ATHLETICS I

UNIT ONE
CONCEPTS AND HISTORY OF ATHLETICS

Track and field is one of the oldest of sports. Athletics contests were often held in
conjunction with religious festivals, as with the Olympic Games of ancient Greece. For
11 centuries, starting in 776 B.C., these affairs for men only were enormously popular
and prestigious events. Track and field encompasses a total of 24 different men's and 20
women's competitions, broken down into track events and field events. Track and field
events run the range of the spectrum sporting competitions that test an athlete's strength,
speed, agility, endurance and coordination. Athletics (track and field) is referred as the
"Queen of All Sports".

Athletics

Throwing Combined
Running Jumping

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Track Field Combined

Running
Running Jumping

Jumping
Throwing
Throwing

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Long jump
Horizontal
Triple jump
Jumping
High jump
Vertical
Pole vault

Shot-put

Discus
Throwing
Javelin

Hammer

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200m,1500m,long
jump, discus,
Pentathlon javelin
5
100m hurdle, high
jump, shot-put,
200m
Heptathlon
Combined events Long jump,
7(women)
javelin, 800m

100m, long jump,,

shot-put, high
Decathlon jump, 400m
10(men) 110m hurdles,
discus, pole vault,
javelin, 1500m

1.1 The Historical Development of Athletics

Throughout history, people have participated in various physical activities using different
implements (stone, sharpen sticks, spears and other tools) for gathering fruits and
hunting. Among the activities walking, running, jumping, throwing, wrestling, swimming
and combination of these skills were of paramount importance to the prehistoric man.
These activities were very natural and an integral to the survival task of seeking food,
clothing, shelter and protection.

Before formal education programs, tribal leaders and parents mandated that children learn
and practiced survival skills through imitation. Naturally through time these exercises and
tools became bases for the contest of speed, strength and endurance.
As the techniques of throwing for accuracy and distance increased each village boasted of
a hard throwing hunter and competition began early to find out which village had best
hunter of all. So, contest got acceptance by the prehistoric man, to compete against each
other that are confident of their physical prowess.
After the competition got developed a name was given called "Athletics". It was derived
from the Greek word "athlon" which means "Struggle", "Exercise", "Victorious".

Early History
The ancient Greeks, whose admiration for the healthy human body is revealed in
sculpture, make almost a religious of competitive athletics. It is their custom on solemn
occasions, including even funerals, to engage in races. This passion results in the world's

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first athletic fixture- the games at Olympia, established according to tradition in the year
776 B.C and held every four years in the Peloponnesos. By the 6 century B.C other
Panhellenic (pan= all, hellenikos= Greek) games involving Greek speaking city-states
were being held at Delphi, Nemea and Isthmia. Many local games, such as the
Panathenaic games at Athens, were modeled on these four periodoi, or circuit games.
The Pythian Games at Delphi honored Apollo and included singing and drama contests;
at Nemea, games were held in honor of Zeus; at Isthmia, they were celebrated for
Poseidon; and at Olympia, they were dedicated to Zeus, although separate games in
which young, unmarried women competed were celebrated for Hera. The victors at all
these games brought honor to themselves, their families, and their hometowns. Public
honors were bestowed on them, statues were dedicated to them, and victory poems were
written to commemorate their feats. Numerous vases are decorated with scenes of
competitions and the Odes of Pinar celebrate a number of athletic victories.

At the core of Greek athletics was an individual's physical endeavor to overtake an

opponent. For this reason, sports in ancient Greece generally excluded team competitions
and performances aimed at setting records. Contests included footraces, the long jump,
discus and javelin throwing, wrestling, the pentathlon (a combination of these five
events), boxing, the pankration (a combination of wrestling and boxing), horse races, and
chariot races. During competition and training, athletes were usually naked and covered
with olive oil to keep off the dust. They trained in the gymnasium, often coached by past
victors. The Greeks believed that their love for athletics, among other things,
distinguished them from non-Greeks and only Greek citizens was allowed to compete in
the games.

The first Olympic champion was Coroebus, who won the first sprint competition. At first
it is just a one day athletic meeting with a single competitive event. The entire day is
taken up with heats for a running race, a sprint, the length of the stadium, equivalent of
about 200 meters. In later years more events are added.
The competitive events added to the Olympic Games include throwing the discus and the
javelin, the long jump, boxing, wrestling, chariot and horse racing and a challenge to test
all round ability- the pentathlon. The ancient pentathlon begins with competition in four
disciplines: running, jumping, throwing the discus and the javelin. The winners emerging
from these encounters then meet in a fifth and decisive contest, wrestling.
The champion receive a simple token of their victory, a garland of fresh olive to wear on
the head. This is essentially a religious festival, in honor of the greatest of the Greek
gods, Zeus, whose sanctuary is at Olympia.

After 472 BC, when the games are extended to five days, the pattern of the festival
becomes established. The first day is spent in the necessary sacrifices to Zeus and other

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gods. The athletes and the judges swear an oath that they will play fair, and there is much
general festivity. Only men and boys may enter the games and women may not even be
among the spectators (the contests compete entirely naked).
The second day is taken up with chariot and horse racing and with the pentathlon. The
third day is reserved for the boy's events. The fourth is the climax of athletics, with the
classic field events for men; there is also a terrifying form of all- in wrestling, the
pankration. The day The day ends with races for men in
armor.
5th day- sacrifices…in the evening there is a
banquet for the victors. There will be further
festivities for each when he gets back to his home
town.
 The success of the Olympic Games prompts the founding of several others.
 By the 5th century BC, there are Pythian Games-every 4 years at Delphi,
Isthmian Games- every 2 years near Corinth and
Nemean Games- every 2 years in the Peloponnese.
 All these events are purely for honor’s sake. Only Greeks compete. But gradually
professionalism enters the games, leading to valuable prizes and accusations of
corruption.
Under the Roman Empire, the games are opened to foreigners.
 The Romans continued to hold the Olympian contests after they conquered
Greece in 146 BC.
 Roman emperor Theodosius I, who was a Christian, abolished the games in 393
AD because he viewed them as a pagan worship.

 For 8 centuries thereafter, no organized track and field competition occurred.

 Track and Field events have come a long way since the Ancient Greek Olympic
Games. Many events and techniques have been revised, added or eliminated since
the original Geek Olympics.
 The Olympics motto,” Citius, Altius, Fortius” describes the Track and Field
events in Latin. Means “Faster(Swifter), Higher, Stronger”, and indicates the
running, jumping and throwing events respectively.

Modern Competition
 Track and field's modern beginnings owe much to rural athletic contests that
emerged in the British Isles beginning in the 12th century.
 Another precursor was pedestrianism, or walking and running long distances,
which became a favorite English sport in the late 1700s.

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 In 1834 a group of English enthusiasts agreed on the minimum standards of

performance expected in certain events, notably the 440-yd run (60 seconds), 1-
mile run (5 minutes), 2-mile run (10 minutes), broad jump (20 ft), and high jump
(5 ft 6 in).
 One of the first modern track-and-field meets occurred in 1837 at Eton College in
England. In 1868 the New York Athletic Club held what some scholars call the
first formalized track meet in the United States. The club went on to host the first
U.S. national championship in 1876.

 Track and field subsequently gained a large following in the United States, and
the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States (AAU) was formed in 1888. The
organization sponsored meets on youth, high school, and collegiate levels. In its
early years track and field was largely a male sport, but in 1895 Vassar College
staged the first women's meet in Poughkeepsie, New York.
 That same year the New York Athletic Club and the London Athletic Club held
the first international meet in New York City.
 In 1896 the first modern Olympic Games took place in Athens, Greece. In 1912
the IAAF was formed in London, England, to govern international competitions.
 Women’s track and field became part of the Olympic Games in 1928,
Amsterdam, Netherlands.

 By the end of the decade, track and field at its highest levels had become a full-
fledged professional sport. The IAAF Grand Prix, which in 1985 was the first
meet to award official prize money.
 Track and field now draws more competitors from more nationalities than does
any other Olympic sport. In the modern world, athletes are now helped along by
funding programs, endorsements, sponsorships,…

History of Athletics in Ethiopia

 Organized sport activities were initially introduced in Ethiopia in the 1920s. It
was started for the purpose of Physical Education in few secondary
schools(Menelik II and Entoto Comprehensive).
 Track and Field was one of the major sporting activities performed by students.
 The first in its kind, track and field competition along with other sports such as
Gymnastics and acrobat show was staged at “Janmed” in honor of the visiting
prince of Sweden in 1934.
This show is taken as the origin and birth of track and field in Ethiopia.

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 Physical activities were given to the armed force as a backing for other military
training, in that it created potentially combatants who will display courage &
endurance both morally and physically.

