ‘hotspots’ remaining such as for example
Indonesia which still accounts more attacks than any other country, consolidating its position as the
world’s hottest piracy hotspot. Therefore, there is still room for further amelioration especially in
the more sensitive geographical areas such as SE Asia. The experience from the regulatory
framework of Europe can provide a threshold for towards this direction and this is the purpose of
the comparative analysis in the paper.
3. The European maritime policy towards safety and security

3.1. Overview of the European maritime policy towards safety

The notions safety and security are two of the main elements comprising the overall European
maritime transport policy. The presentation of the European Policy on Maritime Safety that follows
is based on official EU information mostly published on a dedicated session of the official website of
European Community.

The main goal of the EU maritime safety policy is to eradicate substandard shipping essentially
through a convergent application of internationally agreed rules.

At the area of maritime safety only a few legislative decisions were taken in the period 1978-1992 at
Community level while the real start of the maritime safety policy occurred in 1993 through the
adoption by the Commission of its first communication dealing with maritime safety: “A Common
Policy on Safe Seas”.

The main reason for this breakthrough were the accidents with the oil tankers "Aegean Sea" which
broke up near the entrance of La Coruna harbour (Spain) on December 3 1992 and "Brear" which
grounded off the Shetland Island on January 5 1993 together with the abandoning of the unanimity
rule for the maritime decision making process on January 1 1993.

In the following 5 years and as a follow-up of the above mentioned Communication as well as an
implementation of a detailed action programme, a number of important legislative acts were
proposed and adopted which remains the core of the EU’s maritime safety policy

Although the number of legislative acts was increased, new tragedies that occurred in European
waters, initiated additional actions focussing on specific shortcomings. After the "Estonia" tragedy,
the Community adopted a comprehensive set of rules for the protection of passengers and crew
sailing on ferries operating to and from European ports, as well safety standards for passenger ships
operating on domestic voyages within the Community.

Finally two important accidents namely the «Erika» and the «Prestige», obliged the Community to
revise its existing rules and to adopt new rules concerning single hull tankers for the prevention of
accidents with oil tankers.

3.2. Overview of the European Policy on Maritime Security

Recent events have shown that no country in the world is immune from terrorism. The terrorist
attacks of September 2001 in New York and Washington modified probably forever the way security
is approached in the transport sector. The use of transport vehicles as actual weapons of destruction
targeting both passengers in the vehicles and individuals located in the target buildings exposed a
whole new degree of vulnerability within the transport system.

Well before these terrorist strikes on the United States, transport infrastructure and equipment has
been the target of terrorist action for a number of reasons, mostly because:

• it is relatively accessible
• it can attract significant public attention and media coverage •it is often linked with national
symbols such as national airlines
 • it can affect large numbers of people in a single strike.
It is important to notice that “Whatever the reasons behind them, acts of terrorism can be
committed at any time and in any place and shipping is no exception”. This issue is, alas, very
important for the European Union while many of the EU Member States have taken steps to protect
their citizens and modes of transport.

The major risk categories of transport systems as identified by the European Community along with
the proposed and implemented measures and actions aiming to enhance maritime transport
security are described in the following paragraphs.

3.3.Weaknesses, Risk categories, Potential threats and Proposed Measures

The major weaknesses - risk categories of freight transport security, according to the EU , can be
summarised to the following three:

• Threats to key Infrastructure: Measures have been proposed at the European level to
secure airports and ports. However there is no co-ordinated approach to secure other key
transport infrastructure (such as major terminals, railway lines, bridges and tunnels) essential to
the functioning of the European economy.
• Lack of common security standards: Today, the various actors mostly in surface transport
implement different measures in different ways while there are no minimum-security standards
for many international transport service providers.
• Lack of co-ordination or control of national activities: As each Member State relies on the
checks and procedures in other Member States, to assure their security, it is obvious that agreed
standards are effectively and transparently applied.

Emphasising in Maritime transport, the vectors of risk to terrorist attack, inherent to maritime
shipping, include:

• The Ship: any ship can be deliberately used as a weapon or be a carrier of weapons of mass
destruction, or even the innocent carrier of inappropriate cargo, unless appropriate security and
control measures are taken. Terrorist acts against a ship are possible, in particular by using
another boat or from inside the ship by stowaways or terrorists who board the ship by force.
Passenger vessels are particular targets because of the number of lives that can be immediately
put in danger. Freight vessels are no less vulnerable and can be dangerous carriers. The very
nature of cargoes or hazardous substances could prompt terrorists to attempt to blow up such
vessels, e.g. in port areas, with horrendous human and environmental consequences. Moreover,
the illicit transport of nuclear, bacteriological or chemical products by sea cannot be ruled out,
for subsequent use against the country of destination of the cargo.
• People/ Cargo: attacking the ship to provoke human casualties, using cargo to smuggle
people or weapons, to transport conventional, nuclear, chemical or biological weapons; using
the cover of seafarer identities to insert terrorist operatives;
• Financial Terrorist Activities: using revenue from shipping to fund terrorist activities; using
ships to launder illicit funds for terrorist organizations.
4. Maritime policy towards safety and security in Southeast Asia

4.1. General status of Maritime safety and security in Asia

Safety of life at sea and in the port area, following the international trends, is seriously concerned in
the Asian Countries. The controlling tasks on this issue in both Europe and Asia, are under the
responsibility of governmental bodies and authorities.

