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SOCIOLOGY
IAS Mains Q&A

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 CONTENTS

Paper I
1. Sociology- The Discipline......................................................................................................... 1-11
2. Sociology as Science................................................................................................................. 12-24
3. Research Methods and Analysis............................................................................................ 25-38
4. Sociological Thinkers............................................................................................................... 39-79
5. System of Kinship.................................................................................................................... 80-96
6. Stratification and Mobility.................................................................................................... 97-116
7. Works and Economic Life................................................................................................... 117-134
8. Politics and Society.............................................................................................................. 135-158
9. Social Movements................................................................................................................ 159-163
10. Education System and Social Change............................................................................... 164-167
11. Religion and Society............................................................................................................ 168-182
12. Science and Technology...................................................................................................... 183-186
13. Social Change in Modern Society and Development..................................................... 187-208

Paper II
1. Introducing Indian Society................................................................................................. 209-221
2. Caste System......................................................................................................................... 222-239
3. Social Class Structure in India........................................................................................... 240-252
4. System of Kinship in India................................................................................................. 253-267
5. Rural and Agrarian Social Structure................................................................................. 268-280
6. Industrialisation and Urbanisation................................................................................... 281-297
7. Politics and Society.............................................................................................................. 298-312
8. Religion and Society............................................................................................................ 313-321
9. Tribal Communities in India.............................................................................................. 322-332
10. Population Dynamics.......................................................................................................... 333-344
11. Rural and Agrarian Transformation in India.................................................................. 345-360
12. Social Change in India......................................................................................................... 361-374
13. Social Movements................................................................................................................ 375-394
14. Challenges of Social Transformation................................................................................ 395-416


 ABOUT THIS BOOK

Sociology – IAS Mains Q & A - revised and updated edition (2022)

covers topic-wise solution to previous years’ papers as per the latest
syllabus.
Answer writing in this Book: We have put forth answers to each
question as per the demand of the question. We have adopted an
elaborative approach while writing these answers to arm you with
relevant knowledge related to all aspects of a particular topic. In most
of the answers, we have provided additional information, not necessarily
adhering to the prescribed word limit while answering the questions
covering all dimensions. This will enrich your knowledge on that topic,
enabling you to write better answers in future.
How to use this book: This book will assist you in your answer
writing practice in two ways - use this book as a source of reference for
the topics and write answers in your own unique way or alternatively,
you may write previous years’ answers and compare them with the
standard answers provided in this book.
Importance of Sociology as an Optional: Being a generalized topic,
it helps in all the four papers of the General Studies like topics from
society, social justice, social issues, and related case studies in Ethics –
Paper-IV. Sociology is considered as a safer optional as it doesn’t require
any particular knowledge or academic background for its preparation as
an optional.
Optional subject has become the deciding factor in getting an interview
call. Though UPSC has introduced four GS papers to give a level playing
field to all, the dynamic and unpredictable questions of GS papers defeated
the purpose and made Optional paper the magic wand. The toppers’
score also tells it loudly that optional subject plays a defining role in
determining the selection of the candidates.
So, overall this book is an ideal companion for you going to
appear the Mains examination. To help the aspirants to get acclaimed
with the pattern and trend of the exam, this book is a valuable gift to
our readers.
 Syllabus-Paper I
Fundamentals of Sociology
Sociology - The Discipline
 Modernity and Social Changes in Europe and Emergence of Sociology
 Scope of the Subject and Comparison with Other Social Sciences
 Sociology and Common Sense
Sociology as Science
 Science, Scientific Method and Critique
 Major Theoretical Strands of Research Methodology
 Positivism and its Critique
 Fact, Value and Objectivity
 Non- Positivist Methodologies
Research Methods and Analysis
 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
 Techniques of Data Collection
 Variables, Sampling, Hypothesis, Reliability and Validity
Sociological Thinkers
 Karl Marx- Historical Materialism, Mode of Production, Alienation, Class Struggle
 Emile Durkheim- Division of Labour, Social Fact, Suicide, Religion and Society
 Max Weber- Social Action, Ideal Types, Authority, Bureaucracy, Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
 Talcott Parsons- Social System, Pattern Variables
 Robert K. Merton- Latent and Manifest Functions, Conformity and Deviance, Reference Groups
 Mead - Self and Identity
Stratification and Mobility
 Concepts- Equality, Inequality, Hierarchy, Exclusion, Poverty and Deprivation
 Theories of Social Stratification- Structural Functionalist Theory, Marxist Theory, Weberian Theory
 Dimensions- Social Stratification of Class, Status Groups, Gender, Ethnicity and Race
 Social Mobility- Open and Closed Systems, Types of Mobility, Sources and Causes of Mobility
Works and Economic Life
 Social Organization of Work in Different Types of Society- Slave Society, Feudal Society, Industrial /Capitalist
Society
 Formal and Informal Organization of Work
 Labour and Society
Politics and Society
 Sociological Theories of Power
 Power Elite, Bureaucracy, Pressure Groups, and Political Parties
 Nation, State, Citizenship, Democracy, Civil Society, Ideology
 Protest, Agitation, Social Movements, Collective Action, Revolution
 Religion and Society
 Sociological Theories of Religion
 Types of Religious Practices: Animism, Monism, Pluralism, Sects, Cults
 Religion in Modern Society: Religion and Science, Secularization, Religious Revivalism, Fundamentalism.
Systems of Kinship
 Family, Household, Marriage
 Types and Forms of Family
 Lineage and Descent
 Patriarchy and Sexual Division of Labour
 Contemporary Trends
Social Change in Modern Society
 Sociological Theories of Social Change
 Development and Dependency
 Agents of Social Change
 Education and Social Change
 Science, Technology and Social Change

