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India and the Administrative Units; the States and Union Territories

a. Physiography of India

● India lies in the northern hemisphere of the globe between 8o 4’ N and 37o6’ N
latitudes and 68o7’ E and 97o25’ E longitudes.
● The southern extent goes up to 6o45’ N latitude to cover the last island of the
Nicobar group of islands. The southern extreme is called Pygmalion Point or
India Point.
● The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle part of India and crosses the
eight states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram.
● The total land frontier of 15,200 km passes through marshy lands, desert, plains,
mountains, snow-covered areas and thick forests.
● The maritime boundary of 6100 km along the main landmass which increases to
7516 km of the coastlines of Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands are
added to it.
● India commands a total geographical area of 32,87,263 sq.km which is roughly
0.57% of the area of the earth and 2.4% of the total area of the land hemisphere.
● India is the seventh-largest country of the world after Russia, Canada, USA,
China, Brazil and Australia (all are mentioned in the descending order).
● India’s area is almost equal to the area of Europe (excluding Russia), one-third of
Canada, one-fifth of Russia, eight times of Japan and twelve times of the United
Kingdom.
● India has roughly a quadrangular shape. It measures about 3,214 km from north
to south and about 2933 km from east to west, the difference between the two is
just 281km.

b. Land frontiers of India

● The Himalayan ranges from a natural frontier between India and China. In the
north-west, Jammu and Kashmir share the international border with Sinkiang and
Tibet in China.
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● In the east, Himachal Pradesh and the mountain region of Uttarakhand have a
common frontier with Tibet.
● Nepal has its border with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
● West Bengal and Sikkim also touch the Nepalese border for a small distance.
● India-Afghanistan and Pakistan-Afghanistan international boundary are called the
Durand Line, determined as a ‘military-strategic border’ between British India and
Afghanistan.
● The boundary between with Pakistan and Bangladesh (East Pakistan) was
finalized at the time of partition in 1947 through the ‘Radcliff Award’.
● In Punjab, the frontier runs through a smooth and fertile plain, which is purely
man-made. The Indian frontier with Pakistan in Kashmir is still disputed and has
led to strained relations between the two countries since partition in 1947.
● The eastern boundary of India is formed by a complex chain of the Himalayan
offshoots consisting of the Mishmi, the Patkai, the Naga hills, the Barail range,
the Mizo hills and finally the Arakan Yoma mountain range.
● The Arakan Yoma is submerged in the Bay of Bengal for a sufficiently long
stretch and emerges again in the form of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
● The boundary line between India and Bangladesh crisscrosses the vast Ganga-
Brahmaputra delta. This boundary runs through an entirely flat country in which
there is not even a small mount or hill which could be used for demarcating the
boundary between two countries.
● Bangladesh and India share a the fifth-longest land border in the world, including
Assam, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and West Bengal.
● There is a maritime boundary of 6100 km along with the main landmass which
increases to 7156 km if the coastlines of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
added to it.
● The nearest neighbour in the south across the seas in Sri Lanka which is
separated from India through the narrow channel of Palk Strait.
● Similarly, the Eight Degree Channel forms the boundary between the
Lakshadweep and Maldives islands.
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Name of the Country Length in Km

Bangladesh 4,096.7

China 3,488

Pakistan 3,323

Nepal 1,751

Myanmar 1,643

Bhutan 699

Afghanistan 106

Total 15,106.7

The states having a common boundary with the neighbouring countries.

Country States
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Pakistan 3 States: Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat and 2 Union Territories-

Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh

Afghanistan 1 Union Territory- Ladakh

China 4 States: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal

Pradesh and 1 Union Territory- Ladakh

Nepal 5 States: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,

Sikkim

Bhutan 4 States: Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh

Myanmar 4 States: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram

Bangladesh 5 States: West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura and

Mizoram

Quick Glance at States Area-wise:

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State Area Capital Main

(Km2) Language

Rajasthan 342,239 Jaipur Rajasthani,

Hindi

Madhya 308,245 Bhopal Hindi

Pradesh

Maharashtra 307,713 Mumbai Marathi

Uttar Pradesh 240,928 Lucknow Hindi

Gujarat 196,024 Gandhinagar Gujarati

Karnataka 191,791 Bengaluru Kannada

Andhra 162,968 Hyderabad Telugu

Pradesh

Odisha 155,707 Bhuvaneswar Oriyya

Chhattisgarh 135,191 Raipur Hindi

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Tamil Nadu 130,058 Chennai Tamil

Telangana 112,077 Hyderabad Telugu

Bihar 94,163 Patna Hindi

West Bengal 88,752 Kolkata Bengali

Arunachal 83,743 Itanagar Tribal

Pradesh

Jharkhand 79,714 Ranchi Hindi

Assam 78,438 Dispur Assamese

Himachal 55,673 Shimla Hindi

Pradesh

Uttarakhand 53,483 Dehradun Hindi

Punjab 50,362 Chandigarh Punjabi

Haryana 44,212 Chandigarh Hindi

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Kerala 38,863 Thiruvananthapuram Malayalam

Meghalaya 22,429 Shillong Khasi, Garo,

English

Manipur 22,327 Imphal Manipuri

Mizoram 21,081 Aizawl Mizo, English

Nagaland 16,579 Kohima Angami Ao

Tripura 10,486 Bengali, Tripuri Agartala

Sikkim 7,096 Gangtok Lepcha,

Bhutia

Goa 3,702 Panaji Marathi,

Konkani

Union Area Capital Language

Territories (sq. km)
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Andaman and 8,249 Port Blair Andamanese,

Nicobar Is. Nicobarese

Delhi 1,490 New Delhi Hindi

Puducherry 492 Puducherry Tamil, French

Dadra and 603 Daman Gujarati,

Nagar Haveli Marathi
and Daman
and Diu

Chandigarh 114 Chandigarh is itself the Hindi, Punjabi,

capital of two states i.e. and Haryanvi
Punjab and Haryana.

Lakshadweep 32 Kavaratti Malayalam

Jammu - Srinagar (Summer capital) Kashmiri,

Kashmir Jammu (winter capital) Urdu
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Ladakh - Leh, Kargil Urdu, Hindi,

English

Physical Geography of India

● India has vast diversity in physical features.

● This diversity of landmass is the result of the large landmass of India formed
during different geological periods and also due to various geological and
geomorphological processes that took place in the crust.
● According to Plate Tectonic theory folding, faulting and volcanic activity are the
major processes involved in the creation of physical features of Indian landscape.
For example, the formation of the Himalayas in the north of the country attributed
to the convergence of Gondwana land with the Eurasian plate.
● The Northern part of the country has a vast expanse of rugged topography
consisting of a series of mountain ranges with varied peaks, beautiful valleys and
deep gorges.
● The Southern part of the country consists of stable table land with highly
dissected plateaus, denuded rocks and developed series of scarps.
● The Great Northern Plains lies between these two landscapes.
● The physical features of India can be grouped under the following Physiographic
Divisions:
1. The Himalayas
2. The Northern Plains
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian desert
5. The Coastal Plains
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6. The Islands

The Himalayas

● The longest range of this system is Pir Panjal Range.

● This range consists of famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and the Kullu
Valley.
● The Outer most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. They composed
of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan
range located farther north.
● The Longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks are known
as Duns. Example: Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, Patli Dun.
● The highest peak of Himalayas is: Everest, Nepal (8848 m); Kanchenjunga, India
(8598 m); Makalu, Nepal (8481 m)
● On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges and other geomorphological features
the Himalayas can be subdivided into following
○ North-western or Kashmir Himalayas
○ Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas
○ Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
○ Arunachal Himalayas
○ Eastern Hills and Mountains

North-Western or Kashmir Himalayas

● Important Ranges: Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal

● Important Glaciers: Siachen, Baltoro, Remo, etc.,
● Important Pass: Zoji la, Bara Lacha la, Banihal, rohtang, etc.,
● Important Peaks: Nanga Parbat, K2, etc.,
● Kashmir valley: lies between Greater Himalayas and Pir Panjal Range.
● Cold Desert: between Greater Himalayas and Karakoram Range.
● Important Lakes: Dal and Wular are freshwater lakes, whereas Pangong Tso and
Tso Moriri are saltwater lakes.
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● The Southernmost part of this region consists of longitudinal valleys known as

Duns. Eg: Jammu dun, Pathankot dun, etc.,

Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

● Important Ranges: Great Himalayas, Dhaoladhar, Shiwaliks, Nagtibha, etc.,

● Important River System: Indus and Ganga
● Important Hill Stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, kausani, etc.,
● Important Pass: Shipki la, Lipu Lekh, Mana pass, etc.,
● Important Glaciers: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Pindari, etc.,
● Important Peaks: Nanda Devi, Dhaulagiri, etc.,
● Important Duns: Dehradun (largest), Harike Dun, Kota Dun, Nalagarh Dun,
Chandigarh-Kalka Dun, etc.,
● This region is known for five Prayags (River Confluences). Valley of flowers is
also situated in this region.