 This arose the interest to take part in track and field competitions.
 As the number of participants of both at school compounds and military camps
increased, track and field competitions were frequently organized and great
athlete from the army started to come out.
 After teachers were employed and brought from abroad, the first associations in
Athletics ( Ethiopian Interschool Athletics Association) was founded in 1949 to
help organize the sport activities in a modern way.
 A board runs this association and the chairman was the Swedish sport instructor,
Major Oni Nskannen, who served Ethiopia for more than 37 years as a coach for
Ethiopian National Athletics team.

 The association succeeded in gradually spreading the competition to other

administrative regional schools, which later was changed as Inter Administrative
Regional competition. This has contributed to lay the foundation for the
popularity of track and field in Ethiopia.
 The armed forces have also organized their own track and field competitions. This
competition has stimulated many soldiers. The famous are: Abebe Bikila, a
double Olympic marathon champion-Rome in 1960 and Tokyo in 1964, and
Mamo Wolde who won marathon plus silver medalist in 10,000m in Mexico
Olympics in 1968.
 To facilitate and encourage the coordination, organization and development of
track and field competition, the Ethiopian Athletics Federation was established in
1949. Earlier, a committee that acted as an Ethiopian Olympic Committee was set
up in 1948. This enabled Ethiopia to commence its international completions.
 Ethiopia for the first time participated in the Olympic games in 1956 in
Melbourne, Australia represented by athletics and cycling.
 The worth achievements gained at international arena, give way to the
establishment of the Addis Ababa Athletics Federation, which further strengthen
athletics by organizing important meetings.
 Starting from Melbourne up to the current competitions, Ethiopia, kept on
shooting new blood to the long distance to secure her place and reputation in the
world area of track and field, by rising up such as Haile Gebresilassie, Derartu
Tulu,………………………………………..

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UNIT TWO
THE REQUIREMENTS OF ATHLETICS
This unit describes the requirements which are needed in athletics particularly track
events. Requirements are distinguished in three aspects:

 Materials, equipments and facilities

 Physical and Psychological readiness
 Technical requirement

1. Materials, Equipments and Facilities

Events that are fundamental require the minimum of equipment and allow a large
mixed group to be actively involved (such as sprints, distance running and relays)
should be introduced early in the track and field program.
Sprinting: is fundamental and can be used without equipment.
 Need only running surface
 Starting gun (whistle)
 ‘False start’ sensor
 Photo-finish camera
 Starting block
 Stop watch

Relay: attractive and enjoyable activity

 Demand little equipment like sprinting
 Practiced in indoor and outdoor
 Batons
 Starting block

Hurdle: is running with clearing obstacles

 Can be used early by using improvised equipment
 Can use bamboo and cones, …

Steeplechase and long distance running

 Require good running surface like that of sprint run
 Steeplechase needs obstacles
Selecting proper equipments is important in execution track events by an individual.
Shoes: for athletic purpose, shoes specifically made for running must be used because
runners strike the ground with a force three or more times their body weight. Running
shoes are specifically designed to absorb shock.

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 Several layers of cushioning on the sole

 Slight elevation of the heel
 Flexibility of the forefoot
 Support against excessive side-to-side motion
 Consider the type of the foot:- Flat foot
- High-arched foot
Clothing: proper jersey must be dressed according to the event and the environmental
condition like the weather condition.

Facilities for track events

Track events include sprint, middle distance and long distance, hurdle, relay and
steeplechase events. The direction of running is anticlockwise. The 400m oval track
usually forms the basis of a multi-sports arena.
Although there are a number of different layouts for the 400m oval track, it is IAAF’s
objective to create uniform criteria, not only with a view to improving the performance
parameters necessary for equal opportunities for all athletes and for the suitability for
competition but also to simplify the principles of construction, surveying and certification
of facilities.
Experience has shown that the most suitable 400m oval tracks are constructed with bend
radii of between 35m and 38m, with an optimum of 36.50m. IAAF recommends that all
future tracks are constructed to the latter specification (36.50m) and this will be referred
to as the ‘400m Standard Track.’

2. Physical and Psychological Readiness

Before launching into running program, determining the starting point is the first task. In
other words, just how healthy and fit an athlete is. Fitness is the ability to perform a
specific physical task effectively and efficiently.
Sprinters:
 Strong, heavy
 Muscular body types
 Self assertive or having a reputation for outstanding sprint speed
 Sprinting is a power activity
 Sprinters have to be able to apply a great amount of force to the ground repeatedly
 More fast twitch fiber type (about 80% of fast-twitch/ Type II fiber)
Hurdlers:
 Above average height, good sprinting ability, agility
 Aggressiveness
 Mental toughness

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Distance runners:

 Small, lean body type, less muscular and lighter, low levels of subcutaneous fats
 Tenacious workers
 Have to be self-motivated and able to see success at the end of a long path of
development
 Slow-twitch muscle fibers(Type I)
 Aerobic power system

Age
 Athletic performance deteriorates with age. But most elite distance runners record
their best performance between the age of 20 and 30 years.
 There is a general trend for sprinters to be younger than distance runners.
 Most runners find that their preferred race distance increases as they grow older.

Body composition
 Generally, the one outstanding anthropometric characteristic of successful
competitors in all distance running events is a low body fat content.
 At least in part, it is an association between the amount of training carried out and
the body composition: body fat content tends to decrease as the volume of
training increases.
 Fat is an important fuel for the working muscles in distance running and has a
number of other important metabolic and hormonal roles, but excess body fat
serves no useful function and adds to the mass that a runner must carry, thus
increasing the energy cost of running.
E.g. 60kg runner (male) with 5% body fat =3kg of fat
55kg runner (female) with 15% body fat ≥ 8kg of fat.
Non-elite runners will commonly have up to twice this amount of
body fat.
Gender
Differences occur due to:
 Muscle mass…………………… Force production
 Body composition……………... oxygen cost of running
 Heart size………………………. Maximum oxygen uptake
 Hemoglobin concentration……... Maximum oxygen uptake
 Muscle enzyme activity………… relative use of fat and carbohydrate
as fuels
 Biomechanical differences……... running economy

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UNIT THREE
PINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TRAINING

General Principles of Exercise

 Fitness is achieved by movement and effort, it is achieved through properly
selected and executed exercise.
 Just as there is a correct dosage of medicine for treating an illness, there is a
correct dosage of physical activity for promoting health benefits and developing
physical fitness.
 To build any component of fitness and determine the correct amount (dose) of
exercise, we must observe the principles of exercise.
The Overload Principle
o To improve any components of fitness, you must exert yourself more than you
usually do.
o Do more than normal, or stress that component more than normal, i.e., you must
overload your body or make it do more than it normally does.
For example, to improve your muscular strength, you need gradually to lift more
and more weight
If you want to run faster, you need to increase the speed and/or distance at which
you run at that speed.
o This principle of exercise is said to have been discovered centuries ago by the
legendary Milo of Crotona, who developed strength by carrying a young calf on
his shoulders each day until it grew to be a full sized bull. As the calf grew
heavier and heavier, Milo was forced to lift more and more weight, and he
allegedly made dramatic gains in strength.
o If you exercise more than usual, fitness increases
o If you exercise less than usual, fitness decreases
o If you exercise the same as usual, fitness stays the same
o Unlike machines, which wear out with use, the human body improves or works
better with use.
The Principle of Progression
o You must start exercise slowly and gradually increase the load (apply overload
gradually) over a period of time. However, the overload should not be increased
too slowly or too rapidly.
o As your fitness improves, you must gradually increase what you do until you
reach the optimal amount of exercise (load) which ranges between the minimal
amount necessary to bring about a change (the threshold of training) and an
amount just short of "overdoing it" (the danger zone).

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o For example, if you do too much work with your hands without prior experience,
you develop blisters. You will not be able to work the next day or you are less
able to work and you may require a day or more of recovery before you are back
to normal. If, however, you begin gradually and increase the work you do, you
develop callus. The callus make your hand tougher, and you are able to work
longer without injury or soreness.

The Principle of Specificity

o To build a specific component of fitness and to develop a specific muscle group in
the body, you must do a specific kind of exercise designed for that purpose.
o For example, lifting weights can build muscle strength but will not improve
flexibility.
o Stretching exercise can improve flexibility but it may do little for altering body
composition.
o Bending the elbow with a weight in a hand may increase the strength of the biceps
muscle, as intended, but it will not develop the triceps.
o If you exercise the arms, you build fitness of the arms, not your legs or vice versa.
In this regard it's not unusual to see some people with disproportionate fitness
development. E.g. Some gymnasts have good upper body development but poor
leg development, whereas some soccer players have well developed legs but lack
upper body development.
o Some exercise can develop more than one fitness component. For example,
jogging can improve cardiovascular fitness and at the same time develops body
leanness if performed in the correct amount.