Syllabus-Paper II
Indian Society: Structure and Change
A.  Introducing Indian Society
(I)  Perspectives on the Study of Indian Society
 Indology (GS. Ghurye)
 Structural Functionalism (M N Srinivas)
 Marxist Sociology (A R Desai)
(II)  Impact of Colonial Rule on Indian Society
 Social Background of Indian Nationalism
 Modernization of Indian Tradition
 Protests and Movements During the Colonial Period
 Social Reforms
B. Social Structure
(I)  Rural and Agrarian Social Structure
 The Idea of Indian Village and Village Studies
 Agrarian Social Structure - Evolution of Land Tenure System, Land Reforms
(II)  Caste System
 Perspectives on the Study of Caste Systems: GS Ghurye, M N Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille
 Features of Caste System
 Untouchability - Forms and Perspectives
(III)  Tribal Communities in India
 Definitional Problems
 Geographical Spread
 Colonial Policies and Tribes
 Issues of Integration and Autonomy
(IV)  Social Classes in India
 Agrarian Class Structure
 Industrial Class Structure
 Middle Classes in India
(V)  Systems of Kinship in India
 Lineage and Descent in India
 Types of Kinship Systems
 Family and Marriage in India
 Household Dimensions of the Family
(VI)  Religion and Society
 Religious Communities in India
 Problems of Religious Minorities
 Patriarchy, Entitlements and Sexual Division of Labour
C. Social Changes in India
(I) Visions of Social Change in India
 Idea of development planning and mixed economy
 Constitution, law and social change
 Education and social change
(II) Rural and Agrarian transformation in India
 Programmes of rural development, Community Development Programme, cooperatives, poverty alleviation
schemes
 Green revolution and social change
 Changing modes of production in Indian agriculture
 Problems of rural labour, bondage, migration
(III) Industrialization and Urbanisation in India
 Evolution of modern industry in India
 Growth of urban settlements in India
 Working class: structure, growth, class mobilization
 Informal sector, child labour
 Slums and deprivation in urban areas
(IV) Politics and Society
 Nation, democracy and citizenship
 Political parties, pressure groups, social and political elite
 Regionalism and decentralization of power
 Secularization

(V) Social Movements in Modern India

 Peasants and farmers movements
 Women’s movement
 Backward classes & Dalit movement
• Environmental movements
• Ethnicity and Identity movements
(VI) Population Dynamics

• Population size, growth, composition and distribution

• Components of population growth: birth, death, migration
• Population policy and family planning
• Emerging issues: ageing, sex ratios, child and infant mortality, reproductive health
(VII) Challenges of Social Transformation
• Crisis of development: displacement, environmental problems and sustainability
• Poverty, deprivation and inequalities
• Violence against women
• Caste conflicts
• Ethnic conflicts, communalism, religious revivalism
• Illiteracy and disparities in education