The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

● This lies between Nepal Himalayas in the west and Bhutan Himalayas in the
east.
● It is the region of fast flowing rivers and high mountain peaks.
● Important Peaks: Kanchenjunga
● Duar formations replace the Shiwaliks (absent) in this region which enhanced the
development of Tea gardens.
● Important Glaciers: Zemu Glacier
● Important Peaks: Nathu La and Jelep La

The Arunachal Himalayas

● This lies between Bhutan Himalayas and Diphu Pass in the east
● Important Peaks: Namcha Barwa and Kangto
● Important Rivers: Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit
● Important Ranges: Mishmi, Abor, Dafla, Mihir, etc.,
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● Important pass: Diphu pass

The Eastern Hills and Mountains

● These are the part of Himalayan Mountain system having their general alignment
from the north to south direction.
● The Himalaya in the eastern boundary of the country is called Purvanchal. These
are mainly composed of sandstones (sedimentary rocks).
● Important Hills: Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, Mizo hills, etc.

THE NORTHERN PLAINS

● The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river
systems – the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
● Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills
at the break-up of the slope. The river after descending from the mountains
deposit pebbles in a narrow belt. All the streams disappear in this belt.
● Bhangar is the region south of Terai region. This region is formed by older
alluvium. The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits locally known as
kankar.
● The region with new alluvium deposits is known as Khadar. They are renewed
almost every year and are so fertile, thus ideal for intensive cultivation.
● Riverine Islands – these are the islands which are formed due to depositional
work of rivers especially in the lower course due to the gentle slope and resultant
decrease in the velocity of rivers. Majuli – in the Brahmaputra is the largest
inhabited riverine island in the world
● Distributaries – the rivers in the lower course split into numerous channels sue to
deposition of silt are called distributaries.
● Doab – the area which lies behind the confluence of two rivers.
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Major Mountain Description

Peaks in India

Godwin Austen Highest peak of Karakoram range in POK

(K2)

Nanga Parbat Jammu and Kashmir

Nanda Devi Uttarakhand, Second highest mountain in India and the

highest entirely within the country

Kanchenjunga Nepal and Sikkim (B/w Teesta river in east & Tamur river in
the west), the Highest mountain in India & 3rd highest
mountain in the world

Nokrek Highest point of the Garo Hills (Meghalaya)

Gurushikhar Mt. Abu, Rajasthan, highest point of the Aravalli Range

Kundremukh Karnataka
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Doddabetta Highest point in Tamil Nadu, near Udhagamandalam

(Nilgiri Hills)
Second highest peak in the Western Ghats only next to
Anamudi

Anaimudi Located in Kerala, It is the highest peak in the Western

Ghats and in South India

Agasthyamalai Lie at the extreme southern end of Western Ghats, straddle

both sides in Kerala and in Tamil Nadu

Saddle Peak Highest point of the archipelago in the Bay of Bengal,

located in North Andaman

Mount Hariet Third highest peak in the Andaman and Nicobar

archipelago only next to, Saddle peak (Highest of
Andaman) and Mount Thullier (Highest of Nicobar)

Mahendragiri Orissa, the Highest peak of Eastern Ghats (According to

NCERT)

Arma Konda Andhra Pradesh

Important Passes in India

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State Pass Comment

name

Jammu and Banihal Jammu to Srinagar

Kashmir Pass

Jammu and Chang- Ladakh with Tibet

Kashmir La

Jammu and Pir-Panjal Between Jammu and Kashmir Valley

Kashmir pass

Jammu and Zoji La important road link between Srinagar on one

Kashmir side and Kargil and Leh on the other side

Himachal Bara Connecting Mandi in Himachal Pradesh with

Pradesh Lacha La Leh in Jammu and Kashmir

Himachal Rohtang road link between Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti

Pradesh Pass Valleys
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Himachal Shipki La Himachal Pradesh and Tibet

Pradesh

Uttarakhand Lipu Lekh trijunction of Uttarakhand (India), Tibet

(China) and Nepal borders

Uttarakhand Niti Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet

Sikkim Nathu La Sikkim with Tibet

Sikkim Jelep La Sikkim-Bhutan border

Arunachal Bom Di Arunachal Pradesh with Bhutan

Pradesh La

Arunachal Dihang Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar.

Pradesh Pass

The Peninsular Plateau

● It is an irregular triangle in structure extends as Delhi ridge in the north-west,

Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the west and Cardamom Hills in the south.
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● The important physiographic features of this are - block mountains, rift valleys,
spurs, bare rocky structures, series of hummocky hills and wall like quartzite
dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
● On the basis of relief features, the peninsular plateau is divided into three broad
groups –
● The Deccan Plateau
● The Central Highlands
● The North-eastern Plateau

The Deccan Plateau

● The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of R.

Narmada.
● It is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, the Eastern Ghats in the east
and the Satpura, Maikal and Mahadeo range in the north and north-eastern part.
● An extension of the peninsular plateau is also visible in the north-east known as
Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills.
● The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards.
● Western and Eastern Ghats are prominent features of the Deccan plateau, the
comparison between these two ranges are mentioned in the following table

S. WESTERN GHATS EASTERN GHATS

NO.

1. They are continuous and can They are discontinuous and

be crossed only through irregular
passes.
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2. Average Elevation – (900 – Average Elevation – 600 m

1600)m

3. The altitude increases from The altitude has no general

north to south pattern

4. Important Hills – Nilgiri, Important Hills – Javadi, Palkonda,

Anaimalai, Cardamom, Nallamala, Mahendragiri, etc.,
Babubudan, etc.,

5. Important Peaks – Anaimudi Important Peaks – Mahendragiri

(highest), Doda Betta (Ooty), (highest) etc.
Kodaikanal etc.

6. Most of the peninsular rivers They are dissected by major rivers

originate here and acts as a like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,
water divide between west- Cauvery, etc., which are draining
flowing and east-flowing rivers. into the Bay of Bengal

The Central Highlands

● The Central Highlands is a part of Peninsular Plateau lying north of R. Narmada

covering a major area of Malwa plateau, Vindhyan Range covers the southern
extent and Aravalis in the north-west.
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● The plateaus like Bundelkhand, Bagelkhand, Chotanagpur makes the eastern

extension of the central highlands.
● This region has undergone metamorphic processes in its geologic history, which
can be corroborated by the presence of metamorphic rocks such as marble,
slate, gneiss, etc.

The North-Eastern Plateau

● This region consists of many plateaus like Meghalaya Plateau, Karbi Anglong
Plateau, etc.,
● Important Hills – Khasi, Garo, Jaintia, etc.,

The Indian Desert

● The Great Indian Desert lies in the north-western region of the country.
● The prominent desert features are – Mushroom Rocks, Shifting Dunes and
Oasis.
● It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and
Barchans.
● Most of the rivers in this region are ephemeral. Example: R. Luni
● Low precipitation and evaporation make it a water deficit region.
● The desert can be divided into two regions: Northern part sloping towards Sindh
and the Southern part towards the Rann of Kachchh.

The Coastal Plains

● The Peninsular plateau is covered by marine water in 3 sides: the Indian Ocean
in the South; the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the West.
● The extent of coastline in the country is 6100 km in the mainland and 7517 km in
the entire geographical coast of the country (including Islands).
● On the basis of the location and active geomorphological processes, it can be
broadly divided into two: the Western Coastal Plains and the Eastern Coastal
Plains.
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The Islands

● Besides the vast physical features in the mainland of the country, there are two
major island groups located in both sides of the peninsular plateau.
● The island groups provide the site for Fishing and Port activities.
● Though more than 4000 islands present in Indian territory Andaman and Nicobar
and Lakshadweep are the two major island groups.

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

● Duncan passage lies between south Andaman and Little Andaman.

● Important Peaks: Saddle Peak, North Andaman (738 m); Mount Diavolo, middle
Andaman (515 m); Mount Koyob, South Andaman (460 m); Mount Thuiller, Great
Nicobar (642 m).

Note

● Ten Degree Channel- Between Little Andaman and Car Nicobar

● Duncan Passage- Between great Andaman and Little Andaman

THE LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS

● Kavaratti Island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep islands.