The Principle of Reversibility (Disuse)

o Inactivity or disuse leads to the loss of benefits achieved as a result of overload.
o Training effects are gradually lost when training stops.
o The principle summarized by a phrase "Use it or lose it"
o It takes only three to four weeks for your body to get out of condition.
o Deterioration can be seen most readily in aerobic activities as the muscles quickly
lose much of their ability to use oxygen.
o Anaerobic activities are less readily affected by lack of training. This is because
the use of oxygen is not crucial.
o Strength gains are lost at about one third or their rate of gain.
o If muscles are not used, they atrophy. That is waste away. Both strength and
speed are gradually lost.
o As muscles become weaker and smaller, they become more prone to injury. Weak
muscles also take longer to heal following injury.

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The Principle of Diminishing Returns

o Indicates that the more benefit you gain as a result of activity, the harder
additional benefits are to achieve.
The Principle of Variance
o Maximum benefit is obtained when a training program includes a variety
methods.

Individual Response
o Each athlete will respond differently to the same training stimulus. There are
many factors that alter the training response: genetics, maturity, nutrition, prior
training, environment, sleep, rest, stress, illness or injury, and motivation, to name
a few.

Principles of Training
AIMS:

 The aim of training is to improve the abilities essential for successful athletic
performance and the many qualities needed by the track athlete, such as strength,
speed, endurance and skill, the two basic ones are SPEED and ENDURANCE.
 SPEED: the capacity to run a fixed distance in the shortest possible
time . Speed in a greater or less degree is, therefore a component of all
track events.
 ENDURANCE: a) Aerobic (with oxygen) endurance, which applies
to activities of long duration but moderate intensity in which
the energy expended is balanced by the intake of oxygen.

b) Anaerobic (without oxygen) endurance, characterized

by activities of short duration but high intensity in which the
intake of oxygen is insufficient to balance the output energy and so
the muscles incur an ‘oxygen debt’.
RUNNING TRAINING
A. Repetition systems- generally carried out on the track, and
B. Natural systems- carried out away from the track, preferably in the country-side
or on the road.
A mixture of these two systems will give the best results.

REPETITION SYSTEM
The basic method is to divide a distance into sections of running with intermediate
intervals;

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For example: an 800m runner might plan to run 8×200m with recovery interval 200m jog
or about 90 seconds. In this way it is possible to run a total distance of 1600m at a pace
than that of a sustained 800m run.

ELEMENTS
Distance: Fixed or variable. Could be duration of time.
Time: Taken for each run (could be substituted by intensity of
effort).
Repetitions: Number of runs, e.g. 10×100m. May also be arranged in
‘set’ 2×(5×100) with a longer ’rest’ interval between
each set.
Pauses: Intervals for partial recovery. It is normally carried out
on the track but it is possible on measured stretches of
road or path or even countryside.
Types of Interval Training
A. Aerobic Endurance
Extensive: Aerobic capacity. Pulse rate up to 170.
Intensive: Aerobic threshold. Pulse rate up to 180.
Distances: 100m to 400m.
Times: Depends on athlete’s ability but as an approximate
(introductory)guide-17seconds for 100m; 32sec.
for 200m and 70sec. for 400m. This
corresponds to about 75% effort.
Recovery intervals: Approximately 45 sec. between 100m runs;
60-90sec. for 200m runs and 2 minutes for 400m runs.
They should preferably be active; i.e. jogging back to
the start.
B. Pace Work
1) Pace work: Long intervals
Distance: 500 to 5000m according to specialty. 2 minutes
to 15 minutes.
Time: Slightly slower than that of the event in
competition (75%).
Repetitions: 4-8
Recovery: 3-6 mins.
2) Competitive pace:
Distance: A third, half or two-thirds of the specialty.
Time: Depending on the distance of the event (a little faster
faster than that of the event itself).
Repetitions: 3-5 (few and preferably over the same distance).

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Recovery: 8-12 minutes.

C. Speed Endurance (Anaerobic capacity)

Aims to prepare the athlete for the stress of intense effort and
improve the ability to endure the lack of oxygen and the build-up of lactic acid.
Distance: a)Alactic 30-60m (without a buildup of lactate).
b) Lactic 150-500m.
Times: Up to 90% of the athlete’s best performance.
Repetitions: a) 10-15 (2-4 sets)
b) 4-12 (2-3 sets).
Recovery: a) Short 1’-3’: long 6’-8’
b) Short 3’-5’: long 10’-12’
This training is very exhausting and is not recommended for young beginners.

NATURAL SYSTEMS
1. Continuous Running
‘Steady’ runs may be used to develop aerobic capacity, i.e., to improve the
efficiency of the relation between oxygen uptake and energy output.
They are best carried out over a varied undulating terrain and on not too hard
surface. If roads are used, extra care should be taken to wear cushioned shoes that give
protection against the hard surface.
2. Fartlek
This type of training emanated from Sweden and can be interpreted as ‘speed
play’- running with a continuous variation of speed and distance. The terrain should be as
varied as possible.
The running should be: easy pace(recovery), medium pace stretches,
progressive(accelerating) runs and fast stretches (uphill and downhill stretches).

3. Hills
the principal aim of hill running is to develop strength.
a) Short, 40-80m very steep uphill runs, max. of 12 repetitions, 3-6 min. recovery
-improve power(speed strength).
b) Intermediate, 100-150m fairly steep uphill runs10-12 repetitions with short
recovery runs
- for development of strength/endurance (anaerobic).
C) Long, 200-300m slight uphill runs, 15-20 repetitions with fairly short recovery
runs
- for improvement of general endurance.
d) Hill circuits, 400-600m, up and downhill, 4-6 repetitions, moderate recovery
- for endurance and speed.

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SPEED
“ Pure” sprinting speed refers to the natural ability to achieve a very high rate of
acceleration and to cover a short distance (60-100m) in a very short time.
It is obviously the main pre requisite for successful performance in the short sprints (100-
200m) but it also plays an important role in the 400m is of some advantage to the 800m
and 1500m runner.
The basic type of work-out for the improvement of speed:
 Maximum effort running: a very high rate of striding
 Pace running: racing speed to develop an optimum, even distribution effort.
 Change of pace: help to develop the ability to accelerate to top speed while
maintaining good relaxation. The run may take the form of a) regressions(runs
decreasing in speed) b) Progressions (runs increasing in speed), or c)
accelerations(full speed runs).
‘Fast’ runs should be between 80-150m and the recovery period should be about 10
minutes.

Methods of Training
METHODS OF GIVING INSTRUCTION
When we give instructions:
 Every minute of the class should be devoted to teaching students the skills and
subject matter of athletic performance.
 Instruction should be fundamental and interesting. Skills should be broken down
into basic components when necessary so that each individual may understand
clearly what is expected to accomplished, and how it is to be done. Use of
demonstration, and audiovisual aids and materials can help to make the
instruction more meaningful and interesting.
 Instructions should be progressive. They should progress from basic skills and
materials to more complex and involved skills, techniques and strategies.

Methods of Imparting the Subject

A. Methods of Presentation
The task of these methods is to develop a good understanding of movement. The main
methods of presentation are the explanation and demonstration methods.
The explanation should be short and concise, only emphasizing the main features. It must
be logical and persuasive.

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Demonstration can be of two types:

1. The ideal demonstration
2. The slow demonstration

Ideal: by the teacher for the pupil and all round impression of the exercise. In each case
an explanation should follow. This method is not so efficacious when a movement is
performed at a great speed, for instance in the jumps.

Slow demonstration: of parts of the movement completes the demonstration of the

complete movement and underline the main phases. This form of demonstration chiefly
used in the throwing events. Example, the moment of the release of the javelin can be
demonstrated slowly while each single part of the movement is precisely explained.

B. Methods of giving Guidance

Methods by which we can give guidance are:
 Setting the task (command, specification of the exercise, home work)
 Helping (by hints, encouragement, and physical support)
 Evaluation (appraisal, correction)

C. Methods of Fit-finding
This is done by means of checking, examining and by awarding marks. Here competition
plays a decisive role. The results of evaluation stimulate the students to further efforts
and show the instructor to what he/she should direct his/her attention.

Methods of Treating the Subject

In practice, there are several methods for arranging the subject matter.
The Whole/Total/ learning method: Skills may be taught in their entity. Each exercise of
a series corresponds in its basic structure to the whole movement to be learnt. This
method has the advantage that from the beginning the "feel” for proper rhythm and
application of strength is produced.
By means of this method usually only the rough form is developed. It is mainly applied in
training young boys and girls (example, hurdle).
This method also known as “Shaping”-making the whole action simpler. The form of a
skill takes shape gradually.

Shaping or whole method can be described as follows:

 Briefly demonstrate and explain the complete skill.
 Use a simplified or incomplete version of the whole skill that includes the most
important actions and is something the learners can be successful at.

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 Allow practice of the simplified skill.

 Gradually change the tasks so that the whole skill is shaped into a reasonable
example of the finished product through practice.
 Encourage students who are having problems to try it in other simpler ways.