 CHAPTER PAPER-I

1
SOCIOLOGY - THE DISCIPLINE

Q. How is sociology related to common sense? •• Common sense also helps sociology by challenging
(CSE 2021) its conclusions and thereby enriching the discipline.
Ans: Common sense is defined as the ‘routine •• According to Anthony Giddens, sociological knowl-
knowledge that people have of their everyday world edge also itself becomes part of common sense
and activities’. Sociology, on the other hand, according knowledge sometimes.
to positivists, is the scientific study of society, social Thus when sociology moved closer to positivism,
relationships including patterns of social communica- common sense was almost discarded. Anti-positivists
tion and culture. on the other hand again tried to give importance to
common sense. Sociologists’ perception towards com-
Differences mon sense thus has changed over time as the discipline
•• Common sense generally takes cues from what ap- evolved.
pears on surface; sociology on the other hand looks
for inter-connections and root causes which may Q. Discuss the historical antecedents of the
not be apparent. emergence of Sociology as a discipline.
•• Sociology uses reason and logic, common sense uses (CSE, 2019)
conjectures and stereotypical beliefs.
Ans: Sociology is a systematic study of society and
•• Common sense is based upon assumptions, sociol- it studies human society as an interconnected whole and
ogy is based on evidences. how society and the individual interact with each other.
•• Empirical testing has no place in common sense Renaissance gave birth to ideology of modernism
knowledge, while sociological research may have and it led to dawn of modernity. Old beliefs were
empirical orientation. liberally questioned and rationality emerged as
•• Sociological knowledge is objective; common sense new ‘religion’. In this background emerged earliest
is intuitive. sociological thoughts in the minds of the likes of Hegel,
•• Sociological knowledge results into generalization Comte and Spencer. They were mainly western but with
and even theory building. Common sense knowl- global consequences. Early sociology has been a mix of
edge on the other hand may be very personal and Enlightenment and counter-Enlightenment ideas.
two persons may draw different conclusion of a Modernity and Industrial Revolution gave birth to
same event based on their own common sense. the factory system of production, led to the emergence
•• Sociological knowledge is change oriented, while of middle class and dismantling of feudal estates. These
common sense promotes status quoism. developments not only had certain positive outcomes,
they also had a number of negative fallout as well.
Similarities/Convergence
In social sphere, nuclear family emerged. It led
•• The concepts in sociology are framed by taking to issues of increased incidence of domestic violence,
into consideration the commonsensical knowledge. breakups, etc. Middle class also emerged as a new
Common sense helps sociologists in hypothesis structural class and led to new cleavages in society.
building.
Biggest event that affected emergence of discipline
•• Commonsense provides raw material for sociologi- was French Revolution, which itself was influenced by
cal investigations. Sociology tends to answer ques- Enlightenment philosophy. It led to replacement of old
tions generated from common sense knowledge. feudal system with a new one. Ideals of democracy,
2  SOCIOLOGY Q & A

liberty and fraternity became new watch words. But, iii. Common sense is based upon assumptions,
they didn’t come easily and the old system resisted sociology is based on evidences. Sociological
stiffly. A tussle between the old and new ensued which knowledge is based upon research and the resulting
created a condition of great uncertainty. outcomes may be contrary to the common sense.
Thus, modernity had an impact on social, economic iv. Empirical testing has no place in common sense
and political lives of people. Initially, modernity was knowledge, while sociological research may have
seen positive, but its negative fallouts soon became too empirical orientation. Commonsense knowledge is
apparent. Modernity posed challenges which led to often individualistic and naturalistic.
growth of new intellectual ideas. The questions which v. Sociological knowledge is change oriented, while
were posed were not answered by hitherto existing common sense promotes status quo.
disciplines and a new ‘science of society’ was sought vi. Common sense is unreflective since it does not
and what emerged was known as – Sociology. question its own origins, while sociological knowledge
is subjected to unending debates and discourse.
Q. The focal point of sociology rests on vii. Sociology has a body of concepts, methods and data,
interaction. How do you distinguish it from no matter how loosely coordinated, but common
common sense? (CSE, 2018) sense is more or less based out of personal judgments.
Ans: Sociology is a systematic study of society Thus, sociologists’ perception towards common
and studies human society as an interconnected whole sense changed over time as the discipline evolved.
and how society and the individual interact with each Earlier when it was close to philosophy, common
other. A sociologist is interested in general study of sense was seen as complementary. When discipline
social behavior of groups, large or small, and lays moved closer to positivism, common sense was almost
special emphasis upon understanding of social life in its discarded. Anti-positivist on the other hand again tried
everyday form. 'General' study also implies that other to give importance to common sense. So, relationship
social science disciplines deal with more specific areas, between the two is dynamic and even mutually
while sociology takes a broad view. reinforcing at times.
Sociology seeks to study the society and analyze
it in terms of the social relations that have a pattern. Q. Explain how sociology has emerged as a
Sociology seeks to explore how and why societies distinct discipline based on rationality and
emerge, persist and then change. scientific temper. (CSE, 2017)
The scope of sociological study is extremely wide. It
Ans: Sociology as a discipline was a response to the
focuses its analysis on interactions between individuals
social and intellectual climate prevailing in Europe after
such as that of a shopkeeper with a customer, between
the advent of the Industrial Revolution and the Great
two friends or family members.
Transformation due to the Commercial and Scientific
Sociology has its tryst with common sense since
Revolution, the rational ideas during the Enlightenment
long time and it has been accused of being no more than
period and the ideas of Equality, Liberty and Fraternity
common sense right from its birth. The problem is not
propagated by the French Revolution. To understand the
that commonsense knowledge is necessarily false, but
emergence of sociology in Europe, we need to appreciate
that it is unexamined and taken for granted. For this
the relationship between society and ideas.
prime reason, sociology is distinguished from common
sense on various grounds– The Old Europe: Old Europe was traditional.
Land was central to its economic system. Classes were
i. Common sense generally takes cues from what
distinct and clearly demarcated. Religion formed the
appears on surface, sociology on the other hand
cornerstone of the society. The religious heads had the
looks for inter-connections and root causes which
may not be apparent. A sociologist works like a overall authority to decide what was moral and what
skeptic, and sociology is a science of organized was not. The king was believed to be divinely ordained
skepticism, looking beyond what meets the eye. to rule over his people.
Explanations for religion, suicide by Durkheim are The Enlightenment Period in Europe: It was an
best examples of such sociological outlook. While intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated
religion says ‘God created man’, Durkheim said the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century.
‘Man creates god/religion’. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on
ii. Sociology uses reason and logic, common reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy,
sense uses conjectures and stereotypical beliefs. and came to advance ideals like  liberty,  progress, 
Common sense views are often based upon images tolerance,  fraternity,  constitutional government  and 
that get reinforced through tradition. separation of church and state.
 CHAPTER