● Minicoy is the largest island in this group.
● This island group consists of storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated
pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.

Note

● Nine Degree Channel- Minicoy is separated from rest of the Lakshadweep

● Eight Degree Channel- Lakshadweep Group separated from the Maldives

Other Islands
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● Newmoore Island- located in the Bay of Bengal on the mouth of Ganga.

● Pamban Island- located in the Gulf of Manner between Sri Lanka and India.

INDIAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Comparison between Himalayan and the Peninsular Rivers of India

S. Aspect Himalayan River Peninsular River

No.

1. Place of Himalayan mountain Peninsular plateau and

origin covered with central highland
glaciers

2. Nature of Perennial; receive Seasonal; dependent on

flow water from the glacier monsoon
and rainfall rainfall

3. Type of Antecedent and Superimposed,

drainage consequent leading to rejuvenated resulting
the dendritic pattern in in trellis, radial and
plains rectangular
patterns
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4. Nature of Long course, flowing Smaller, the fixed course

river through the with well-adjusted
rugged mountains valleys
experiencing
headward erosion and
river capturing;
In plains meandering
and shifting of
course

5. Catchment Very large basins Relatively smaller basin

area

6. Age of the Young and youthful, Old rivers with the graded
river active and profile, and have
deepening in the almost reached their
valleys base levels

Soil and Agriculture in India

Soil Profile and Horizon of soil

● O - Horizon containing a high percentage of soil organic matter.

● A - Horizon darkened by the accumulation of organic matter.
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● E - Horizon formed through the removal (eluviation) of clays, organic matter, iron,
or aluminium. Usually lightened in colour due to these removals.
● B - Broad class used for subsurface horizons that have been transformed
substantially by a soil formation process such as colour and structure
development; the deposition (illuviation) of materials such as clays, organic
matter, iron, aluminium, carbonates, or gypsum; carbonate or gypsum loss;
brittleness and high density; or intense weathering leading to the accumulation of
weathering-resistant minerals.
● C - A horizon minimally affected or unaffected by the soil formation processes.
● R - Bedrock.

Types of Indian Soil:

1. Alluvial Soil

● This type of soil mainly found in the Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plain i.e. the
whole northern plain and in some parts of the river basin in the south and some
plateau region.
● This soil is also found in the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Cauvery and
Krishna.
● Alluvial soil can be broadly categorised in two types i.e. New alluvial soil (Khadar)
and old alluvial soil (Bhangar). Both the Khadar and Bhangar soils contain
calcareous concretions (Kankars).
● Crops Grown: the Alluvial soil is suitable for the Rabi and Kharif crop like cereals,
cotton, oilseeds and sugarcane.

2. Regur or Black soil

● The regur or black soils have developed extensively upon the Lava Plateaus of
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh mainly Malwa and are formed due to
volcanic activities.
● These soils are very fertile and contain a high percentage of lime, iron and a
moderate amount of potash.
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● The type of soil is especially suited for the cultivation of cotton and hence
sometimes called ‘black cotton soil.’
Crops Grown: Cotton, Jowar, Wheat, Linseed, Gram, Fruit and Vegetable.
● The black soil is highly retentive of moisture.

3. Red Soil

● Red soils develop on granite and geneses rocks under low rainfall condition i.e.
due to weathering of the metamorphic rocks.
● These soils are red in colour due to the high concentration of Iron Oxide.
● These soils are friable and medium fertile and found mainly in almost whole of
Tamil Nadu, South-eastern Karnataka, North-eastern and South-eastern Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand the major parts of Orissa, and the Hills and Plateaus of
North-east India.
● These soils are deficient in Phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogenous
material.
● Crops Grown: Wheat, Rice, Millet's, Pulses.

4. Laterite Soil

● Laterite is a kind of clayey rock or soil formed under high temperature and high
rainfall and with alternate dry and wet period.
● Laterite and lateritic soils are found in South Maharashtra, the Western Ghats in
Kerala and Karnataka, at places in Odisha, small parts of Chottanagpur and in
some parts of Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and in western West Bengal
(particularly in Birbhum district).
● Crops Grown: Coffee, Cashew etc.
● This type of soil is unsuitable for agriculture due to the high content of acidity and
inability to retain moisture.

5. Desert soil

This type of soils found in Rajasthan, Haryana and the South Punjab, and are sandy.
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● In the absence of sufficient wash by rainwater, soils have become saline and
rather unfit for cultivation.
● In spite of that cultivation can be carried on with the help of modern irrigation.
● Wheat, bajra, groundnut, etc. can be grown in this soil.
● This type of soil is rich in Phosphates and Calcium but deficient in Nitrogen and
humus.

6. Mountain Soil

● Soil found in higher altitude on the mountain is called as Mountain soil.

● The characteristics of this type of soil are changed according to the altitudes.
● This type of soil is suitable for the cultivation of potatoes, fruits, tea coffee and
spices and wheat.

Type of Soils based on the size of particles

1. Sandy Soil

● Particles are larger in size.

● The particles cannot fit close together and hence there is enough space among
them.
● It is not fit for vegetation as it does not retain water.
● However, millets can be grown on sandy soil.

2. Clayey Soil

● Particles are very small in size.

● Very little space among the particles.
● Water does not drain quickly through clayey soil because of less space among
particles.
● So, clayey soil is not well aerated and retains more water.

3. Loamy Soil
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● Particles are smaller than sand and larger than clay.

● Loamy soil is the mixture of sandy soil, clayey soil and silt.
● Silt is the deposit in river beds.
● The soil has the right water holding capacity and is well aerated.
● It is considered the best soil for the growth of plants.

Types of Agriculture in India

There are different types of farming activities performed in India which are as follows:

Subsistence Farming

● Subsistence farming is a type of farming in which nearly all the crops or livestock
raised are used to maintain the farmer and farmer’s family leaving little.
● Subsistence farms usually consist of no more than a few acres, and farm
technology tends to be primitive and of low yield.

Mixed farming

● Mixed farming is an agricultural system in which a farmer conducts different

agricultural practice together, such as cash crops and livestock
● The aim is to increase income through different sources and to complement land
and labour demands across the year.

Shifting cultivation

● Shifting cultivation means migratory shifting agriculture.

● Under this system, a plot of land is cultivated for a few years and then, when the
crop yield declines because of soil exhaustion and the effects of pests and
weeds, is deserted for another area.
● Here the ground is again cleared by slash-and-burn methods, and the procedure
is repeated.

Other Names of Shifting Cultivation

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Shifting Cultivation Name Country

Chena Sri Lanka

Ladang Java and Indonesia

Jhum North-eastern India

Podu Andhra Pradesh

Milya Mexico and Central America

Konuko Venezuela

Roka Brazil

Milpa Yucatan and Guatemala

Extensive Farming

● This is a system of farming in which the farmer uses the limited amount of labour
and capital on a relatively large area.
● This type of agriculture is practised in countries where population size is small
and land is enough.
● Per acre yield is low but the overall production is in surplus due to less
population.
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● Here machines and technology are used in farming.

Intensive Farming

● This is a system of farming in which the cultivator uses a larger amount of labour
and capital on a relatively small area.
● This type of farming is performed in countries where the population to land ratio
is high i.e. the population is big and the land is small.
● Annually two or three types of crops are grown over the land.
● Manual labour is used.

Plantation Agriculture

● In this type of agriculture, cash crops are mainly cultivated.

● A single crop like rubber, sugarcane, coffee, tea is grown.
● These crops are major items of export.