The Analytics Synthetic /Part/ Method: This method is also known as “Chaining”-
another way to approach the instructing of complex skill is to have students chain it
together. Here the instructor splits up the exercise into its elements, which must be
specially practiced. The students must there by recognize the position of these
elements in the total structure of the movement. The individual elements are then
reunited as a whole.
For chaining to be effective, the parts should be put together as soon as possible to
form the whole skill.
The shot-put is, for instance, learnt by this method. First the student practices
holding the shot correctly in the hand against the neck, then the glide, the power
position, delivery and release, finally the complete movement.
Some instructors combine the two methods as whole-part-whole method. At first,
the rough form is learnt in its totality (whole method), then follow single
movements which are practiced specially (part method), and finally the newly
learnt elements are practiced in complete movement (whole method). This
process can be repeated many times until the movement is fully stabilized. This is
typical of training in track and field.
There is a further and second group of methods of treating the subject matter:
Deductive and Inductive methods.
 Deductive: means that the instructor, by setting an objective and demonstrating
concisely, has the students carry out the prescribed movement immediately.
 Inductive: on the other hand, the instructor sets the task for an exercise and gives
an indication of the required movement, but allows the student to find out for
himself the rhythm by trial and error. This would be the case in javelin, where the
student has to throw to his target and is thus forced to throw the javelin overhead.
 The inductive method is preferably used for young boys and girls, the deductive
methods for adults.

No one method is suitable to all occasions, but studies have shown that:
 Simple skills (perhaps simple is relative to each individual) benefit from the
whole method.
 Skills of intermediate difficulty benefit from the part method
 Closed skills are often taught with part instruction
 Difficult skills are best dealt with by oscillating between part and whole.

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UNIT FOUR
FUNDAMENTAL TECHNIQUES IN TRACK
EVENTS
Running is defined as the fastest means for an animal to move on foot. (General
definition)
 Running is defined in sporting terms as a gait in which at some point all feet are
off the ground at the same time.
 It can be a form of anaerobic exercise and aerobic exercise.
 Running is a natural event in which everyone who is ambulant can participate to
some level.
 Running is competitions that test athletes’ quickness, speed and endurance.
 Athletes win running races by completing the distance or course in the least
amount of time.

General features or elements of running are:

1. Economy of Action: energy expends as muscles contract and relax. It is
important to relax the muscular tension and to apply the energy effectively.

2. Leg Action: Push-off (Take-off/drive) phase, non-supporting (flight)phase,

and support (landing) phase.

3. Arm Action: swinging action of the arms assists by balancing and

coordinating with the legs.

4. Posture: upper body is erect with the head in a relaxed position.

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Running Form
Head Should be erect, with eyes focused forward to a point on the
ground about 20 to 30m away.

Shoulders Should be square and level.

Do not round or swing forwards and backwards.

Arms Should be swinging freely but in a general forwards and

backwards motion.
Elbows should be bent approximately 90◦ with forearms
remaining roughly parallel to the ground.
Hands Hands are held in a relaxed fist with the thumb resting on the
forefinger.

Torso - Should be erect, with chest up and plenty of room for the
diaphragm to move for proper breathing actions.
- Do not lean forward, backwards or slouch. Because these
posture deviations can place a lot of stress on the lower back,
interfering with proper running mechanics and possibly causing
lower back injury.
Hips Should be square and level with no sideways movement.

Legs Should be relaxed, with pendular movements and moderate knee

lift.

Feet Should be pointed straight ahead and land directly under the hips.

o Factors that are important in sprint running are less important in distance running.
Proper mechanical positions and speed are essential to a sprinter.
Physiological endurance, efficiency and pace are all important to a distance
runner.
Races involving both speed and endurance are important for middle distance.
 At the end of a distance race, the distance runner may need to become a sprinter
and use correct sprinting mechanics.
o Researchers have identified minor differences in postures and movement patterns
in runners competing of varying lengths.
-High angle and flexed knee of the lead leg are higher with the
sprinter and lowest with the marathon runner.
-Arms are moved vigorously and with more amplitude during the
shorter distance and regular speeds.

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o The mechanics of running have an effect on efficiency of performance.

Measure of energy cost in running relates to the rise and fall of the center of
gravity (C.G).
Sprinter produces a pronounced rise and fall; distance runner exhibits a more even
C.G path. (This may delay the onset of fatigue by maintaining a smooth, even
compact stride).

Characteristics of Running (Basic Considerations in Running)

 Runner’s objective is always to cover a given distance in the least possible time.
 The time actually recorded by the athlete is determined by the distance of the
event and by the athlete’s average speed over the distance.
 The speed at which the athlete run is equal to the product of two factors:
1. The distance covered with each stride taken= Stride Length
2. The number of strides taken in a given time = Stride Frequency

The stride frequency is referred as stride cadence or rate of striding.

 Running speed is completely dependent on the magnitudes of the stride length and
the stride frequency, it is important to consider the factors that determine these
magnitudes.
 The length of each stride taken by a runner may be considered as the sum of three
separate distances.
1. Take-off distance- the horizontal distance that the center of gravity
is forward of the toe of the take-off foot at the instant the
later leaves the ground.
2. Flight distance- the horizontal distance that the center of gravity
travels while the runner in the air.
3. Landing distance- the horizontal distance that the toe of the leading
foot and the center of gravity at the instant the runner lands.

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SPRINTING

The sprints are races ranging from 100m to 400m in outdoor and 60m-400m in indoor
competitions. In sprinting, the athlete is expected to run at or close to maximum his/her
speed so as to cover a given distance with possible short time.
Athletes run in lanes (1.22-1.25m wide).
Developing and maximizing the horizontal speed is crucial to secure success in running.
The horizontal speed is the product of stride length and stride frequency. These are the
two most important elements of running.

Stride length: a distance covered in each stride (the sum of the take-off distance, flight
distance and landing distance).

Stride frequency: rate of strides or number of strides in a given time. It shows the leg
speed.

In sprinting power and coordination are essential ingredients in the production of speed.
The coordination could be improved by performing activities in a right manner. (i.e.
proper technique).

Proper technique is the fundamental for good performance. By definition technique is

the ability to use physical exercise in a most rational and effective manner.
Where there is a good technique, there is a maximized economy of running by avoiding
unnecessary movement. Good running technique shows the ability to move each body
segment in a certain required position, to reduce ground time, to improve stride frequency
and stride length, and to reduce air time of each stride.

Phases of Sprint Running

The whole distance to be covered in a sprint race posses the following phases.

 Start/ reaction phase: an explosive force production of the legs in a very short
time is vital for a successful start.
Reaction time is the time between the first signal and the first movement.
 Acceleration phase: after leaving the starting blocks the sprinter increases his/her
running speed in the acceleration phase by continually increasing stride length
and stride rate with a clear forward lean position. The length of the acceleration
phase increases at higher performance levels and this is the most important phase
for the race performance.
 Maximum speed phase: top sprinters reach their maximum speed after about 60-
70m (men) and 50-60m (women).
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 Speed maintenance: in the phase of maximum speed (at 60-90m), the sprinters
cover a distance of 20-30m at their highest speed. This is where the maximum
speeds of 11 m/s (men) and 10m/s (women) are achieved.
 Deceleration phase : as a result of fatigue of the central nervous system and an
accumulation of metabolic waste products, the stride rate decreases and the
sprinter attempts to compensate with increased stride length.
 Finish phase: the finish of the race is denoted by a white line 5cm wide. The
athletes shall be placed in the order in which any part of their bodies (i.e. torso, as
distinguished from the head, neck, arms, legs, hands or feet) reaches the vertical
plane of the near edge of the finish line. Acquiring the skill of finish can often
make a difference between winning and losing a sprint race. There are two finish
techniques- Trip and Swim finish.
The Trip finish- within 5 meters of the finish line, the sprinter throws both arms
back, with palms up. The arms should approach a parallel position to the track
surface. The head is turned to one side or the other so the ear is flat to the track.
The top of the head points across the finish. This unique body position forces the
torso forward projecting it across the finish line.
The Swim finish- this technique requires the sprinter to mimic a swim-like side-
stroke two strides from the finish. The forward arm is the arm which is furthest
from the auto-timing camera. The head turns and looks in the direction of the
camera. The other arm is thrown backward. This body position rotates the torso
just enough to provide a bigger target to the finish photo. The swim finish is
recommended for use when the competitors are expected to be closely bunched at
the finish.

Factors affecting Sprint Performance

o Internal factor
 Psychological readiness of the athlete
 Motivation
 Will power
 Right attitude of mind
 Physiology
 Speed of muscle contraction
 Superb fitness
 Limb length and height
 Technique
 Coordination of all body segments or parts

In sprinting, if there is to be a maximum range of motion (ROM) of leg, there must be a

maximum range of motion (ROM) with the arms.