2
SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE

Q. From the viewpoint of growing importance of Sociology and Psychology

multidisciplinarity, how do you relate sociol- Psychology is often defined as the ‘science of be-
ogy to other social sciences? (CSE 2021) haviour’ and sociology is the science of society. Some
Ans: Social sciences concern people’s relationships attempts have been made to bring them together. One of
and interactions with one another. Sociology, with its the most valuable works is of Gerth and Mills. Accord-
emphasis on social life, falls into this category. ing to them the study of social psychology is interplay
between individual character and social structure as
Ever since the inception of sociology as the disci-
human behaviour is not purely driven by instincts.
pline, it has had some sort of relationship with other
social sciences which kept on changing and evolving Social psychology serves as a bridge between psy-
with time and changing contexts. Besides, sociology chology and sociology, maintains a primary interest in
draws from a variety of other social sciences, including the individual but concerns itself with the way in which
anthropology, political science, psychology, economics the individual behaves in social groups, collectively with
and history. other individuals.

Sociology and Anthropology Sociology and Economics

Classical Western notions of these two disciplines Economics is the study of production in society;
view sociology as study of industrialized society, while sociology studies all aspects of society.
anthropology as study of primitive society. However, In recent times there are many studies like those
today the distinction between ‘Industrialized’ and of Strachey, Galbraith, Raymond Aron which are used
‘Others’ have blurred and this definition is also not ap- in both the disciplines. A branch of sociology called
plicable in a plural society like India where this ‘Other’ ‘economic sociology’ deals with the social aspects of
is found every next door, according to Srinivas. The economic life like ‘gender budgeting’, ‘feminist econo-
works of Talcott Parsons and R.K Merton are attempts mies’ which are concepts that have emerged to address
towards an adaptation of functionalist approach which new social relations. Thus, sociology and economics
is borrowed from anthropologists like Malinowski. Thus meet in a number of areas of knowledge. Economists
the disciplines are increasingly merging into each other. increasingly use sociological research to formulate new
theories and policies and sociologists on the other hand
Sociology and Political Science study the impact of such theories.
The two distinct disciplines of social science, so-
ciology and political sciences do converge often as the Sociology and History
subject matter is men and the convergence is on the History and sociology have a very close rela-
increase. Political science provides laws which affect tion. According to G E Howard, “History is past so-
welfare of masses, sociology provides data and basis of ciology, sociology is present history”. The historian
these laws and policies. Social considerations like caste describes unique events, while the sociologist
play an important role in political decisions, especially derives generalizations. But now a days, history is not
elections. Sociological studies have also been conducted only concerned with ‘which and what events’, but also
in membership of political organizations, voting behav- ‘how’ of events. This emphasis on ‘cause and effect’
iour, casteism, the role of gender in politics, etc. which has brought the two disciplines closer. The line for de-
involves a blend of political science and sociological marcation between history and sociology is becoming
thinking. Rajni Kothari’s ‘Politicisation of Caste’ is a increasingly blurred as history is also no longer purely
good example to see the convergence. descriptive.
 SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE  13
Thus multidisciplinary approaches are important officials realized the need to understand the native
in understanding and addressing social problems be- society and its culture in the interest of smooth
cause in the real world, policy researches or proposals administration.
drafted and implemented to solve social problems are However, it was only during the twenties of the last
not crafted through the use of a single discipline. century that steps were taken to introduce sociology and
social anthropology as academic disciplines in Indian
Q. Is sociology a value-free science? Discuss. universities. Indian sociologists have made a prominent
(CSE 2020) contribution to the development of indigenous studies of
Ans: Value Freedom in Social Research refers to the Indian society and have set an enviable example before
ability of the researcher to keep his or her own values the Asian and African scholars.
(personal, political and religious) from interfering with In post-independence years, when a complex
the research process. of forces, including the undertaking of planned
The idea that ‘facts’ should not be influenced by the development by the government, the increased exposure
researcher’s own beliefs is a central aspect of ‘science’ of Indian scholars to the work of their foreign colleagues,
– and so when we say that Sociology can and should and the availability of funds, resulted in considerable
be value free this is essentially the same as saying that research activity.
‘Sociology can and should be scientific’. The country during the nineties of the last century
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Positivist was passing through radical political, economic and
Sociologists such as August Comte and Emile Durkheim socio-cultural changes as a result of which the scope
regarded Sociology as a science and thus thought that and focus of Indian sociology has expanded. Under the
social research could and should be value-free, or influence of such developments, the Indian government
scientific. As illustrated in Durkheim’s study of Suicide that adored the policy of mixed economy ever since
(1899) – by doing quantitative research and uncovering independence and cherished the ideals of welfarism
macro-level social trends Sociologists can uncover the proceeded to allow the market-oriented policy to
‘laws of society’. prevail.
So at one level, Positivists believe that Sociology can To achieve this goal, the government adopted a new
be value-free because they are uncovering the ‘objective’ policy of economic reforms in the year 1991 with a view
laws of how social systems work – these laws exist to globalize its economy (Singh, 1997). Globalization is a
independently of the researchers observing them. All move prompted by the leaders of the developed world.
the researcher is doing is uncovering ‘social facts’ that Liberalization policy, including the freedom accorded to
exist ‘out there’ in the world – facts that would exist the foreign companies and capital to enter into Indian
irrespective of the person doing the observing. market, is the two major steps of the government in
However, Weber believed that complete Value this direction.
Freedom is not possible. Facts and values are different The impact of globalization on Indian cultural
but not disengaged to each other. Weber proposed heritage and general life situation of the people of
sociologists distinguish and recognize their own the country has generated new areas that deserve the
qualities and beat their own predispositions while attention of Indian sociologists who do seem to be
leading sociological research, this he named as worth attentive to such relevant areas as civic society (Gupta,
non-partisanship. Consequently he guaranteed that an 1997), crisis and resil­ience in the process of social change
analyst can be objective once a theme of research has (Singh, 1993) and secularism and national integration
been picked. (Joshi, 1997) but specific social impli­cation of the new
Contemporary researchers give due weight to economic policy is yet to be analysed.
objectivity but at the same time recognize the futility of A few courses have been introduced recently on
trying to wish away value influence completely from global themes in some of the universities. They are as
their research. Anthony Giddens says that structure, follows: ecology and society, issues of human rights,
which is largely seen as objective, and social action, sociology of management, human resource devel­
which is seen as value-laden, are two sides of the same opment, media and society, action sociology, etc.
coin and cannot exist independently. There is also a need to start some more new courses
like sociology of public order; peace, security and
Q. In the context of globalisation, has the development; security management and infor­mation
scope of sociology been changing in India? technology, etc. These courses are not only important
Comment. (CSE 2020) for teaching but also for research in the construction
Ans: The origin of sociology and social anthropology of society and useful for the modern occupation and
in India can be traced to the days when the British profession.
 CHAPTER PAPER-II