Important Lakes in India (State Wise)

● Largest freshwater lake in India – Wular Lake, Jammu and Kashmir

● Largest Saline water lake in India – Chilka Lake, Orissa
● Highest lake in India (Altitude) – Cholamu lake, Sikkim
● Longest Lake in India – Vembanad lake, Kerala
● Largest Artificial Lake in India – Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam)

Lakes in India

S.N Name State District Type Facts/Description

o. of
Lakes
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1 Pulicat Lake Andhra Nellore Brackis It encompasses

Pradesh h Pulicat Lake Bird
Water Sanctuary;
Satish Dhawan
Space Centre
located here

2 Kolleru Lake Andhra West Freshw Home to migratory

Pradesh Godavar ater birds
i

3 Nagarjuna Telangana Nalgond Freshw Artificially

Sagar a ater constructed;
Krishna river

4 Haflong Lake Assam Silchar Freshw High altitude lake

ater

5 DeeporBeel Assam Kamrup Freshw Under Ramsar

ater Convention

6 Son Beel Assam Karimga Freshw Largest wetland in

nj ater Assam
(Tecton
ically
formed
)
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7 Chandubi lake Assam Kamrup Freshw Migratory Birds

ater (winter);
formed by 1897
earthquake

8 Kanwar Lake Bihar Begusar Oxbow Asia’s largest

ai (freshw freshwater oxbow
ater) lake;

9 Hamirsar lake Gujarat Kutch Artificia Situated in the

l centre of Bhuj

10 Kankaria lake Gujarat Ahmeda Artificia During 14th century

bad l by Muhammed
Shah II

11 Narayan Gujarat Kutch Artificia Pilgrimage site for

Sarovar l Hindus
freshw
ater

12 Thol Lake Gujarat Mehsan Lentic Constructed for

a lake irrigation purpose
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13 Vastrapur Gujarat Ahmeda Freshw Narmada River;

bad ater Picnic spot

14 Badkal Lake Haryana Faridaba Freshw Man made

d ater

15 Blue Bird Lake Haryana Hisar Freshw Migratory Birds,

ater Wetland Habitat

16 Brahma Haryana Thanes Freshw Ancient water pool

Sarovar war ater sacred to Hinduism

17 Damdama Haryana Sohna Freshw Constructed by the

Lake ater British government
for Rainwater
Harvesting

18 Karna Haryana Karnal Freshw Connected to great

ater epic Mahabharata

19 Tilyar Haryana Rohtak Freshw Located inside Tilyar

ater Zoo
(canal
inflow)
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20 Chandra Taal Himachal Lahul Sweet Ramsar wetland site

Pradesh and Spiti water
lake

21 Suraj Taal Himachal Lahul Freshw Bhaga River inflow

Pradesh and Spiti ater
(High
Altitude
)

22 MaharanaPrata Himachal Kangra Freshw Ramsar site

pSagar Pradesh ater

23 Prashar lake Himachal Mandi Holomit It has a floating

Pradesh ic Island
(Fresh
water)

24 Dal lake J &K Srinagar Warm Remnants of past

monom glacial period
itic

25 Pangong Tso J &K Ladakh Endorh Indo-China Border

eic
Lake
(saline
water)
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26 Wular lake J &K Bandipo Tectoni Largest freshwater

ra c lake lake in India
(fresh
water)

27 TsoMoriri J &K Ladakh Saltwat High altitude lake

er

28 Agata lake Karnataka Bangalo Freshw Located in

re ater southwest part of
the city

29 Bellandur Lake Karnataka Bangalo Freshw -

re ater

30 Karachi lake Karnataka Mysore - Butterfly park

31 Ulsoor lake Karnataka Bangalo Stale It has several

re water islands

32 Kukarahalli Karnataka Mysore Freshw Recreational

lake ater

33 Honnamana Karnataka Kodagu Freshw Holy lake, the place

ater for various festivals
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34 Pampa Karnataka Hampi Freshw Tungabhadra river

Sarovar ater

35 Ashtamudi Kerala Kollam Brackis Ramsar wetland site

Kayal h water

36 Kuttanad Kerala Alappuz Backwater paddy

ha, cultivation
Kottaya
m

37 Vembanad Kerala - Brackis Ramsar wetland;

h water boat race

38 Shashtamkotta Kerala Kollam Freshw Ramsar wetland

ater

39 Bhojtal Madhya Bhopal Freshw Ramsar site

Pradesh ater

40 Salim Ali Maharasht Auranga Freshw Birdwatching

ra bad ater

41 Shivsagar Maharasht Satara Freshw Koyna dam

ra ater
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42 Lonar lake Maharasht Buldhan Crater National Geo-

ra a lake Heritage monument

43 Loktak lake Manipur - Lenticu Ramsar wetland;

lar Phumdis (Floating
freshw Islands);
ater Multipurpose project

44 Umiam Meghalay Shillong Freshw Famous for cycling

a ater and boating

45 Tam Dil Mizoram Saitual Freshw -

ater

46 Chilika lake Orissa Puri Brackis India's largest

h water brackish water lake;
lagoon

47 Kanjia lake Orissa Bhuban Freshw Wetland of national

eswar ater importance
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48 Harike Punjab Ferozep Freshw Ramsar wetland site

ur ater

49 Rupar Punjab Rupnag Freshw Manmade riverine

ar ater lake

50 Kanjli Punjab Kapurth Freshw Ramsar wetland site

ala ater

51 Sambhar lake Rajasthan Sambha Saltwat Ramsar wetland;

r Lake- er largest inland
town saltwater lake in
India

52 Rajsamand Rajasthan Rajsama Freshw -

nd ater

53 Tsomgo lake Sikkim East Freshw Winter frozen

Sikkim ater

54 Khecheoplari Sikkim West Freshw Sacred lake for

Sikkim ater Hindus and
Buddhists

55 Ooty lake Tamilnadu Nilgiris Freshw Boat House

ater
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56 Chembaramba Tamilnadu Chennai Artificia -

kkam l lake

57 Kodaikanal Tamilnadu Dindigul Artificia -

Lake district l lake

58 Hussain Sagar Telangana Hyderab Artificia Artificial Gibraltar

ad l lake rock island

59 Badrakali lake Telegana Warang Freshw Artificial lake

al ater

60 Govind Ballabh Uttar Sonbha Man- Rihand dam

Pant Sagar Pradesh dra made
lake

61 Belasagar Uttar Kulpaha Freshw Irrigation lake

Pradesh r ater

62 Bhimtal Uttarakha Nainital Freshw Medium altitude lake

nd ater

63 East Calcutta West Calcutta Brackis Ramsar wetland

wetlands Bengal h water
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Natural Vegetation, Different Types of Forests of India

Tropical Deciduous Forests

● These are the most widespread and the most extensive forests of India.
● They are also known as monsoon forests.
● These are connected with those parts of India which receive annual rainfall
between 200 cm and 70 cm.
● Here rainfall is seasonal in nature.
● In this forest type, trees shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry
summer.
● The animals found in these are: lion, tiger, pig, deer, elephant, a variety of birds,
lizards, snakes, tortoise, etc.

(i) Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

● Annual rainfall between 200 & 100 cm.

● Found in: (a) an eastern part of India- northeastern states, along with the foothills
of Himalayas, (b) Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, (c) on the eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats.
● Examples: teak, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun,
mulberry, etc.

(ii) Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests

● Annual rainfall between 100 & 70 cm.

● Found in: (a) the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and (b) the plains of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.
● Examples: teak, sal, peepal, neem etc.

Tropical Thorn Forests

● These are connected with those parts which receive rainfall less than 70 cm.
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● Here, rainfall is erratic, irregular and inconsistent.

● Xerophytes dominate regions covered with the tropical thorn.
● Found in the north-western part including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
● Main plant species here are acacias (babool), palms, euphorbias, Cactus, khair, ,
keekar etc.
● In this vegetation type, stem, leaves and roots of plants are adapted to conserve
water.
● Stem is succulent and leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation.
● Common animals here are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass,
horses, camels, etc.

Tropical Montane Forests

● The decrease in temperature with the rise in altitude is responsible for the
corresponding change in natural vegetation.
● There exists the same hierarchy from foothills of the mountain to the top of it as
is observed from tropical to tundra region.
● Mostly found in the southern slopes of Himalayas, places having high altitude in
Southern and Northeastern India.
● Upto 1500 n of height, tropical moist deciduous forests exist with shesham as the
main tree.
● Between 1000-2000m of height, wet temperate type of climate persist wherein
evergreen broad-leaf trees like oaks and chestnut
● Between 1500-3000 m of height, temperate forests covering coniferous trees like
Chir, pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce, cedar, etc.
● At higher altitudes above 3500m wet temperate grasslands are common like
Merg (Kashmir), bugyals (Uttarakhand), etc.
● Common animals that are found in these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted deer,
wild sheep, jackals, yak, snow leopard, rare red panda, sheep and goats with
thich fur, etc.
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● In India, there are studied under two groups: Northern Montane Forests and
Southern Montane Forests.
● Northern Montane Forests: These are connected with Himalayan mountain
ranges. Vegetation types are controlled by sunlight, temperature and rainfall
which is described above.
● Southern Montane Forests: These are connected with hills of Nilgiris, Anaimalai
and Cardamom. These are wet temperate forests which have great endemic
biodiversity and these are described as Shola forests.