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o External factor
 Climatic condition
 Nature of the track
 Clothing
 Rules

Sprint Start
Purpose and Objective of Sprint start

The purpose of the sprint start is to facilitate an efficient displacement of the athlete in the
direction of the run. It enables the sprinter to start the race with her/his body sloping as
required for acceleration.
“In starting, the emphasis is upon getting away from the mark as quickly as possible, and
then into a position that will be favorable to developing the desired pace in the shortest
distance.”

The objectives of the sprint start can be seen below. The overriding principle is that it
allows the athlete, if executed properly, to leave the blocks on balance and with
maximum velocity.
 To establish a balanced position in the blocks.
 To obtain a body position where the center of gravity is as high as is practical and
slightly forward of the base of support.
 To apply force against the blocks in a line through the ankle, knee and hip joints,
the center of the trunk and head.
 To apply this force against the blocks and through the body at an angle of
approximately 45˚.
 To establish the optimum knee joint angles in both the front and rear leg.
 To clear the blocks on balance and with the greatest possible velocity.

Types of Sprint Start

There are three types of sprint start: 1. Bunch or bullet start
2. Medium start
3. Elongated start
The main difference between these three starts lies in the longitudinal distance between
the toes of the front foot and toes of the rear foot when the athlete is on the “On your
marks” position. This distance can be referred to as the toe-to-toe distance or the inter-
block spacing.

When an athlete adopts the bunch or bullet start the toes of the rear foot are
approximately level with the heel of the front foot. Both feet are placed well back from
the starting line. The toe-to-toe distance is between 25 and 30cm.

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In the elongated start, the athlete places the knee of the rear leg level with or slightly
behind the heel of the front foot. The toe-to-toe distance in this case is 60-70cm.
Finally, the medium start involves the knee of the rear leg being placed opposite a point
in the front half of the front foot. This results in a toe-to-toe distance of 40 to 55cm.

The question now arises as to which these three types of starting positions will produce
the best sprinting results?

Firstly there is a need to examine what is meant by the term impulse. In order to clear the
starting blocks on the command “Go”, the athlete must produce a force over a certain
time period. The product of this force (F) and the time (t) is known as the impulse of the
force.
Impulse= F×t
A useful relationship, impulse-momentum relationship, can be obtained by substitution as
follows:
F = ma…………….. m= mass……… a= average acceleration
However, a= (vf-vi)/t…………..vf= final velocity………vi = initial velocity
Therefore, F= m(vf-vi)/t
Or, F= (mvf-mvi)/t
Hence Ft = mvf-mvi

This equation states that the impulse of the force is equal to the change in momentum that
it produces. When an athlete is in the starting blocks, her/his initial momentum is zero
(mvi= 0). In addition, the mass of the athlete is constant and because of this the velocity
of the athlete on leaving the blocks is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
impulse exerted on the blocks but opposite in direction. The greater the impulse exerted
the greater the velocity of the athlete. Exerting a high force for a long period of time
produces speed from the crouch start.

So which of the three types of crouch starts will allow the athlete to be in the
anatomically best position to produce the highest possible force in the longest practicable
time?

The bunch start limits the impulse that can be exerted against the blocks because the
athlete is only in contact with the blocks for a relatively short time period and thus has
less time to exert forces against them.
With the elongated start, the athlete has a far greater amount of time over which s/he can
exert force against the blocks. This type of start however, does not allow a very great
force to be generated because of the athlete’s body position in the set phase.

The medium start is a compromise between the fast clearance produced by the bullet start
and the greater amount of time provided by the elongated start. It allows the highest
possible force to be produced for the longest practicable time. Therefore it facilitates the
athlete in producing the greatest impulse and leaving the blocks with the highest velocity.

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The medium start offers an advantage to the sprinter over that provided by the elongated
or bunch starts. The largest number of fastest sprints was made from the medium starting
position, the next largest number from the bunch starting and the smallest number from
the elongated starting position.

In conclusion, it appears that the medium start offers an advantage to the sprinter. It
allows the sprinter to exert a high force against the blocks for the longest practicable
time. This in turn produces the maximum impulse and hence the athlete clears the blocks
with the greatest possible velocity as compared with the elongated or bunch start. The
medium start has been proven superior over both the bunch or bullet and elongated
positions in providing the compromise needed to allow for a fast acceleration of the
center of gravity, good forward lean and the maximum impulse.

Aspects that Influence the Sprint Start

An efficient start can be an important part in winning sprint races. There are some aspects
that influence the sprint start, including the reaction time, acceleration from the blocks
and the transfer to normal sprinting action.
Sprinting results are determined by several components of which the most important is
the maximum running speed. However, a sprint race can often be won or lost already at
the starting line, as losses in the start are rather difficult to make up during the rest of the
distance. An efficient and economic start is therefore another important factor.
1) Reaction time
A sprint race is started by a signal from the starter’s gun that is followed by the action of
the athlete after a time lapse, known as the reaction time. This is the time taken to transfer
the sound waves to nerve impulses that activate muscle fibers. The reaction time of well
qualified athletes ranges 0.10 to 0.18sec.

Observations indicate that the reaction time of the same athlete can have certain
variations, affected by the functional state of the athlete, fatigue during large training
loads and sometimes the development of illness. The reaction time naturally also depends
on the training level of an athlete and decreases considerably over several years of
specific training. It allows experienced athletes in awaiting the starting signal to develop
pretension in the muscle groups supported by the starting blocks, thus decreasing the time
required to begin motor action.

The time taken from the beginning of the pressure applied to the starting blocks until
leaving them is known as the motor component of the start. This interaction takes about
0.22 to 0.45sec. and depends on the movement speed of the legs and arms, starting
technique and the power applied for the drive from the blocks.

A mean motor component of a sprinter is made up from the following segments in the
start: signal from the gun—0.00 sec, reaction time – 0.14 sec, hands leaving the track—
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0.15 sec, leaving the rear block—0.25 sec, and leaving the front block – 0.38 sec. As can
be seen, it takes a sprinter 0.3 to 0.4 sec. of on “on the spot” action that corresponds to
approximately 3 to 4% of the total 100m running time.

2) Application of forces
The largest forces are applied on the rear block, reaching up to 100kg in a maximal effort,
compared with up to 70 kg maximum forces applied to the front block.
Nevertheless, the efficiency of a start does not always depend on the maximum forces. It
appears that the basic task of the sprinter is to apply forces in an optimal time. A fast
break from the blocks could give an advantage in the first few movements but this can be
quickly lost when the athlete has been hurrying and has failed to apply force impulses
over the required time, resulting in a poor initial speed.
Statistics indicates that almost all Olympic winners and world record holders place their
take-off leg on the rear block. The effectiveness of this placement can be explained by the
need of an explosive drive from the blocks, as well as the execution of the drive from the
stronger leg in the first stride, when the athlete has not yet achieved significant speed.
In the generally accepted “set” position, the back of a sprinter is almost parallel to the
ground with the center of gravity about 0.65m above the track level. Some sprinters lift
their hips much higher. This is because the center of gravity is raised up to one meter
over the acceleration phase of the first five meters, which corresponds roughly to running
uphill at a 50 angle of lean. A higher initial hip position will somewhat reduce the
amount of lean required.

3) Acceleration
Basically the acceleration in the start takes place over the first 30m of the distance, during
which the athlete reaches around 90 to 95˚ of the maximal speed. During this phase, the
total time of the running stride remains virtually steady. However, the duration of the
support and flight phases change rapidly in the process of acceleration, as the sprinter
increases the duration of the flight and reduces that of the support phases. The transition
from the starting acceleration to normal sprinting action appears to be a weak link for
many sprinters. This transition is characterized by a change in the rhythmic structure of
the running stride. It is a period where the motor action is re-structured to a maximally
fast upward and forward movement of the swinging leg and the take-off drive from the
support leg.
The movement characteristics during the support phase of the first stride are similar to the
action from the starting blocks. It is only in the following strides that the sprinter
gradually shortens the contacts with the track in the support phases as running speed
increases. As this takes place, the flight time of each stride cycle becomes longer. The
structure of the running technique should be close to the normal sprinting action in the
fifth or sixth stride from the blocks.

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Relay Race

The relays are the only true team events in track and field.
 Relay racing is the art of running with a baton and passing it from one teammate to the
other, and making three exchanges with the forth runner crossing the finish line with the
baton.
 Relay races are events for teams of four, in which an athlete runs a given distance, called
a leg, and then passes a rigid hollow tube called a baton to his/her successor. The pass
must be accomplished within a zone extending 20m. The last person to run in a relay is
called the anchor.
 The ultimate goal of the relay is to move the baton around the track and across the finish
line in the fastest way possible without getting disqualified.

In shorter relay, 4×100m relay, the passer (incoming runner) places the baton in the hand
of the receiver (outgoing runner), who is thus free to get under way while facing forward.
In longer relay, 4×400m relay, where the passer is likely to be extremely fatigued, the
receiver looks back and takes the baton. Ideally, receiver and passer should be in full
stride and about 2 m apart when the baton is handed over.
Length and weight of the relay baton are 28-30cm and 50gms respectively. And the
circumference is 12cm.