1 INTRODUCING
INDIAN SOCIETY

Q. What is identity politics? Discuss the main This phase was followed by establishment of Bahu-
trends in Dalit movements in India.(CSE 2021) jan Samaj Party by Kanshi Ram which over the time suc-
ceeded in unifying the Dalits under a common political
Ans: Identity politics refers to politics in which
banner and also succeeded in establishing governments
groups of people having a particular racial, religious,
led by Dalit leaders.
ethnic, social, gender or cultural identity tend to promote
In recent times however Dalit movements have
their own specific interests or concerns. In other words
acquired new shape. New Dalit outfits such as Azad
when different identity markers become the basis of
Samaj Party, Bhim Army and new leaders with modern
political mobilization, it is known as identity politics.
outlooks have come to lead Dalit movements.
Examples include Dalit political mobilisation,
Additionally, social media such as Twitter, You-
womens’ movements, Dravidian political movement,
Tube, etc. have become dominant platforms for Dalit
among others.
assertion. This has helped expand the reach of Dalit
Presence of various caste groups, religious and eth-
movement as it has now gone beyond India. Dalit as-
nic diversity makes India a fertile ground for identity
sociation in foreign countries like the US and the UK
politics. Identities such as LGBTQ, migrants and women
highlight the emerging trends in Dalit movement.
are emerging as new avenues for identity politics in
India.
Q. Is Indian society moving from “Hierarchy”
Main Trends in Dalit Movements in India: towards “differentiation”? Illustrate your
Yogendra Singh classifies Dalit movements as answer with suitable examples. (CSE 2021)
1. Integrative and
Ans: Louis Dumont in his seminal work ‘Homo
2. Alienating Hierarchicus’ considers Indian society to be based upon
Sanskritisation is an example of integrative Dalit the principle of hierarchy. He defines hierarchy as a
movement whereas mass conversions undertaken by B R principle in which the elements of a whole are ranked
Ambedkar is an example of alienating Dalit movement. in relation to the whole. According to him, the basis
Historically Dalit movements have witnessed vari- of this hierarchy is the mutual opposition between the
ous trends. In the early pre-independence phase, it was purity and pollution. This hierarchy based upon purity
aimed at removing untouchability and social reform as and pollution is manifested in the Indian caste system.
well as developing self-respect among Dalits. Satyas- Dipankar Gupta however disagrees with this
hodhak Samaj, SNDP movements, Self-respect Move- monolithic hierarchical structure based on purity and
ment are some of its examples. In the later phase, Dalit pollution. He argues that Indian society is not based on
assertion and political mobilisation began under B R a single hierarchy rather it is based upon the principle
Ambedkar. He established All India Scheduled Castes of differentiation. According to him, different castes or
Federation. Jatis have different origin tales or jati puranas through
Post-Ambedkar phase began with the formation of which they justify different hierarchies and in them the
Republican Party of India in 1957 that aimed at political Brahmins are not always at the top. For instance, in his
mobilisation of Dalits. It was followed by Dalit intel- study of Jats of north India, he found that Jats consider
lectual movement in the form of Dalit Panthers (1972) Brahmins as idle, lazy and greedy and therefore inferior
under Namdeo Dhasal. It aimed at developing Dalit to them. He argues that “constitutive elements of differ-
literature, poetry and Dalit narratives as a form of Dalit ences are not arranged vertically or hierarchically but
intellectual assertion. horizontally or even separately“.
210  SOCIOLOGY Q & A

Hence according to Dipankar Gupta, in present as a sub-structure and sub-culture rather than as an all-
times it is the principle of differentiation and not the encompassing change. These modernising changes were
principle of hierarchy that defines Indian society. This therefore adaptive in nature. In fact certain traditional
transition from principle of hierarchy to principle of dif- institutions also got further strengthened, e.g. politicisa-
ferentiation can also be seen in areas beyond the caste tion of caste. Therefore instead of all out modernization,
system. Women who were traditionally ranked lower it led to Neo-traditionalisation.
than men in gender hierarchy have come to acquire im- Additionally, he sees modernisation as a dialectical