Mangrove Forests

● Mangrove forests are connected with deltaic regions of tropical and sub-tropical
zones.
● These are also known as tidal forests and littoral forests as these are connected
with the inter-tidal region.
● Their biodiversity and forest density are comparable with equatorial rainforest
and tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.
● Mangroves are salt tolerant plants with roots being adapted to become
pneumatophores (these roots emerged from the ground and grow in upward
direction).
● Mangrove ecosystem is a unique ecosystem as it has tolerance for periodic
flooding and dryness; and mild salinity as well.
● India has the largest cover of Mangrove forest in the world.
● Sunderban, Mahanadi, Godaveri-Krishna and Kaveri delta are most importantly
covered with these forests.
● Sunderban is the largest mangrove in the world. It is famous for Sundari tree
which provides durable hard timber.
● Some other example are Rhizophora, Avicennia etc.
● Palm, coconut, keora, agar, etc. also grow in some parts of the delta.
● Royal Bengal Tiger is a famous animal in these forests.
● Turtles, crocodiles, gharials, snakes, are also found in these forests.
● Bhitarkanika mangrove of Mahanadi delta is also famous for its rich biodiversity.
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Solar System

Facts about Sun and Planets

Sun

● The only star in our solar system and powerhouse of the solar system.
● Composed of Hydrogen (73%), Helium (25%) gases and other metals. Sun
carries almost 99% of the mass of our solar system.
● Approximately 15 crore Kilometres further away from Earth. It takes around 8
minutes 30 seconds for light at the speed of 3 lakh Km/sec to reach the earth.
● Temperature at surface= 5800 K or 5600 degree Celsius.
● The temperature at the centre= 15.7 million K

Planets

1. Mercury

● The closest planet to the Sun and a very hot planet.

● Smallest planet in the solar system with a diameter of 4900 Km.
● Fastest Planet with speed of 172500 Km per hour to complete revolution around
Sun in 88 days.
● The planet with no water and gases like Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide.

2. Venus

● Hottest planet in the solar system with the surface temperature of 478 degree
Celsius.
● Also known as “Earth’s Twin”. It is because of similarity in size and mass
between Venus and Earth.
● One of the two planets in the solar system which rotate around the axis in a
Clockwise direction.
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● Brightest Star in the Solar system. It can be seen in the morning and evening
with open eyes. So known as “Evening Star” and “Morning Star”.

3. Earth

● The only Planet to give support to life with a pleasant atmosphere.

● Also known as “Blue Planet” because of the presence of water on it.
● It has one natural satellite named “Moon”.

4. Mars

● Known as “Red Planet” because of Iron-rich red soil.

● Second smallest planet in the solar system after Mercury.
● Has two natural moons “Phobos” and “Deimos”.
● Has a thin atmosphere and surface with valleys, craters, deserts and ice caps
etc.
● “Olympus Mons” – Largest volcano and the tallest mountain in solar system lies
on Mars.

5. Jupiter

● Largest planet of the solar system with the shortest rotation

● Has atmosphere filled with Hydrogen, Helium and other gases
● The third brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus.
● Great Red Spot, a giant storm in the solar system exists on this planet.
● Has at least 69 moons, including 4 large Galilean Moons “Io, Europa, Ganymede,
and Callisto” which were discovered by Galileo. “Ganymede” is the largest
among them.
● It has an unclear ring around it.

6. Saturn

● Second largest planet in the solar system and a gas giant.

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● Has bright and concentric rings around it which are made up of tiny rocks and
pieces of Ice.
● Saturn can float on water because it has less density than water.
● Has at least 62 moons and Titan is the largest among them.

7. Uranus

● Has the third- largest planetary radius and fourth largest planetary mass in the
Solar system.
● Greenish in colour.
● Discovered by William Herschel in 1781.
● Known as “Ice Giant”. The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of Hydrogen and
Helium primarily, but it also contains more water, ammonia etc.
● Has the coldest planetary atmosphere in the solar system.
● Rotates clockwise on its axis like Venus but unlike other planets
● Has at least 25 moons. Famous moons- Miranda, Ariel and Umbriel

8. Neptune

● Farthest planet from the Sun.

● It is also “Ice Giant”. Atmosphere primarily composed of Hydrogen and Helium.
● Bluish in colour because of Methane.
● The fourth largest planet and the third most- massive planet in the solar system
● Discovered by Johann Galle and Urbain Le Verrier in 1846. The only planet in
the solar system found by Mathematical Predictions.
● Has known 14 satellites. Famous moon – Triton

Other

Pluto

● As per the new definition of Planets determined by International Astronomical

Union (IAU), Pluto has been omitted from the list of planets in 2006.
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● Pluto is considered as a dwarf planet (size between planets and asteroids) now
and it is a member of Kuiper Belt.

Kuiper Belt

● It is a spherical boundary outside the orbit of Neptune containing a number of

asteroids, rocks, and comets.

Important facts of Census 2011

Census 2011

● Census is a process of collecting, compiling, analyzing, evaluating, publishing

and disseminating statistical data regarding the population of a country.
● It covers demographic, social and economic data.
● It is conducted every 10 years.
● It started in 1871.
● Census 2011 data was released on 31st March 2011 by Union Home Secretary
and RGCCI (Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India) of India.
● Census 2011 was the 15th census of India & 7th census after Independence.
● The motto of census 2011 was “Our Census, Our future”.
● Registrar General & Census Commissioner under whom census 2011 was
conducted – C.Chandra Mouli
● Present Registrar General & Census Commissioner – Shri Sailesh,
● Total Population – 1,210,569,573 (1.21 Billion)
● India in 2nd rank in the population with 17.64%. decadal growth.
● Increase in population during 2001 – 2011 is 181 Million
● Census 2011 was held in two phases:
● Houselisting & Housing Census
(April to September 2010)
● Population Enumeration
(9th to 28th February 2011)
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● Number of Administrative Units in Census 2011

States/UTs 35
Districts 640
Sub-districts 5,924
Towns 7,936
Villages 6.41 lakh

Facts about districts

● Thane district of Maharashtra is the most populated district of India.

● Dibang Valley of Arunachal Pradesh is the least populated.
● Kurung Kumey of Arunachal Pradesh registered highest population growth rate
of 111.01 Percent.
● Longleng district of Nagaland registered negative population growth rate of (-
)58.39.
● Mahe district of Puducherry has the highest sex ratio of 1176 females per 1000
males.
● Daman district has the lowest sex ratio of 533 females per 1000 males.
● Serchhip district of Mizoram has the highest literacy rate of 98.76 Percent.
● Alirajpur of MP is the least literate district of India with the figure of 37.22 Percent
only.
● North East Delhi has the highest density with the figure of 37346 people per
square kilometre.
● Dibang Valley has the least density of 1 person per sq. km

Facts about cities

● Mumbai city of Maharashtra is the most populated city in India.

● Kapurthala city of Punjab is the least populated.
● Kozhikode of Kerala has the highest sex ratio of 1093 females per 1000 males.
● Bhiwandi city of Maharashtra has the lowest sex ratio of 709 females per 1000
males.
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● Aizawl city of Mizoram has the highest literacy rate of 98.76 Percent.
● Sambhal of UP is the least literate city in India with the figure of 48 Percent only.
● North East Delhi has the highest density with the figure of 37346 people per
square kilometre.

FEATURE INDIA TOP 3 BOTTOM 3 STATE OTHER FACT

STATES

Average 1.64 % 1. 1. Goa (.79%)

annual Meghalay 2. Andhra Pradesh ● During 2001-
2011, as
growth rate a (2.49 (1.07%)
many as 25
%) 3. Sikkim (1.17%)
States/UTs
2. with a share
Arunacha of about 85%
l Pradesh of the
(2.3 %) country’s
population
3. Bihar
registered an
(2.26 %)
annual growth
rate of Less
than 2%.
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Decadal 17.60% 1. 1. Nagaland ( -0.5

growth rate Meghalay %) ● Nagaland is
only the state
a (27.8 2. Kerala (4.9 %)
that has
%) 3. Goa (8.2 %)
negative
2. growth rate.
Arunacha ● 2001-2011 is
l Pradesh the first
(25.9 %) decade (with
3. Bihar the exception
of 1911-1921)
(25.1 %)
which has
actually
added lesser
population
compared to
the previous
decade
● Districts with
highest and
lowest
decadal
growth rate
were Kurung
Kumey and
Longleng
respectively.
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Population 382 1. Bihar 1. Arunachal

Density (1,106 Pradesh (17 per sq ● Top 2
Districts:
per sq km)
North East
km) 2. Mizoram (52 per
(NCT of Delhi)
2. West sq km) and Chennai
Bengal 3. J&K (56 per sq ● Bottom 2
(1030 per km) district:
sq km) Dibang Valley
3. Kerala and Samba.