Types of Relay Race

The only relays at the Olympics and world championships are the 4×100m relay (in
which each athlete runs 100m) and the 4×400m relay (in which each athlete runs one
400m lap). The aim of the 100m sprint relay is , with the assistance of four athletes, to
carry a baton (30cm long, 13cm in circumference and no less than 50g in weight) around
400m as quickly as possible.

In 4×100m relay race, the exchange race, the exchange zone will be marked 10 meters
front and 10 meters back from every 100m point. Here, all the runners should run only in
their respective lanes.
In 4×400m relay race, the first runner will run on his/her own lane. The second runner
after receiving the baton runs in his own lane until the first curve. Thereafter the runners
can cut into the first lane itself.
The exchange of the baton requires a matching of the speeds of the incoming and
outgoing athletes so that they are together towards the end of the changeover (exchange)
zone.

This requires the outgoing runner to commence his/her run when the incoming runner
reaches a check mark. The distance of the check mark from the start of the zone needs to
take into consideration the running speed of the incoming runner and reaction and
acceleration capacity of the outgoing runner.

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The following is a general guide on the distance of the check mark from the outgoing
runner’s starting point: Men- 7 to 9meters, Women- 6 to 7 meters, and Children- 5 to 6
meters.

Techniques of Baton-exchange
1. Visual Method
In 4×400m relay race, it is very difficult to exchange the baton without seeing the baton
because the incoming runner comes tired. The receiver (outgoing) extends his/her arm
palms facing upward. The incoming gives the baton downwards on the palms of the
receiver. Sooner the receiver gets the baton, continues running.
2. Non-visual method
The first runner will carry the baton in his right hand, the second runner runs forward
from the acceleration zone by stretching the left hand downward (palm downward). As
soon as they enter the exchange zone, the first runner swings the baton upward into the
palm of the second runner. The second runner without seeing the baton grips the baton
strongly and runs. And so do for the third and fourth runner.

Passing Techniques

There are two main passing techniques mostly used to pass baton from one teammate to
the other. These are: the up sweep and down sweep.
Factors to consider when adopting a baton passing techniques are: The distance of the
relay race, the mechanical efficiency of the athlete, the ability of the style to the athlete,
the degree of certainty that a particular style provides, the amount of free distance gained
by the forward reach of the passer and the backward reach of the receiver, the style
providing optimum speed for both the receiver and the passer at the instant of the
transfer, and the distance of the receiver’s target from the backline of the appropriate
zone.

1. Up Sweep/ Palm down Exchange

This is one of the oldest exchange methods. The baton is placed ‘up’ into the waiting
runner’s palm. The waiting (outgoing) runner holds the arm with palm facing down. The
thumb and finger form an upside down ‘V’ shape.

Advantages
Easy for beginners to learn
- A safe pass
- Very consistent
- Helps maintain correct sprint form, therefore can maintain baton speed

Disadvantages
- If pass is missed, outgoing runner is not in good position to grab baton
- Outgoing runner gets the short end of stick; therefore, taking time having to adjust.
- Incoming runner has to place baton deep into receiver’s hand.

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2. Down Sweep/Palm up Exchange

The receiving hand is placed with palm facing up and a wide angle between the thumb
and the rest of the fingers. The incoming athlete passes the baton in a downward
movement into the receiving hand. The waiting runner holds the arm with palm facing
up, in a ‘V’, with the thumb positioned toward the body.
Advantages
– Hand can be higher and further from the body
- Better target for incoming runner
- Faster baton transfer
- Greater distance allowed between runners

Disadvantages
– Timing and baton placement are crucial
- Requires a lot of practice
- Incoming runner must avoid doing a ‘windmill’
- Tendency to provide a poor target

Running line and Baton Exchange

The baton exchange should occur 5 meters before the end of the changeover (20 meters)
zone. Because of this, each athlete has to sprint more than 100 meters: 1st athlete 105
meters, 2nd and 3rd athletes 125 meters and 4th athlete 120 meters.
The running position in the lane and exchange of the baton for each member of the relay
team is as follows:
 First runner carries the baton in the right hand and runs on the inside of the lane
 Second runner takes the baton in the left hand and runs closer to the outside of the lane
 Third runner takes the baton in the right hand and runs close to the inside of the lane
 Fourth runner takes the baton in the left hand

In 4×100m exchange is non-visual. The incoming athlete will call ‘Hand’ or a signal
when s/he is in a position to safely pass the baton to the outgoing athlete. The outgoing
athlete puts back her/his hand, the incoming athlete places the baton into the hand and the
exchange is complete. The outgoing athlete does not watch the baton into her/his hand,
hence ‘non-visual’.

Selection of Team members

The performance in the relay event primarily depends upon the perfection of the baton
exchange and the sprinting ability of the team. In order to select athletes for the different
relay legs, it is sensible to find out their capacities for a particular section (the 2nd and 3rd
runner cover long distances). It also advisable to establish each athlete’s full potential for
running sections on the straight and around the bend.

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 First (Lead-off) Leg: priority goes to an athlete who has a good start, good acceleration
and balance, can run the bend and pass the baton well
 Second Leg: confident in receiving and passing the baton, runs well in the straight and
posses sufficient speed endurance
 Third Leg: confident in receiving and passing the baton, can run the curve well and
posses sufficient speed endurance
 Fourth Leg (Anchor): good receiver, most competitive runner and ability to catch and
pass runners.

HURDLING

Hurdling events are short distances in which competitors must clear a series of ten
barriers called hurdles, which are made of metal and wood (or metal and plastic).
Hurdling is, because of its technical and energy demands, an exciting and challenging
event. The technical component of hurdling is clearly much greater than in sprinting.

On the international level, any event in which the athlete must negotiate a barrier while
running on the track has been classified as a hurdle event. Hurdle races are sprint events,
not jumping events. You “run” over the hurdles.

The events are further differentiated by the total distance of the event. The categories are:
sprint hurdles and long hurdles. The standard sprint hurdle race is 110 meters for men
and 100 meters for women. The standard long hurdle race is 400 meters for both men
and women. Each of these races is run over ten hurdles and they are all Olympic events.

There are two basic hurdle heights: high hurdles and intermediate hurdles. The sprint
hurdle races (60m, 100m and 110m) use high hurdles, which are 1.07m high for men
and 0.84m for women. Long hurdle races (400m) use intermediate hurdles, which are
0.914m high for men and 0.762m high for women.

SPRINT HURDLES
Men’s 110 meters hurdles
 Hurdles have a height of 1.067m (42inches).
 The distance from the start to the first hurdle (run up) is 13.72m.
 The event consists of 10 hurdles spaced (intervals) 9.14m apart with the distance
of the last hurdle to the finish 14.02m.
 The men’s 110m event has a long standing tradition. Since its inception, only few
modifications have been made. A note should be made that the spacing are in
even imperial units. The height of the men’s high hurdle is significantly higher
than the male’s center of mass. The greater difference between hurdle height and
the center of mass, the greater the hurdler must deviate from sprinting in order to
efficiently and effectively negotiate the barriers.

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Women’s 100m hurdles

 Hurdles have a height of 0.84m (33 inches).
 The distance from the start to the first hurdle (run up) is 13.0m.
 The event also consists of 10 barriers spaced (intervals) 8.5m apart with the
distance from the last hurdle to the finish 10.5m.
 The women’s hurdle event has not established as long a tradition. The 100m
hurdle has only been contested since 1969. Prior to that, the 80m hurdle
(30inches/0.76m, 12m to first hurdle, 8.0m in between) was run. The height of the
barrier is such that the women’s event is more of a sprint event than the men’s
110m hurdles.

LONG HURDLE
The first awards in a 400m hurdle race were given in 1860 when a race was held in
Oxford, England, over a course of 440 yards (approximately 402m.). While running the
course, participants had to clear 12 massive, more than 100cm tall, wooden hurdles that
had been spaced in even intervals.

To reduce the risk of injury, somewhat more lightweight constructions were introduced in
1895 that runners could push over. But until 1935 runners were disqualified if they
pushed over more than 3 hurdles in a race and records were only officially accepted if the
runner in question had cleared all hurdles clean and left them all standing.
At the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, France, the 400m hurdles became an Olympic
event. The official distance was fixed to 400m, and the number of hurdles was reduced to
10. The official height of the hurdles was set to 91.44cm for men and, since 1974, to
76.20cm for women. The hurdles were now placed on the course with a run-up to the first
hurdle of 45m, a distance between the hurdles of 35m each, and a home stretch from the
last hurdle to the finish line of 40m.

The 400m hurdle race is arguably the most demanding of all events in the sprint-hurdle
group. It requires a combination of speed-endurance and hurdling skill along with a
unique awareness of stride pattern (between hurdles) which requires special concentration
throughout the race.