portant positions in various fields. Rise of symmetrical process between tradition and modernity. On one hand,
families (Willmott and Young) have further diluted this it led to modernisation of Indian tradition and on the
hierarchy in domestic sphere, and men and women play other hand, it also led to traditionalisation of modernity.
different yet important role in a family. Furthermore, the Therefore Yogendra Singh expanded the scope of
modern division of labour in capitalist economy is now study of modernisation in India by not only focusing on
based upon differences in skills and credentials and not cultural changes but also on structural changes. Further-
necessarily upon caste hierarchies. more his work on modernisation has helped explain the
However, hierarchy is still prevalent. Caste-based persistence of traditions along with modernity.
discrimination and untouchability, based upon hierar-
chy, continue to linger. Gender hierarchy can still be
observed in families where men dominate over women. Q. Elaborate A. R. Desai's perspective to the
Apart from this, hierarchy can also be observed in mod- study of Indian society. (CSE 2020)
ern bureaucratic organisations such as in civil services,
Ans: Indian Marxist scholars use basic assumptions
in corporate world and in political parties among others.
of Marxian analysis of understanding of society. In India,
this view found favor among nationalist leadership
Q. Discuss in detail the major contribution of
after Russian Revolution. This new leadership favored
Prof. Yogendra Singh in theorizing India’s this approach within the context of freedom struggle.
modernization. (CSE 2021) Before independence, this perspective was used by
Ans: Prof. Yogendra Singh, in his work Moderni- D P Mukharjee by combining it with the Indological
sation of Indian Tradition, defines modernisation as “a perspective to develop a Marxological perspective to
form of cultural response involving attributes that are analyze social change.
basically universalistic and evolutionary; they are pan A. R. Desai pioneered the use of this perspective
humanistic, trans-ethnic and non-ideological“. since 1940s and it is best exemplified in his – ‘Social
He begins by distinguishing between social change Background of Indian Nationalism, 1946’.
and modernisation. According to him, social change can He also used the dialectical-historical approach in
be both progressive and regressive whereas modernisa- understanding of Indian society. He conducted his village
tion is a value loaded term that is evolutionary in nature studies in order to identify the contradictions present
and signifies progressive social change. in Indian society. He also emphasizes a comparative
He distinguishes between two sources of social approach in his writings. His approach witnesses
change, namely orthogenetic (e.g. sanskritisation) and a transition from an emphasis on understanding to
heterogenetic (westernisation, Islamic conquest, etc.). suggestion of alternatives. Like other Marxist scholars,
According to him, modernisation in India primarily he also tried to expose the contradictions and anomalies
commenced as a result of heterogenetic changes brought in the process of change in Indian society.
about with its contact with the west which brought vast He understood society in terms of the process
changes in the Indian social structure. of historical development in terms of a dialectical
He sees the changes brought by modernisation at materialist basis. The study of productive relations is
two levels, namely cultural and structural. At cultural used to interpret social structure and institutions. Indian
level modernisation took place in the form of western society is and its traditions are seen as influenced by
education, spread of English language, scientific outlook, from economic infrastructure i.e. culture is rooted in the
etc. while at structural level he sees changes at macro economic infrastructure.
and micro levels. At macro level, development of mod- Systemic view of Indian society is drawn after
ern bureaucracy, democratic system and emergence of Marxist model. Desai highlighted the contradictions
middle class are its impacts. At micro level, institutions and conflicts present in India during turbulent decade
such as family, caste and village were largely left un- of 1970s in wake of apparent failure of planned growth.
touched by British for fear of revolt. His main focus areas were – state, nationalism, village,
Therefore, according to him, modernisation in peasant struggle, caste, etc. He saw nationalism as a
India has been selective and sequential and developed result of materialistic conditions created by the British.
 CHAPTER