( 859 per
sq km)
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Population Total - Total Total

(in terms of 1210.19 1. Uttar 1. Sikkim (6.07 lakh ● Top Metros 1.
Mumbai
numbers) million Pradesh - 0.05%)
(18,394,912)
Males – (19.9 2. Mizoram (10.9
2. Delhi 3.
623.7 million , lakh - 0.09 %) Chennai
million 16.5% ) 3. Arunachal ● The
(51.54% 2. Pradesh (13.8 lakh - population of
) Maharas 0.11%) India is almost
Female htra (11 Male equal to the
combined
s– million - 1. Sikkim
population of
586.46 9.28%) 2. Mizoram
U.S.A.,
million 3. Bihar 3. Arunachal
Indonesia,
(48.46% (10 Pradesh Brazil,
) million - Female Pakistan,
Rural 8.6%) Sikkim Mizoram Bangladesh
populati Male Arunachal Pradesh and Japan put
together
on– 833 U.P. Rural Population
(1214.3
million Maharas 1. Mizoram
million)!
Urban htra Bihar 2. Sikkim
● Top 2
populati Female 3. Goa Districts:
on -377 U.P. Thane(Mahar
million Maharas Urban population ashtra) and
htra Bihar 1. Sikkim North Twenty

Rural 2. Arunachal Four

Parganas
Populatio Pradesh
(West Bengal)
n 3. Nagaland
● Bottom 2
UP Bihar
Districts:
West Dibang Valley
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Bengal (Arunachal
Urban Pradesh) and

populatio Anjaw
(Arunachal
n
Pradesh).
Maharas
htra U.P.
Tamil
Nadu
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Sex ratio 940 1. Kerala 1. Haryana (879)

(1084) 2. Jammu and ● This is the
highest Sex
2. Tamil Kashmir (889)
Ratio
Nadu 3. Sikkim (890)
recorded
(996) since Census
3. Andhra 1971
Pradesh ● Top 2
(993) Districts:
Mahe and
Almora
● Bottom 2
Districts:
Daman and
Leh

Fertility rate 2.3 1. Bihar 1. Sikkim (1.45)

(2013) (3.4) 2. West Bengal
2. U.P. (1.64)
(3.17) 3. Tamil Nadu (1.7)
3.
Meghalay
a (3.1)
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Literacy Overall Overall Overall

Rate -74% 1. Kerala 1. Bihar (63.80%) ● Highest
literacy rate
Male – (93.9%) 2. Arunachal
according to
82.14% 2. Pradesh (67%)
Religion –
Female Mizoram 3. Rajasthan Jain (94 %) >
-65.46 (91.6%) (67.11%) Christian
3. Tripura Male (80%) >
(87.8%) 1. Bihar (73.5%) Buddhist
(74%)
Male 2. Arunachal
1 Kerala Pradesh (73.7 %)
● Area – Rural
(68.9 %)
(96 %) 3. Andhra
Urban ( 85%)
2. Pradesh(75.6 %)
● Literacy rate
Mizoram Female
has gone up
(93.7%) 1. Rajasthan from 64.83
3. Goa (52.7%) percent in
(92.8%) 2. Bihar (53.3%) 2001 to 74.04

3. Jammu and percent in

2011 showing
Female Kashmir (58%)
an increase of
1. Kerala
9.21
(92%) percentage
2. points.
Mizoram ● Ten States
(89.4%) and Union
3. Tripura Territories

(83.1%) viz., Kerala,

Lakshadweep
, Mizoram,
Tripura, Goa,
Daman & Diu,
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Puducherry,
Chandigarh,
NCT of Delhi
and Andaman
& Nicobar
Islands have
achieved the
literacy rate of
above 85
Percent
● The gap of
21.59
percentage
points
recorded
between male
and female
literacy rates
in 2001
Census has
reduced to
16.68
percentage
points in
2011.
● Top 2
Districts:
Serchhip and
Aizwal
● Bottom 2
Districts
Alirajpur and
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Bijapur
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Work ● 1. 1. Kerala
participation Overall Mizoram 2. Goa
rate (39 %)
● Male
(45 %)
●
Female
(14 %)

Tribe ● 550 Populatio Population wise

tribes n wise 1. Punjab (zero)
● 8.2% 1. MP 2. Haryana (zero)
of the (1.5 3. Goa (32,000)
total million)
Populati 2. Tribal density wise
on of Maharas 1. Punjab (zero)
India htra (1.0 2. Haryana (zero)
● 10 million)
million 3. Gujrat
populati (.89
on million)
Tribal
density
wise
1.
Mizoram
2.
Nagaland
3.
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Meghalay
a

State (Area) 32.87 1. 1. Goa (3702 km2)

Lakh Rajastha 2. Sikkim (7096
km2 n (3.42 km2)
Lakh 3. Tripura (10,486
km2) km2)
2. M.P.
(3.08
Lakh
km2)
3.
Maharas
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htra (3.07
Lakh
km2)

Urbanisatio 1. Goa 1. Himachal

n (62%) Pradesh (10%) ● Maharashtra
has highest
2. 2. Bihar (10.29%)
no. of cities –
Mizoram 3. Assam (14%)
18 in numbers
(52%)
3. Tamil
Nadu
(48%)

Slums 6.5 1. 1. Arunachal

million Maharas Pradesh (15,000)
total htra (1.1 2. Goa
populati million ) 3. Sikkim
on 2. Andhra
Pradesh
3. Tamil
Nadu
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Child sex 914 1. 1. Haryana (830)

ratio (female Mizoram 2. Punjab (846) ● No state in
India that
per 1000 (971 ) 3. J&K (859)
crosses 1000
male in the 2.
female per
age group Meghalay 1000 male in
of 0-6) a (970) the age group
3. of 0-6.
Chattisga ● The total
rh (964) number of
children in the
age-group 0-6
is 158.8
million (-5
million since
2001).
● The Child Sex
Ratio at India
level (914) is
lowest since
Independence

The 13.10% 1. 1. Tamil Nadu (9.6

proportion Meghalay %)
of child a (18.8 2. Goa (9.6 %)
population %) 3. Kerala (10 %)
in the age 2. Bihar
group 0-6 (17.9 %)
3. J&K
(16 %)
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Per Capita 60972 1. Goa 1. Bihar (24,000 Rs)

Net State Rs. (1,92,000 2. U.P. (29,000 Rs)
Domestic Rs ) 3. Jharkhand
Product at 2. (32,000 Rs)
Current Haryana
Prices (1,09,000
(2011-12) Rs)
3. Tamil
Nadu
(84,000
Rs)

Percentage 29.8% 1. Bihar 1. Goa

of (2011- 2. 2. J&K
Population 12) Chattisga 3. Himachal
Below rh Pradesh
Poverty Line 3.
(Tendulkar Manipur
Methodolog
y)

Age Adolescent (36.5 %) Adult (56.7%) Old (6.8 %)

structure

Major Hindi (40%) Bengali (8%) Telugu (7.8%)

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language Language family

1. Indo – European (Aryan – 73%)
2. Dravidian (20%)
3. Austric (Nishad - 1.3%)

Religion- Religion Numbers (Percent

Percentage of the population) ● Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and Sikhs
are in majority in 28,4,2,1 state
of Hindu 96.63 crore (79.8 %)
respectively.
population Muslim 17.22 crore (14.2%)
●
Christian 2.78 crore (2.3%)
Sikh 2.08 crore (1.7%)
Buddhist 0.84 crore (0.7%)
Jain 0.45 crore (0.4%)

Important dams in India

Some Facts about dams

● Tallest dam in the world- Nurek dam (Tajikistan)

● Longest dam in the world- Hirakund dam (Orissa)
● Longest dam in India- Hirakund dam (Orissa)
● Highest dam in India- Tehri dam (Uttarakhand)
● Highest straight gravity Dam in India- Bhakra dam
● First dam of India-Kallanai Dam (Grand Anicut) on river Kaveri (Tiruchirapalli,
Tamilnadu)

Important Dams in India

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State Dam River

Andhra Pradesh Nagarjuna Sagar Dam Krishna

Srisailam Dam Krishna

Polavaram Project Godavari

Somasila Dam Penna

Arunachal Ranganadi Dam Ranganadi River, a tributary of the

Pradesh Brahmaputra River

Bihar Nagi Dam Nagi

Kohira Dam Kohira

Chhattisgarh Minimata (Hasdeo) Hasdeo

Bango Dam

Dudhawa Dam Mahanadi

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Gujarat Ukai Dam Tapti

Kadana Dam Mahi

Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada

Karjan Dam Karjan

Mitti Dam Mitti

Aji Dam Aji

Sipu Dam Sipu

Himachal Pong Dam Beas

Pradesh

Bhakra Dam Satluj

Kol Dam Satluj

Chamera Dam Ravi

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Nathpa Jhakri (Sjvnl) Satluj