Without question, the ideal stride pattern would be a consistent pattern of an odd number
of steps between all hurdles. This odd step pattern (13’s, 15’s, 17’s, 19’s… all the way)
allows the hurdler to take all hurdles with the same lead leg. An even step pattern
between hurdles forces the hurdler to alternate his or her lead leg on consecutive hurdles.
In long hurdle event, whether for men or women, the first hurdle is 45m the starting line
and the distance between hurdles is 35m.
The hurdle clearance stride for the intermediate hurdle is approximately 3.5m. That is
63.5% before the hurdle and 36.5% beyond the hurdle.

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Technique of Hurdling
The hurdle race can be broken up into four stages (phases):
A. Start to 1st hurdle
B. Movement across hurdle
C. Running between hurdles
D. Last hurdle to finish
A. Sprint start and approach to 1st hurdle
 The starting position and block clearance are the same for the hurdler as the 100m
sprinter. The hurdler makes a transition to erect sprinting posture 'running tall'
quicker than the sprinter to prepare for takeoff over the first hurdle.
 The high hurdler should strive for 8 strides to the first hurdle. 7 strides may be
used by the rare strong hurdler.
B. Movement across hurdle
a) Take-off

As the hurdler plants on his 8th step from the blocks, he must drive the lead knee
of the free leg linearly towards the hash mark on the lead leg side of the hurdle. A
fast lead knee is critical to hurdling efficiency.

The take-off distance from the hurdle depends on the hurdler's velocity at take-
off. If the hurdler takes off too close to the hurdle, the result will usually be
excessive clearance height over the hurdle. The center of mass (COM) should be
raised only as high as needed for the athlete to clear the hurdle efficiently.

The head leads the body over the hurdle. This results in the lean of the upper body
into the hurdle.
b) Hurdle clearance

The athlete must attack the hurdle and aim to clear it, by approx. 17 to 18 cm, as quickly
and efficiently as possible, raising their centre of gravity only a little more than in a
normal sprint action. The stride must be quick and regularly spaced. By galloping, the
hurdler is over striding too much and will lose speed. Two third of hurdle comes before
the hurdle, the rest one third after the hurdle.

Leg Action

The last stride of the approach to the first hurdle is shortened in order to allow the take-
off leg to move rapidly under the hips. This ensures that a fast effective drive can be
made across the hurdle.

Action of the leading leg

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The knee has to be picked up rapidly and driven at the hurdle. The lower part of the leg
remains low and is picked up once the knee reached the height of the hurdle. The knee
must be kept vertical to the body and shouldn't be pulled across the body.

When the heel of the lead leg passes over the barrier it must be brought down and back to
be placed under the body. The lead leg should be straightened as it comes down toward
the ground.

Action of the trailing leg

The trailing leg should drive the body towards the hurdle as the lead leg rises. The athlete
should be aware of the trailing leg sweeping wide and flat over the barrier, with the ankle
turned to avoid hitting the hurdle. The knee should continue rising and come round in
front of the body when the barrier is cleared.

Many young athletes have a tendency to drop the trail leg off to the side after it has
crossed the barrier. This has the effect of making the first stride short and pulling the
athlete off balance. The trail leg must be pulled through high and fast so that the first
stride is fast.

Arm Action

As in sprinting, the arms act to balance the body and counter the rotations produced by
the legs. The arm opposite to the lead leg actually leads the action into the hurdle and
pushes/dives forwards as the lead leg rises. The other arm should be taken back in a
normal sprinting action. As the trail leg comes round the leading arm swings back and
wide to counter the rotation of the trail leg.

c) Landing
The hurdler should strive for an "active" landing, with the lead leg pawing at the
back of the ground with the foot still dorsiflexed. The foot of the lead leg should
land directly beneath the hurdler's COM. A fast getaway stride is the result of
high and effective trail leg technique.

C. Running between hurdles

Unlike flat sprinting, in hurdle events, no two of the four strides used over and between
two hurdles are the same. The getaway stride is relatively short. The second stride is the
longest, and the third stride is a cut-step to accelerate the center of mass into the takeoff
for the next hurdle.

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Proficient hurdlers will take eight strides to the first hurdle and three strides between
hurdles, so the hurdler with the quickest stride rate will have the greatest success if his or
her technique is equal to that of their opponents.

D. Last hurdle to finish

In a close race, the hurdler who is first to return to sprint form off the last hurdle and best
times his or her lean into the finish line, has the best chance of victory.

STEEPLECHASE (ATHLETICS)
INTRODUCTION
The steeplechase is an obstacle race in athletics which derives its name from the
steeplechase in horse racing. This event is basically a long distance hurdle, or barrier
race. The lap is set out with four special hurdles plus one water jump, which are
successively negotiated according to the distance of the race.

DISTANCES AND NUMBER OF OBSTACLES

The distance between barriers and water pit depends on the position of the water pit on
the track, in most bigger stadiums, the water pit is located on the inside of the curve at the
far end the track, in which case the distance between barriers is 78 meters. If the water pit
is on the outside of the curve, this distance increases to 82m. These outside water pits are
rather common on smaller tracks, but in stadiums there is usually no room outside the
track since there are the spectator stands. Exceptions were the Olympics in 2000 in
Sydney, and also the world championships in Edmonton in 2001, where the water pit was
indeed outside
Depending on whether the water pit is inside or outside, the length of each lap is
somewhat different from 400 meters. This difference is corrected for with the position of
the start line, which is either some 50m before the finish line (outside pit) or some 20m
before the 200mstart line (inside pit). On a 6 lanner, each lap is 410, but on an 8 lanner
this would be some 120m, with an inside pit is some 398m, but in other cases it could be
as short as 392m. The barriers are always located in the last 7 laps of the race (4 per lap
plus one barrier water pit). That means that one will meet a barriers some 60m after the
start if the by rule. If the pit is inside, however, one will first needs to run some 220m
without any barriers and start taking barriers in the last 7 laps.

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DEFINITION OF PHASES

Three phases need to be individually analyzed in order to arrive at the complete

biomechanical analysis of the event. The three phases in the order they will be analyzed
will be the preparation, flight, and follow through phases. It is said that each phase is
effected by the previous phase, and that any error can be traced back to a fault in the
previous phase. However, because of the length between hurdles in steeple chasing
(nearly 80 meters), the end of the follow through phase and the beginning of the
preparation phase can actually be separated, making each hurdle a single entity within the
race.

1. Preparation Phase

a. Regular Barrier

There are three different points at which the preparation phase can be said to begin. Since
the goal of proper hurdling technique is to resume running form immediately upon
landing, it could be said that the preparation for each hurdle begins as early as 75 meters
before each hurdle. A more practical point at which preparation begins is at about 10 to
12 steps prior to hurdling, approximately 30 to 40 meters before the barrier. This is the
point at which visual adjustments of the steps should be made so that stuttering or
stretching in the final few strides to the barrier are eliminated.

b. Water Barrier

Just as with regular barriers, preparation can begin as early as a few steps following
landing after the previous barrier. Most tracks have the water barrier inside of lane one,
meaning that approximately 15 to 20 meters before the barrier runners must take a
sharper turn to approach the water barrier. This is where final visual adjustments must be
made.

2. Flight Phase

a. Regular Barrier

The onset of this phase occurs at the landing of the final step prior to takeoff and
concludes after the body has completed its flight and has touched down on the opposite
side of the hurdle.

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b. Water Barrier

This phase will be slightly longer than the flight phase over regular barriers because of
the added aspect of the water pit. While proper technique does not include a full-out leap
to clear the pit, some effort must be made to clear the pit as far as efficiency will allow.

3. Follow through Phase

a. Regular Barrier

The follow through is the time between the landing and the resumption of normal running
form. The goal is to resume running as quickly as possible, and can be obtained by the
second step after landing.

b. Water Barrier

Again, this phase is defined as it was before over regular barriers: from the time the first
foot hits the ground after the flight phase until normal running form is resumed. It may be
more difficult to resume normal running technique over the water barrier because of the
increased forces placed on the body due to greater flight height, distance, and time.

MIDDLE DISTANCE
Races ranging from 600 meters to 3000 meters are known as middle distance events. The
most popular distances are the 800-meter, 1500-meter and 3000-meter runs. The mile run
is also a popular event; it is the only non-metric distance still officially recognized.
Middle distance runners use a combination of sprint speed and endurance. They must stay
in contention but also regulate their speed carefully to avoid tiring too quickly. Some
middle distance runners change speed several times during a race, while others maintain
an even pace throughout. An important of middle distance races is the kick, a sprint for
the finish line on the last lap. Running form for middle distance events differs from that
employed in the sprints. Knee action is much less pronounced, the stride is shorter, and
the forward lean is less extreme.

