Sta. Monica Academy – AR of Pinamungajan, Cebu, Inc.
Augustinian Recollect Sisters
Poblacion, Pinamungajan, Cebu
Telefax No. (032) 468 – 9446
Email: sta.monicaacademypinacebu@yahoo.com
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE
Quarter 1
Module 4
Week 4
Earth’s Geological Processes
Vision: STA. MONICA ACADEMY – AR of Pinamungajan, Cebu, Inc., envisions a life-giving and
innovating educational institution committed to transforming Monicanians into
Christ-centered Augustinian Recollect Stewards.
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What This Module Is About
This module demonstrates an understanding of the deformation of the Earth’s crust through
extreme stress or pressure in the crust and mantle. This module focuses on folding and faulting as the most
common deformation processes of the Earth. This will also discuss the processes, types, and importance of
Earth’s deformation. Environmental issues and concerns will also be emphasized at the end of this module.
This module will help you explore more spectacular scenery, and wi l l help you learn the history of
the Earth in terms of its movement and processes, and how they shaped the Earth. You will discover and at the
end infer how humans can prepare for some of these phenomena.
We will investigate the various types of folds and faults. If you can recall from the previous topic on
plate tectonics, earthquakes occur along active fault lines. This module will help us to better understand how
plate tectonics plays an important role in the formation of the Earth’s folds and faults.
This module contains the following lessons:
Lesson 1: Folding and Faulting
Lesson 2: Rock Layering
What I Need To Know
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults (S11/12ES-Id-22);
2. Describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed (S11/12ES-Ie-25).
What I Know
Pre-Test
Multiple Choice. Directions: Select the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.
_____1. Which from among the types of Earth movement forms cracks or fractures on the rocks?
A.Compression B. Faulting C. Folding D. Tension
______2. Which from among the types of Earth movement result from the compression of rock?
A. Compression B. Faulting C. Folding D. Tension
______3. Which of the following has a one-sided slope connecting two horizontal or gently inclined strata?
A. Anticline B. Monocline C. Overturned D. Syncline
______4. What do you call an upward fold of the rock?
A. Anticline B. Monocline C. Overturned D. Syncline
______5. What type of fault generally moves up when rock is being squeezed due to compression force?
A. Monocline C. Transform (strike-slip) fault
B. Normal (divergent) fault D. Reverse (convergent) fault
______6. What do you call a process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers due to crustal movement,
displacement of soils, and distortion of terrain?
A. Compression B. Extension C. Stratification D. Tension
______7. What is the other term for rock layers?
A. Compression B. Folding C. Transform D. Strata
______8. Transform faults ___________ .
A. often offset spreading centers C. can cut across continents
B. have horizontal movement D. all of these
______9. Which of the following is NOT an Earth’s geologic process?
A. Divergent fault C. Plates movement
B. Evolution D. Rocks layering
______10. What produces a reverse fault?
A. Compressional stress C. Shear stress
B. No stress D. Tensional stress
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Lesson
1 Folding and Faulting
What’s In
The Earth's surface has been continually deformed. This deformation is the result of forces that are
strong enough to move ocean sediments to an elevation many thousand meters above sea level. This helps
explain the forces necessary to bend and fold rocks. This section will discuss the types of forces needed to
accomplish such a powerful feat. Look at your surrounding? Have you ever wondered how mountains and other
geologic structures are formed? And how it leads to the making of a geological map? The answer to that is
beyond our understanding.
Mount Guiting-Guiting
Photo by: Rj Balos III | via Flickr Creative Commons
https://www.adventureinyou.com/philippines/top-philippine-mountains/
Have you visited some amazing landforms? Do you know how they are formed? Look at the scenery.
Can you name some landforms and where they can be found? Each of them formed from the constant
movement of the Earth’s crust.
Let us dwell on the processes of folding and faulting. Get ready to discover and be amazed by the
wonder and effects of Earth’s movement.
What Is It
What is Folding?
The plate tectonic movement of the plates results in the deformation (folding and faulting) of the
Earth’scrust. The different types of stress that act upon rocks play an important role in the movement of plates.
Folding is the type of Earth movement resulting from the compression of rock because of high temperature
and pressure from the interior of the Earth.
Bending, curving, crumpling, or buckling of rocks intofolds are usually visible on rock strata. Folding can
also happen in oceans and seas. The figures below are the types of folds that are recognized and classified by
the geologists.
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10l.html
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1. A monocline is a one-sided slope connecting two horizontal or gently inclined strata.
2. An anticline depicts an upward fold on the rock.
3. A syncline results from a downward fold on the rock.
4. An overturned happens when one of its fold is pushed over the other limb due to the increasing
pressure.
5. A recumbent is an extreme type of overturned fold in which the axial plain acquires almost
horizontal altitude.
What is Faulting?