2
CASTE SYSTEM

Q. "Indian caste system is unique and has been neither are the large scale industries developed nor are
unhealthy for the growth of sociology of the economic resources of the country exploited to the
India." How far do you agree with this view? best advantage of the people.
 (CSE 2020) The caste system perpetuates exploitation of the
economically weaker and socially inferior castes. It
Ans: Caste system is a closed system of stratification protects the privileged castes and thus it builds up
which is peculiar to India. It existed from centuries economic discontent and social prejudices.
and its exact origin is still not known. Primarily, it is a
The caste system has inflicted untold hardships on
system called ‘Varna’ system under the Hindu fold of
women through its insistence on practices like child-
Indian society which divides society into four groups marriage, prohibition of widow-remarriage, seclusion of
or ‘Varnas’ based on the birth – Brahmin, Kshatriya, women etc. These have made the life of women miserable.
Vaishyas and Shudras.
The caste system has condemned large groups of
Caste is considered as both a cultural and structural people to a life of degradation without any hope of
phenomenon. Culturally, it is a system of value, beliefs redemption. It has created untouchability, an evil that
and practices associated with a particular strata. G. has been sapping the very vitals of the Hindu society.
S. Ghurye, M N Srinivas, etc. have understood it in Democracy is based on the principle of equality,
cultural terms. Structurally, it refers to a specific pattern fraternity and liberty. On the other hand, the caste
of inter-related structures along with interaction among system is based on inequality of status and opportunities,
the various castes on the basis of various disabilities and which often creates conflict and tension in the society. It
restrictions. It also studies actual power relations between acts as an obstacle in the normal and smooth functioning
caste groups and inequalities thereof. Andre Beteille, of democracy.
Dipankar Gupta, etc. subscribe to this perspective. The caste system obstructs the process of
If the institution of caste has been of great value modernization. Modernization necessitates a change
to Hinduism, it has also been responsible for a good in outlook and mentality along with socio-economic
many evils. According to P. N. Bose, “The caste system development. But the caste system by compelling an
has acted essentially to impose that attitude of mind, individual to act strictly in accordance with caste norms
needed to raise men from savagery but to stop them stands in the way of modernization.
half way on progress.” Modern Indian intellect is, therefore, burdened
The caste system has literally split up the Hindu with a sense of contrition over the matter. Passions
society into hundreds of hereditary castes and sub-castes overwhelmingly carry us to a position of hostility
and thus encouraged a spirit of exclusiveness and class- towards any compromise, and the entire caste structure
pride, narrowed the outlook and created wide gulfs has as a result been placed in the docks.
between the various sections of the community. Despite this it cannot be gainsaid that the caste
The caste system is a check on economic and system offers a place in the society into which any
intellectual advancement and a great stumbling block in group-racial, social, religious or occupational can fit in as
the way of social reforms, because it keeps economic and a cooperating part of the social whole without sacrificing
intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of its own individual identity and distinctive character.
the population only and denies them to others. What the caste system provides in India in terms of
In the economic field, the caste system undermines integrating disparate forces may have its analogue in
the efficiency of labour and prevents perfect mobility other social contexts, but it remains uniquely effective
of labour, capital and productive effort. As a result, in the Indian conditions, without a parallel elsewhere.
 CASTE SYSTEM  223
Q. Discuss Whitehead's contention that caste not complete modernization as explained by Yogendra
has potential to displace class and colonial Singh neither has it remained totally traditional as
contradiction. (CSE 2020) Dumont has put it. Andre Beteille observes that power
has shifted from one dominant caste to another and it
Ans: Caste system is a closed system of stratification has shifted from the caste structure itself, and come
which is peculiar to India. It existed from centuries and to be located in more differentiated structures such as