In most Asian countries responsible authority for the maritime safety issues is the national Maritime
Department (usually under the Ministry of Transport). These organizations basically control safety
and security in maritime transport by following international regulations such as the IMO
regulations (including the ISPS code) and the Custom Security Initiative (CSI).

An important issue is the level of the private sector participation in the abovementioned controlling
tasks. The Asian countries tend to not much allow this participation trying to put most of these
activities into the hand of governmental agencies from the central government. On the other hand,
the EU countries have allowed up to a certain extent the participation of the private sector. For
instance, several countries in Europe (such as France and United Kingdom) have allowed the
provision of pilotage services by private organizations under the administrative jurisdiction of the
responsible Ministry for Merchant Marine while in the case of most Asian countries these activities
around the country are still strictly performed by the Harbour Department or the Maritime
Department which is under the Ministry of Transport.

It is also important to notice that all Asian countries realize that the environmental problem has
become more and more serious while the transport industry is one of the major sources of the
pollution across the world. They have all implemented some measures and regulations, which are
quite the same, in order to solve and prevent the pollution in both land and sea transport, including
the areas of port industry and international shipping.

4.2. The case of Southeast Asia

Today more than half of the world’s annual merchant tonnage traverses Southeast Asian waters; its
oceans and seas yield vast revenues in such industries as fishing, hydrocarbon extraction, and
tourism. In fact, more than 60 percent of Southeast Asians today live in or rely economically on the
maritime zones. Asia sends more than 30% of its exports to US markets, and a further 15-20% to
Western Europe.. However, the sea is also the source of a variety of dangers that not only menace
the prosperity of local populations, but directly threaten the security of states.
Those dangers include territorial disputes, nonstate political violence, transnational crime, and
environmental degradation. Unsecured or ungoverned seas are potential havens for criminal or
terrorist activity, providing relatively cheap and inconspicuous movement. The thousands of miles
of coastline that the Southeast Asian Countries have, are often difficult to regulate. The threats of
piracy, armed robbery and terrorism have become a common problem for most of the countries in
Southeast Asia and maritime security, accordingly, is at the forefront of Southeast Asian political
concerns.
At the other hand, the power of environmental phenomena is unquestionable, given the recent
memory of the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunamis that killed (according to estimates at the
time of publication) well over two hundred thousand people. In addition, environmental damage
not only causes direct harm to land, water, and populations but can precipitate tension or conflict
within or between states.
This being the case, resource depletion and human degradation of the environment has been
recognized as directly relevant to Southeast Asia’s security agenda 3.

4.3. Level of Compliance with the International regulations

Unlike the European case the Asian maritime policy can be characterized by a lack of a common
framework (such the EU regulations) while regarding the implementation of maritime safety and
security related legislation, the main international IMO conventions are not applicable in all
countries. In table 2, the level of compliance from the each SE Asian country is provided.

Table 2: Compliance level of the SE Asian Countries with the international regulations

Source, IMO

The differences in the compliance levels, result to an obscure situation in maritime transport which
hampers the smooth maritime trading relations between the countries.
Moreover, each country applies different rules according to its own safety and security standards.
Indicative example is Singapore's Maritime and Port Authority which requires all ships intending to
call at the republic's docks to complete a security form 24 hours before arrival. Vessels failing to do
so will not be permitted to unload

It must also be noted the fact that large exporters like Thailand and Indonesia are especially at risk,
as they generally rely on foreign-flagged vessels to transport their goods with limited or undefined
standards. Therefore, the need for enhanced and common safety and security standards in the
above area is considered crucial for the SE Asian countries.

4.4. The Piracy problem in SE Asia

As mentioned previously, the piracy is an important issue of maritime transport globally. Following
to the annual piracy report 2004 of the ICC International Maritime Bureau “Pirates preying on
shipping were more violent than ever in 2004 and murdered a total of 30 crew members, compared
with 21 in 2003”.

The number of attacks reported worldwide through the IMB Piracy Reporting Centre in Kuala
Lumpur was 325, down from the 445 recorded in 2003.

Indonesian waters continue to be the scene of the highest number of attacks, with 93 incidents
reported in 2004. While this is down from 121 in 2003, it still accounts for more than one quarter of
piratical attacks reported worldwide.

The report said hijackings of tugs and barges and the kidnapping of crew members were on the rise,
especially in Indonesian waters, in the Northern Malacca Straits, and off North Sumatra. While in
the past these attacks had been thought to be acts of Aceh rebels, there were now increasing signs
that crime syndicates are using fishing boats for such attacks. Figure 4 below illustrates a map of
piracy attacks and armed robberies in Southeast Asia.