Another type of Earth movement is faulting. This geologic process forms cracks or fractures on the
rocks. The movement is caused by low temperatures that make rocks brittle. Instead of folding, rocks break into
large chunks.
Different faults are named according to the type of stress that acts on the rock and by the nature of the
movement of the rock that blocks at either side of the fault plane. The figures below show the types of faulting
with some of its descriptions
1. A normal (divergent) fault occurs when a rock is being pulled apart due to tension force. In this
type of fault, the rock generally moves down.
2. Reverse (convergent) fault happens when a rock is being squeezed due to compressional force.
This type of fault generally moves up a rock.
3. Transform (strike-slip) fault happens when rocks slide past each other in the opposite directions.
The San Andreas fault is an example of this type of fault.
What’s More
Activity 2: Matchy! Matchy!
Directions: Match the illustrations with the types of folding. Write the letter which corresponds to the
correct answer on your answer sheet.
A. Anticline B. Monocline C. Overturned D. Syncline E. Recumbent
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Activity 3: Don’t be faulty!
Direction: Identify the type of fault which is being described in each of the statements below. Write your answer
on a separate sheet of paper.
1. A fault is observed where the hanging wall is displaced upward relative to the footwall.
2. A fault is formed when a rock is squeezed due to compressional force.
3. The San Andreas fault is an example of this type of fault.
4. A fault where the hanging wall is displaced downward relative to the footwall.
5. Rock’s slide past each other in the direction.
What Is It
Effects of Folding and Faulting
The process of Earth’s deformation through folding and faulting changes its shape and volume when
stress and strain occur. It creates an abnormal tension inside the Earth's crust that leads to unequal leveling of
the mantle as it forms the pressure on the surface of the earth. If such tension is exerted under the land of any
reservoir, it would lead to its collapse. Folding inside the Earth's crust takes many years. The fault in the land
structure makes the land hollow or unhabitable, hence it causes earthquakes.
In the Philippines, the major earthquakes occur somewhere near the Philippines' Pacific East coast
(especially the East coasts of Mindanao & Samar), where a significant tectonic subduction zone has created
the second deepest ocean trench in the World - named the Philippine Deep or the Philippine Trench - with a
depth greater than 34,000 feet. On the 31st August 2012, this area of the Philippines received a 7.6 magnitude
earthquake along the Philippine Trench, East of Samar Island (Source: https://www.pgyc.org/tsunami-
earthquake.php)
If you think folding and faulting can only cause some natural phenomena to happen, think again! From zigzags
and chevrons to crumples and folds, to fault planes melanges, and mountain formation, these sites are some
of the best places to see the power of geological forces in shaping our landscapes.
What I Have Learned
Activity 4: How Folds and Faults are Formed?
Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults of the Earth. Write it in one
(1) or two (2) paragraphs by browsing through the internet via YouTube using the link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wBeuUlh9ckE. A rubric is provided on the next page that will be used to rate
your answer to this activity.
How Folds and Faults are Formed?
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Lesson
2 Rock Layering
What I Need To Know
Do you think rocks are boring? Well, rocks and minerals are all around us! It is a natural substance
composed of solid crystals of different minerals that have been fused into a solid lump. They help us to
develop new technologies and are used in our everyday lives. Some of the uses of rocks and minerals include;
building materials, cosmetics, cars, roads, and appliances. There are three basic types of rock: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
On Earth's surface, wind and water can break the rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to
another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop from the wind or water to make a layer. The
layer can be buried under other layers of sediments. After a long time, the sediments can be cemented together
to make sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock can become a sedimentary rock. The rock cycle continues
and never stops. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken down and washed away by streams.
New sediments from these mountains can make new sedimentary rocks.
Among the three types of rocks, sedimentary rocks are commonly called stratified rocks. Why is it so?
This is because sedimentary rocks have a layered or stratified structure. This process is called stratification in
which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers due to crustal movement, displacement of soil, and distortion of
terrain. The layers of stratified rocks differ from one another depending on the kind, size, and color of the
sediments.
What’s New
Activity 5: Which is which?
Directions: TRUE or FALSE. Write True if the statement is correct and False if NOT.
1. The term 'rock strata' refers to layers of sedimentary rocks.
2. Rock layers at the surface are older strata.
3. Stratification is the process of layering sedimentary rocks.
4. Layers of stratified rocks are the same throughout.
5. Crustal movement and displacement of soil cause stratification.
6. Sedimentary rocks are the only components found on the stratified layers.
7. Sediments formed because of rock weathering.
8. The layering of rocks is one of the geologic processes on the Earth’s surface.
9. The layers of rocks are the same.
10. There are sediments found in the stratified rocks.
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What Is It
Stratification of Rocks
The layers (strata) are formed from the accumulation,
compaction, and cementation of sediments over a period.