Dam

Jammu and Baglihar Dam Chenab

Kashmir

Salal Dam Chenab

Uri Dam Jhelum

Pakal Dul Dam Marusudar

Nimoo Bazgo Dam Indus

Kishenganga Dam KISHANGANGA

Jharkhand Panchet Dam Damodar

Maithon Dam Barakar

Tenughat Dam Damodar

Konar Dam Konar

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North Koel North Koel

Karnataka Krishnarajasagar Dam Cauvery

Basava Sagar Dam Krishna

(Narayanpur Dam)

Hemavathy Dam Hemavathy

Kabini Dam Kabini

Tungabhadra Dam Tungabhadra

Hidkal Dam Ghataprabha

Almatti Dam Krishna

Bhadra Dam Bhadra

Supa dam Kalinadi

Lakhya Dam Lakhya hole

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Kerala Cheruthoni Dam Cheruthoni

Kakki Dam Kakki

Mullaperiyar Dam Periyar

Idukki Dam Periyar

Kulamavu Dam Kilivillithode

Banasura Sagar Dam Banasura Lake

Madhya Pradesh Ban Sagar Dam Son

Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal

Indira Sagar Dam Narmada

Omkareshwar Dam Narmada

Tawa Dam Tawa

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Maharashtra Bhatsa Dam Bhatsa and chorna

Koyna Dam Koyna

Warna Dam Varna

Ujjani Dam Bhima

Aruna Dam Aruna

Upper Wardha Dam Wardha

Odisha Hirakud Dam Mahanadi

Indravati Dam Indravati

Kapur Dam Kapur

Podagada Dam Podagada

Rengali Dam Brahmani

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Upper Kolab Dam Kapur

Haladia Dam Haladia

Lower Indra Dam Indra

Punjab Ranjit Sagar Dam Ravi

Rajasthan Bisalpur Dam Banas

Jawahar Sagar Dam Chambal

Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam Mahi

Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal

Dam

Jaswant Sagar Dam Luni

Jakham Main Dam Jakham (Mahi)

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Sikkim Rangit III Dam Ranjit

Tamilnadu Bhavani Dam Bhavani

Mettur Dam Kaveri

Sholaiyar Dam Sholaiyar

Pillur Dam Bhavani

Telangana Nagarjuna Sagar Dam Krishna (Some Part of Dam also in

Telangana)

Srisailam Dam Krishna (Some Part of Dam also in

Telangana)

Nizam Sagar Dam Manjira

Musi Dam Musi

Singur Dam Manjira

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Sri Rama Sagar Godavari

(Pochampadu Project)

Uttarakhand Jamrani Dam Gola

Lakhwar Dam Yamuna

Koteshwar Bhagirathi

Ramganga Dam Ramganga

Tehri Dam Bhagirathi

Uttar Pradesh Rihand Dam Rihand

West Bengal Kangsabati Kumari Kasai

Dam

Top Mineral Producer in India (State-wise) and other Countries

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Mineral TYPE MINES TOP TOP TOP

PRODU PRODU RESERVES
CERS CERS (States)
(States) (COUN
TRIES)

IRON ORE Metallic Barabil – 1. 1. 1. Orissa

(Ferrous) Koira Orissa Australi 2.
Valley(Oris 2. a Jharkhand
sa) Chattisg 2. Brazil 3.
Bailadila arh 3. China Chattisgarh
Mine 3. 4. India
(Chattisgar Karnata
h) ka
Dalli-
Rajhara(C
H) –
the largest
mine in
India

MANGANESE Metallic Nagpur– 1. 1. China 1. Orissa

(Ferrous) Bhandara Madhya 2. 2.
Region Pradesh Gabon Karnataka
(Maharasht 2. 3. South 3. Madhya
ra) Mahara Africa Pradesh
Gondite shtra 5. India
Mines
(Orissa)
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Khondolite
deposits
(Orissa)

CHROMITE Metallic Sukinda 1. 1.South 1. Sukinda

(Ferrous) Valley Orissa Africa Valley (OR)
(Orissa) 2. 2.India 2. Guntur
Hasan Karnata 3.Russi Region (AP)
Region ka a
(Karnataka 3.
) Andhra
Pradesh

NICKEL Metallic Sukinda 1. 1. 1. Orissa

(Ferrous) Valley Orissa Phillippi 2.
(Orissa) 2. nes Jharkhand
Singhbhum Jharkha 2. 3.
Region nd Russia Karnataka
(Jharkhand 3.
) Canada
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COBALT Metallic Singhbhum 1. 1.Demo

(Ferrous) Region Jharkha cratic
(Jharkhand nd Republi
) 2. c of
Kendujhar Orissa Congo
(Orissa) 3. 2. China
Tuensang Nagalan 3.
(Nagaland) d Canada

BAUXITE Metallic Balangir(Or 1. 1. 1. Junagarh

(Non- issa) Orissa Australi (GJ)
Ferrous) Koraput 2. a 2. Durg
(Orissa) Gujarat 2. (CH)
Gumla(Jha China,
rkhand) 3. Brazil
Shahdol
(Madhya
Pradesh)

COPPER Metallic Malanjkhan 1. 1. Chile 1. Rajasthan

(Non- d Belt Madhya 2. China 2. Madhya
Ferrous) (Madhya Pradesh 3. Peru Pradesh
Pradesh) 2. 3.
Khetri Belt Rajasth Jharkhand
(Rajasthan an
) 3.
Kho-Dariba Jharkha
(Rajasthan nd
)
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GOLD Metallic Kolar Gold 1. 1. China 1. Bihar

(Non- Field Karnata 2. USA 2. Rajasthan
Ferrous) (Karnataka ka 3. South 3.
) 2. Africa Karnataka
Hutti Gold Andhra
Field Prdeah
(Karnataka
)
Ramagiri
Mines
(Andhra
Pradesh)
Sunarnare
kha Sands
(Jharkhand
)

SILVER Metallic Zawar 1. 1. 1. Rajasthan

(Non- Mines Rajasth Mexico 2.
Ferrous) (Rajasthan an 2. Peru Jharkhand
) 2. 3. China
Tundoo Karnata
Mines ka
(Jharkhand
)
Kolar Gold
Fields
(Karnataka
)
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LEAD Metallic Rampura 1. 1. China 1. Rajasthan

(Non- Aghucha Rajasth 2. 2. Madhya
ferrous) (Rajasthan an Australi Pradesh
) 2. a
Sindesar Andhra 3. USA
Mines Pradesh
(Rajasthan 3.
) Madhya
Pradesh

TIN Metallic Dantewada Chhattis 1. China Chattisgarh

(Non- (Chhattisga garh 2.
Ferrous) rh) (only Indonesi
state in a
India) 3. Peru

MAGNESIUM Metallic Chalk Hills 1. Tamil 1. China 1. Tamil

(Non- (Tamilnadu Nadu 2. Nadu
Ferrous) ) 2. Russia 2.
Almora Uttarak 3. Karnataka
(Uttarakha hand Turkey
nd) 3.
Karnata
ka
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LIMESTONE Non- Jabalpur 1. 1. China 1. Andhra

Metallic (Madhya Rajasth 2. India Pradesh
Pradesh) an 2. Rajasthan
Satna 2. 3. Gujarat
(Madhya Madhya
Pradesh) Pradesh
Cuddapah
(AP)

MICA Non- Gudur 1. 1. India

Metallic Mines Andhra 2.
(Aandhra Pradesh Russia
Pradesh) 2.
Aravalis Rajasth
(RaJasthan an
) 3.
Koderma Orissa
(Jharkhand
)

DOLOMITE Non- Bastar, 1. 1. India 1.

Metallic Raigarh Chattisg Chattisgarh
(Chhattisga arh 2. Orissa
rh) 2.
Birmitrapur Andhra
(Orissa) Pradesh
Khammam
Region
(Aandhra
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Pradesh)

ASBESTOS Non- Pali 1. 1. 1. Rajasthan

Metallic (Rajasthan Rajasth Russia 2. Andhra
) – largest an 2. China Pradesh
mine 2.
Cuddapah Andhra
(Aandhra Pradesh
Pradesh) 3.
karnata
ka

KYANITE Non- Pavri 1. 1. USA 1.