its exact origin is still not known. Caste is considered as panchayats and political parties.
both a cultural and structural phenomenon. Culturally,
caste is a system of values, beliefs, and practices -
Q. Write a note on Ghurye’s conception of caste
associated with particular strata. G. S. Ghurye, M N
in India. (CSE, 2019)
Srinivas, etc. have understood it in cultural terms.
Structurally, it refers to a specific pattern of Ans: In his work ‘Caste and Race in India, 1932’, G S
interrelated structures along with interaction among the Ghurye has examined caste from a historical indological,
various castes on the basis of various disabilities and comparative and integrative perspective. According to
restrictions. It also studies actual power relations between him caste and kinship in India has played an integrative
caste groups and inequalities thereof. Andre Beteille, role.
Dipankar Gupta, etc. subscribe to this perspective. He was initially influenced by the reality of
M N Srinivas tried to capture the fluidity of the caste diffusionist approach according to which, caste
system through concepts of Sanskritization, Dominant originated in plains of Ganges and then spread to other
Caste and Brahminisation. He predominantly used the parts of India – of British social anthropology, but
field studies to explain working of caste, but also resorted later shifted to both Indological and anthropological
to Indological sources. He used a multidimensional perspective.
approach and focused on not just tradition, but he Further, he also relates caste and race as well.
understood it in terms of status, wealth and power. According to him, whole Indian society is caste-based
French sociologist Louis Dumont in his seminal and even tribes are also part of this system as opposed
work ‘Homo Hierarchicus: Caste System and Its to Western notion that tribes and castes are two different
Implication, 1966’ synthesized macro perspective of concepts. According to him, tribals are ‘backward
Ghurye with micro perspective of empirical studies, Hindus’ who are at various levels of assimilation in
thus, combining ‘text’ with ‘context’. He sees caste from Hindu society. He, thus, also opposed the colonial view
an ‘ideological perspective’ and not just an empirical of isolating the tribals.
realty. Louis Dumont constructed a textually-informed His definition emphasizes six features which were
image of caste which according to him is a combination derived from various Indological studies done by him:
of Indological and structuralist approach with dual focus I. Caste is an institution based on segmental division.
on ideology as well as structure. According to him, This means that caste society is divided into a
caste plays an integrative role in Indian society and is number of closed, mutually exclusive segments or
distinctive of India and he sees caste system in terms of compartments. It is closed as caste is decided by
‘ideas and values. birth — the children born to parents of a particular
Whitehead explaining the relationship between caste will always belong to that caste.
social development, development models, democracy II. Caste society is based on hierarchical division. No
and social policy offer valuable insights and lessons two castes are ever equal.
on the type of social policy that can foster democratic
III. The institution of caste necessarily involves
and rights based models of social development. Social
restrictions on feeding and social interaction,
stratification in the form of class or caste can influence
especially the sharing of food. These rules are
the social development according to wealth and status of
governed by ideas of purity and pollution.
individuals.in this way, Whitehead examined the lines of
interaction between democracy and development, their IV. Following from the principles of hierarchy and
“connectedness” and “elective affinity”. restricted social interaction, caste also involves
Andre Beteille says his views are much on what differential rights and duties for different castes and
caste ought to be and not what caste today is. Superiority civil and religious disabilities and privileges.
of Brahmins claimed by him is also questioned by others V. Caste restricts the choice of occupation, which, like
who see power concentrated in hands of kings. Beteille caste itself, is decided by birth and is hereditary.
blames Dumont in particular for encouraging a ‘caste- VI. Caste involves strict restrictions on marriage. Caste
view’ of Indian society. ‘endogamy’, or marriage only within the caste, is
Therefore, caste dimension still remains important often accompanied by rules about ‘exogamy’, or
and India has gone for only ‘selective modernization’ and whom one may not marry.