Middle distance events are the most demanding in track and field. They are actually long
sprints. The athlete must have a mixture of speed, endurance and strength. It combines
the use of both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems and requires athletes to possess a
high level of speed and endurance.

Biological factors that go primarily into a middle distance racer are: developed fast and
slow twitch muscles fibers, adrenalin (usually for the final kick), anaerobic respiration

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(bringing it in after the final kick), racing tactics, and aerobic conditioning. The 1500 m
has been estimated to require an equal contribution from fast and slow twitch muscles.

Middle distance runners are typically of medium height, and every lean and muscular.
The athletes need to possess a low absolute body fat level.

Middle distance Running Technique

Guidance on the running technique of the middle distance runner is provided in the form
of a series of pictures and associated notes that highlight the main technical points.

The foot strikes the ground below the centre of gravity (which is around
the central area of the hips) .The strike is slightly on the outside of the foot and from the
ball of the foot to the mid-foot. There is then a role across and a dropping of the heel. The
leg's role is supporting and driving.

As the foot strikes the ground there is also some flexion in the knee. This
should not be too excessive, so leg strength must be developed to ensure stability in and
around the knee. There is also some movement around the hip girdle. This can be
excessive, so strength exercises for the whole region, especially abdominal and lower
back, are required. It is very important that this region is kept stable, thus giving a strong
platform from which to drive.

As the torso moves ahead of the foot, the drive is initiated and the Achilles
and calf are placed under great stress. It is therefore important that stretching and
strengthening of this area be incorporated into training. Muscle fibers in the calf respond
to a reflex action as they are placed in near full stretch and contract quickly, thus
apparently straightening the foot, forcing the athlete back up higher on their fore-foot.
(This makes the foot a further lever, often forgotten by many runners). The foot "grips"

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the ground as the torso moves ahead, forcing the leg into full extension. Once again,
strength and flexibility of the hamstrings are important

After the athlete has reached almost full stretch, a reflex action occurs in
the muscle fibers of the hamstring, quickly shortening it and pulling the foot up off the
ground. This allows the whole of the limb to swing back a bit further. Hip mobility and
the ability to stretch the quads at the front of the leg arc also vitally important.

The upper part of the leg is drawn forward by the action of the quads and
hip flexors beginning to shorten. The foot continues on an upward curve, with the help of
the contracting hamstring and the hinge effect of the knee joint. It swings into the gluteus
maximus (backside), so shortening the lever and making it easier to bring forwards.

The thigh continues forward and the swings upwards, the head of the foot
drops from its high point and accelerates downwards and forwards. The knee reaches its
high point, which is not quite as high as that of a sprinter (i.e. at an angle of around 90

degrees to the rear leg)

The foot ends its swing through at a point just ahead of the knee. The leg maintains a
slight angle at the knee (the leg is not straight). Having reached its high point the thigh
starts a downward swing; this initiates an acceleration of the foot backwards.

The foot once again strikes the floor in a backward motion, adding to the
athlete's forward motion.

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LONG DISTANCE RUNNING

INTRODUCTION

Runs longer than 3,000 meters, are considered distance events. The most common
distance races are ones of 5,000 to 10,000 meters, and the marathon, which does not take
place on a track but on paved roads over a course of 42 km, 194 m (26 mi, 385 yd). Many
of the best distance runners are small and light-framed. They use a running style that
avoids excess motion. Knee action is slight, arm movements are reduced to a minimum,
and the strides are shorter than those used in sprinting or middle-distance running.
Although fitness is essential, competing in long distance events also involves careful
strategizing. The top racers use a variety of techniques to outperform their opponents,
from abrupt changes of pace during the race to fast finishing kicks.

Comparing past and present world record holders it would appear that athletes in long
distance events would reach their peak at the following ages: 5km-male 27 and female
29,10km-male 29and female 31, Marathon-male and female between 31 and 37,
and many of the best distance runners are small and light framed.

DISTANCE RUNNING MECHANICS

The body moves as a system of levers. Each of the body’s levers (the head, torso, arms
and legs) obeys the laws of physics and motion. The three primary components of
distance running mechanics are: posture, arm-action, and foot strike.
a. Running posture
Distance runners should not be told to try to lean forward. Forward lean is simply a
function of acceleration. When the body accelerates, it will lean forward.
Acceleration is accomplished in the first several strides of a distance race. After that, the
position of the torso should be erect, directly above the hips. When an athlete is running,
each leg swings forward-and-back like a pendulum. The sweep of that pendulum swing is
the length of the stride, which is largely determined by the height to which the knee
swings forward.
When running erect, the weight is centered in the body just above the hips. Leaning
forward lowers the center of mass. You cannot lift your knees any higher than your center
of mass (one of the laws of motion), so lowering the center of mass by leaning forward
restricts knee lift, which in turn decreases the length of the stride.
b. Arm-action
The arms get everything moving in the direction a runner wants to go—forward.

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Swinging the arms past the mid-line of the body, causes the shoulders to rotate,
restricting the free swing of the hips. Athletes who shrug their shoulders during arm
swing also create shoulder rotation.
To keep the shoulders square while running, the arms should move forward and back
with the hands moving forward from a point just behind the hips, slightly across the
chest, up to a point near the shoulders. The forearm and hand should move forward and
back as one piece because flexing the wrists reduces the effectiveness of using the arms
as levers by turning the elbows out. The hands must stay relaxed and cupped; clenching
fists causes the body to tense up thus reducing stride length and slowing the runner.
The arms control running. A runner’s pace is set by the cadence of the arm swing.
However, distance runners cannot run with vigorous arm-action without paying a high
energy cost, so conserving energy must be a primary objective of arm action.
c. Foot strike
Shoes significantly alter a person’s natural foot strike tendencies. Most runners would not
land on their heels and slap their forefoot onto the ground if they were running barefoot.
Today’s super-cushioned shoes allow runners to make those kinds of mechanical
mistakes. A heel-first foot strike extends the foot in front of the center of mass and
creates a braking action at each touchdown. This is called “over striding.” The middle of
the foot should strike the ground with the runner’s weight toward the ball of the foot and
the toes dorsiflexed. A full-footed foot strike puts the foot under the hips with the leg in a
bent, weight-bearing position. This enhances a rapid forward weight transfer as the leg
fully extends off the ball of the foot into the next stride.
Important! Accelerating off the pace requires different mechanics than accelerating from
a start. Many distance runners attempt to run faster in the closing stages of a race by
taking longer strides. This results in over striding and a loss of speed. The key to
accelerating off the pace is to create shorter, quicker levers. This is achieved by closing
the arm angles, increasing arm swing cadence, and shortening the stride. Running with
the hands positioned thumbs up recruits more muscles in the forearm and shoulder to flex
the arm rapidly.

A distance runner's stride, like that of any other athlete, is composed of three phases:
Push-off or drive, Recovery, and Support.
During push off phase, the body is propelled forward via support foot and finally the toes.
The recovery phase is that period when the body is in the air with neither foot in ground
contact. The support phase is when the foot re contacts the ground. As the body’s center
of gravity passes over the supporting foot, the drive phase of the next stride begins. As
each leg is propelled forward, the opposite arm opposes all phases of the runner’s stride.
In other words, the left leg is forward at the same time the right arm is forward, and vice
versa. Running style is efficient for majority of race, yet is still effective for challenges
and using a finishing kick. Optimal foot strike is mid foot; relative flat foot supporting

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position under hips, body weight continuously moves forward to ball of foot. Arm action
is comfortable back and forward swing with a less than 90° angle.
Points of Emphasis: Do not cross body with arms( This shortens stride length, increasing
run time and fatigue), keep arms loose and relaxed, toe up, heel up, knee up, and run tall,
chest out, shoulders square.
Crossover can result from any one or a combination of following three factors: Leg
length difference, inflexibility of the adductor muscles on the inside of the legs, and
upper body torque.
It is estimated that 90 percent of the population has one leg that is slightly shorter than
the other. Although the difference is often very small, as little as 3/16 inch can create a
major discrepancy for runners.
Tight adductor muscles are most common in women. Stretching the adductor muscle will
help reduce this variety of crossover. Upper body torque most often results from
inflexibility in the shoulders, which in turn results from tightness in the chest muscles.
For example, as the right arm goes back, it pulls the left arm across the body. The right
leg must then crossover to the left in a compensating movement. Swimming is an
excellent exercise to increase chest muscles flexibility. This increased flexibility provides
the added benefit of increasing range of motion in the muscles involved with breathing.
Lack of flexibility in the upper body causes more running injuries than any other factor.
Upper body tightness is responsible for 70 percent of probation problems.
Many runners try to compensate for a small stride angle by increasing their vertical
bounce. The result is inefficient running, wasted motion coupled with a greater chance of
injury. Remember, running speed is determined by two factors: Stride frequency and
Stride length.
Over striding forces the body to act as a brake, much to the detriment of forward running
speed.

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