Figure 4: Map of piracy attacks and armed robberies

Maritime agencies are known to be concerned by the lax approach to security in Asian ports, which
have a high exposure to piracy attacks, often linked to ethnicbased insurgency movements.
However, it must be noted that around 30% of the world’s trade, equivalent to 50,000 vessels a
year, is shipped through the Straits of Malacca between Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia, which is
also the sea passage that witnesses the most piracy incidents.

The International Chamber of Commerce's Maritime Bureau lists Indonesia as having the world's
most vulnerable ports to piracy, with Bangladesh’s Chittagong docks holding down second place.
There were 121 reported piracy attacks in Indonesian waters in 2003 and 58 in Bangladesh.
Malaysia, Thailand, India and Sri Lanka also are highly vulnerable, partly because of lax security but
also due to an official tolerance of flourishing smuggling trades.
5. Comparative analysis

Asia and Europe are two completely different areas not only in terms of geography and population
but also regarding working culture, current level of development as well as other aspects. The
development and evolution of maritime freight transport as well as the enhancement of maritime
industry competitiveness, is a common goal for both areas, taking into account several problems
that have been encounter, preventing the development of sustainable, effective, secure and
environmentally friendly transport systems. Following this point of view, safety and security in
maritime transport is very important for both Europe and Asia.

The analysis of maritime safety and security was based on an in depth research of the current
situation in both areas in terms of legislation adopted and implemented but also in terms of
relevant policies, actions and initiatives under the umbrella of the examined topics.

The main concluding remarks following this overview can be summarised to the following:

• In both Europe and Asia, responsible for maritime safety and security issues are the
governmental authorities, which are usually national Ministries of Transport or other relevant
sectors. However the participation of the private sector in the controlling tasks of maritime
safety and security issues seems to gain ground in the case of many European countries. At the
other hand, in the Asian countries, those activities still remain under the strict control of the
government.
• Europe focuses its activities in the development of technologies for the needs of maritime
safety and security but also pays attention in the cooperation between its member states.
Indicative is the example of the Safe Sea Network development that aims at reinforcing the
cooperation and the data exchange between the EU countries facilitating the maritime safety
and security related activities.
• The current EU maritime safety and security policy is focused in the research by supporting
and financing an important number of EU research projects in this area. At the other hand the
Asian countries seem to start following the same approach by participating in projects and
initiatives such as the BEST project (Bangkok/ LaemChabang Efficient and Secure Trade) and the
STAR initiative (Security Scheme in APEC Region) in cooperation with other countries outside
Asia and especially the United States that has an important background in safety and security
issues.
• An important element of transport security where, recently, emphasis is given is the
container transport security and especially maritime container security. The main reason is that
maritime containers are the most numerous container types involved in international trade and
they are carried by maritime, inland waterway, road and rail operators. The generalized concern
regarding the use of shipping containers is mostly because of the potential for these to be used
by terrorists as a delivery vehicle for a chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN)
weapon
• The notion of transport security is very important internationally (especially after the recent
terrorist attacks of 11th of September 2001). Nowadays, there is a need to enhance the security
of the entire maritime transport logistics chain from the supplier to the consumer.
Consequently, since the security of a transport chain depends upon its weakest link, an
 approach addressing the multimodal dimension in parallel will make it possible to improve the
security of transport as a whole. Towards to this direction the companies involved to the
different levels of a supply chain will be encouraged to take measures for ensuring high security
levels in the whole supply chain. This consideration will help in eliminating the time and money
spent in the key- nodes of the supply chain (such as port, borders etc) by facilitating the process
of security control.

their position inside the IMO must be strengthened regarding the topics of safety and security. A
stronger representation of their interests could influence their positions and create more lost lasting
and tangible benefits for the countries and their competitive roles.

Finally, the national governments should set common levels of safety standards and implement a
strict audit to all ports of the countries. Towards to this direction, a Legal Framework for the S.E.
Asian countries in the area of maritime safety could be proven a helpful tool as long as it would take
into consideration the particularities of each S.E. Asian country.

5.1. European Countries

Concerning the situation on Europe, the regulatory framework in maritime safety and security is
mainly implied by the Maritime policy of EU, which the majority of the countries follow. The main
points that have emerged frm the analysis that need to be further assessed in order to improve the
situation in Europe are the following:

• The cooperation between the European countries (members and non-E.U. member states)
parties involved in an incident should be strengthened.
• Many officers have highlighted the overall involvement of the E.U. in order to enhance
security levels in the member states. For example, the E.U. financial support for the
implementation of the security measures required by the ISPS code is very important for the
European countries.
• The security fee is a major issue for all European countries. According to ESPO, in two thirds
of the EU member states, only rough estimations of the costs resulting to the implementation of the
ISPS costs are known. An important recommendation is the conduct of economic analysis providing
sound estimations of the security fees in order to facilitate both ports and governmental authorities
in the allocation of the relevant costs. However, the view of the Shipowners is not clear in this
topic.
• A central European marine casualty database will provide a common means for processing
and analysing casualty data in Europe, based on a taxonomy (classification system) developed by
the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) in cooperation with the E.U. Member States. The data
base, known as EMCIP, will facilitate decision making in improving investigation methods, and will
thus contribute to improved safety and pollution prevention at sea.
SAFETY AND SECURITY SIGNALS