Most fossils are found in these layers. Young rock layers
are found at the surface and older layers below. Geologist
has been using these stratified rocks to reconstruct Earth’s
history.
Photo from: https://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-
stock-photos-stratified-rocks-image11108918
When might the youngest layer in a set of sedimentary rock layers not be on top?
http://www.classzone.com/vpg_ebooks/sci_sc_8/accessibility/sci_sc_8/page_296.pdf
Sedimentary rock layers contain information about the relative ages of events and objects in the Earth’s
history. As you read earlier, sedimentary rocks form from the sediments that fall to the bottom of lakes, rivers,
and seas. Over time, the sediments pile up to form horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks. The bottom layer of
rock forms first, which means it is theoldest. Each layer above that is younger, and the top layer is the youngest of
all. This ordering is relative because you cannot be sure exactly when each layer formed, only that each layer is
younger than the one below it. When horizontal layers of sedimentary rock are undisturbed, the youngest layer
is always on top, as shown in the photograph on the left below. But over millions of years, the movement of
tectonic plates can disturb rock layers. A whole set of layers can get turned on its side. Rock layers can get
bent, or even folded over, like taco shells that begin as flat tortillas. If a set of rock layers has been disturbed,
the youngest layer may no longer be on top. One way scientists determine the original order is to compare the
disturbed rock layers with a similar but undisturbed stack of layers.
The following geologic events contribute to the formation of stratified rocks.
A. Weathering- The bigger rocks break into smaller pieces by means of physical, chemical, biological
and chemical weathering.
B. Erosion- The sediments will be moved by wind or water into the lower parts of the area.
C. Deposition- The sediments will settle on one particular area.
D. Compaction- The sediments will continuously be pressurized by the weight of other rocks at the top
most layer that makes it lose its porosity.
E. Cementation- the sediments will be glued by different minerals from the water and it will produce
different layers of rock.
Summary
o Plate tectonic movement of the plates results in deformation (folding and faulting) of the Earth’s crust.
o Folding is the type of Earth movement resulting from the compression of rock because of high
temperature and pressure from the interior of Earth.
o Folding can also happen in oceans and seas.
o Bending, curving, crumpling, or buckling of rocks into folds are usually visible on rock strata.
o Monocline is a one-sided slope connecting two horizontal or gently inclined strata.
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o Anticline is an upward fold on the rock.
o Syncline is a downward fold on the rock.
o Overturned happens when one of the folds is pushed over the other limb due to increasing pressure.
o Recumbent is an extreme type of overturned fold in which the axial plain acquires an almost horizontal
altitude.
o Faults form cracks or fractures on the rocks. The movement is caused by low temperatures that make
rocks brittle. Instead of folding, rocks break into large chunks.
o Normal (divergent) fault occurs when rock is being pulled apart due to tension force.
o Reverse (convergent) fault happens when rock is being squeezed due to compression force. This type
of fault generally moves up.
o Transform (strike-slip) fault happens when rocks slide past each other in opposite directions like the
San Andreas fault.
o Stratification is the process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers due to crustal
movement, displacement of soils, and distortion of terrain.
o The layers of stratified rocks differ from one another depending on the kind, size, and color of their
sediments.
o Sedimentary rocks are formed when combinations of rock fragments, seashells, fossils, and chemicals
are compressed in layers and hardened.
Assessment: (Post-Test)
Multiple Choice. Directions: Select the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.
1. Which of the processes will result in the layering of sedimentary rocks?
A. Compression B. Metamorphism C. Stratification D. Tension
2. What do you call a process in which rocks are continuously transformed?
A. Compression C. Rock cycle
B. The layering of rocks D. Stratification
3. Which of the following contains information about the relative ages of events and objects in Earth’s
history?
A. Compression C. Rock cycle
B. Metamorphism D. Stratification
4. What is the result of an extreme type of overturned fold in which the axial plain acquires almost
horizontal altitude?
A. Anticline B. Monocline C. Recumbent D. Syncline
5. What type of fault is San Andreas fault?
A. Monocline C. Reverse (convergent) fault
B. Normal (divergent) fault D. Transform (strike-slip) fault.
6. What do you call a movement of the plates which results in the deformation of the Earth’s crust?
A. Compression B. Faulting C. Folding D. Plate tectonics
7. The following are the list of active faults in Northern Mindanao, EXCEPT:
A. Alubijid town Fault C. San Andreas Fault
B. Cabanglasan Fault D. Tagoloan River Fault
8. What do we call a fault in which the hanging wall moves up along the dip along the footwall (as
pictured)?
A. A dip fault C. A reverse faul
B. normal fault D. A strike-slip fault
9. Which of the following is NOT a tectonic force responsible for folding or faulting rocks?
A. compressive force C. tensional force
B. shear force D. all of these are tectonic forces
10. What types of tectonic forces cause faulting?
A. compressive force C. tensional force
B. shear force D. all of these