Metallic Mines Jharkha 2. China Maharastra
(Maharasht nd 3. Japan 2.
ra) –
2. Jharkhand
Oldest
Mahara
kyanite
mine in shtra

india 3.
Nawargaon Karnata
Mines ka
(Maharasht
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ra)

GYPSUM Non- Jodhpur, 1. 1. China 1. Rajasthan

Metallic Bikaner, Rajasth 2. USA 2. Tamil
Jaisalmer- an 3. Iran Nadu
Rajasthan 2. Tamil 3. J & K
Nadu
3.
Gujarat

DIAMOND Non- Majhgawan 1. 1.

Metallic Panna Madhya Russia
Mines Pradesh 2.
(Madhya – only Bostwan
Pradesh) – diamon a
only active d 3.
diamond produci Democr
mine in ng state atic
India Republi
c of
Congo
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COAL Non- Korba 1. 1. China 1.

Metallic Coalfield, Chattisg 2. USA Jharkhand
(Energy) Birampur – arh 3. India 2. Orissa
Chhattisgar 2. 3.
h Jharkha Chattisgarh
Jharia nd
Coalfield, 3.
Bokaro Orissa
Coalfield,
Girdih –
(Jharkhand
)
Talcher
field –
(Orissa)
Singaruli
coalfields
(Chhattisga
rh) -
Largest
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PETROLEUM Non- Lunej, 1. 1. 1. Gujarat

Metallic( Ankleshwa Mahara Russia 2.
Energy) r, Kalol– stra 2. Saudi Maharastra
Gujarat 2. Arabia
Mumbai Gujarat 3. USA
high–
Maharashtr
a – largest
oil field
Digboi–
Assam–
Oldest oil
filed in
India

URANIUM Atomic Jaduguda 1. 1. 1.

mine Andhra Kazakhs Jharkhand
(Jharkhand Pradesh tan 2. Andhra
) 2. 2. Pradesh
Tummalap Jharkha Canada 3.
alle mine nd 3. Karnataka
(Andhra 3. Australi
Pradesh) –
Karnata a
largest
ka
mine
Domiasiat
Mine
(Meghalay
a)
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THORIUM Atomic 1. 1. 1. Andhra

Kerala Australi Pradesh
2. a 2. Tamil
Jharkha 2. USA Nadu
nd 3. India 3. Kerala
3. Bihar

World Geography: List of Mountain

Ranges, Peaks, Rivers & Lakes

1. Important Mountain Ranges And Peaks of the Worlds

Sr.N Mountain Important/Highest Location Description

o. Range Peaks

1. Rocky Mt. Elbert (highest North It is one of the longest

Mountains peak in the America fold mountains in the
Rockies) world and extends
from Canada to
Western US (New
Mexico State)
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2. Appalachian Mt. Mitchell, North North It is a fold mountain

Mountains Carolina, US America with rich in mineral
(highest peak of resources
Appalachian
Mountains)

3. Alps Mont Blanc (French Europe It is a folded mountain

–Italian border) and source for rivers
like Danube, Rhine,
etc.

4. Sierra Mt. Whitney California, Habitat for many Red

Nevada USA Indian tribes

5. Alaska Mt. McKinley North Mt. McKinley highest

Range America peak in North
America

6. Altai Belukha mountain Central Asia Young folded

Mountains mountain which
extends from
Kazakhstan to
northern China.

7. Andes Mt. Aconcagua South Longest mountain

Mountains America chain in the world
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8. Atlas Mt. Toubkal Northwestern Young fold mountain

Mountains Africa spreading over
Morocco and Tunisia.

9. Drakensberg Mt. Lesotho South Africa Young folded

Mountains mountain

10. Caucasus Mt. Elbrus Europe Located between the

Mountain Black Sea and the
Caspian Sea

11. Ural Mt. Narodnaya Russia This mountain range

Mountains act as a boundary
between Europe and
Asia.

12. Hindukush Mt. Trich Mir Pakistan and Folded mountain with
Mountains Afghanistan rugged topography
which makes it
difficult for
transportation.
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13. Himalayas Mt. Everest Asia Young fold mountains

in Asia which
separates Indian sub-
continent from Asian
plains

14. Arakan Mt. Kennedy peak Myanmar It extends from north

Yoma to south direction.
Shifting cultivation is
practised.

15. Kunlun Mt. Muztag North of It is one of the young

Mountains Tibetan folded mountains.
plateau and
western
China

16. Vosges Mt. Grand Ballon Eastern Famous for the

France, cultivation of grapes
Europe and manufacture of
wines.
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17. Great Mt. Kosciuszko Australia This range is the

Dividing source for the rivers
Range Darling and Murray.

2. List of Important Rivers of the World

Sr. No. RIVER LOCATION DESCRIPTION

1. River Amazon South America It is the second longest river which

flows through Peru, Columbia, Brazil
and drains into the Atlantic Ocean.

2. River North America It forms a bird-foot like a delta at the

Mississippi Gulf of Mexico, River Missouri is an
important tributary of it.
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3. River St. North America It drains into Gulf of St. Lawrence

Lawrence which is an important transport
corridor of North America.

4. River Orange South Africa Longest river of South Africa and

contains diamond beds along its
mouth.

5. River Congo Africa This river crosses the equator twice

and drains into the south Atlantic
Ocean.

6. River Nile Africa It is the longest river in the world,

originates near Lake Victoria and
drains in the Mediterranean Sea.

7. River Rhine Western It flows through Germany and

Europe Netherlands. It is one of the busiest
waterways of Europe.
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8. River Danube Europe It passes through Germany, Hungary,

Austria, Slovakia, Serbia, Romania
and drains into the Black Sea.

9. River Volga Europe, It is the longest river in Europe, it

Russia drains into the Caspian Sea.

10. River Tigris Turkey, Iraq Cities like Mosul, Baghdad, Basra
were located along its banks and it
drains into the Gulf of Persia.

11. River Turkey, Syria, Main source of water for Syria. It

Euphrates Iraq drains into the Persian Gulf.

12. River Irrawaddy Myanmar Drains into Gulf of Martaban

13. River Mekong China, Laos, It is also called ‘Danube of the east’,
Cambodia, and it merges with south china sea.
Vietnam
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14. River Yangtze China It originates from the Tibetan plateau

and ends in east china sea. It is the
longest river in China.

3. Important Lakes of The World

Sr. No. NAME LOCATION FACTS

1. Titicaca lake South America It is the highest navigable lake in the

world located in the Andes mountains.

2. Great bear Canada, North It is a big glaciated lake of Canada.

lake America The Eskimos of Canada camp here
during the summer season.
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3. Great lakes North America This comprise of five large lakes of

North America such as Lake Superior,
Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario. Lake
Superior is the second largest lake in
the world.

4. Lake Malawi Central Africa It is the third largest lake of Africa and
borders Tanzania, Mozambique.

5. Lake East Africa It is deepest and second largest lake of

Tanganyika Africa.

6. Lake Victoria Africa Largest river of Africa and passes

through the equator.

7. Lake Kainji Africa Largest manmade lake of Africa, used

for irrigation purposes.

8. Dead sea West Asia It is bordered by Jordan in the east and

Palestine, Israel in the west. It is known
for high salinity.
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9. Aral Sea Central Asia Located between Uzbekistan and

Kazakhstan. It is shrinking rapidly in
recent years.

10. Lake Baikal Russia It is the largest freshwater lake in Asia

and deepest in the world.

11. Caspian Sea Eurasia It is the largest lake in the world and is
surrounded by Russia, Kazakhstan,
Turkmenistan, Iran and Azerbaijan.

Interior Structure of the Earth

Structure of the Earth

Crust

● The crust is the outermost brittle solid part of Earth ranging from 5 – 70 km.
● The Crust can be divided into:
1. Continental Crust: Mean thickness is around 30 km, made of SIAL (Silica and
Aluminium) and is thicker than Oceanic crust. Its density is around at 2.7 g/cm 3
2. Oceanic Crust: Mean thickness is around 5 km made of SIMA (Silica and
Magnesium). Oceanic crust is basaltic in origin and relatively of younger age than
the continental crust. The basaltic crust is denser at 3.0 g/cm 3

Mantle
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● They extend up to 2890 km.

● Asthenosphere: The upper portion of the mantle which extends up to around
400 km and the main source of Magma.
● The density of mantle is 3.4 g/cm3
● The lower mantle is in solid state which extends up to the Core-Mantle boundary.
This layer is called as the D″ (pronounced dee-double-prime) layer.

Note:

● The Crust and Upper part of Mantle combined called as Lithosphere.

Core

● The Core extends to 2870 – 6370 km.

● It is divided into
1. Liquid Outer Core
2. Solid Inner Core: Made of NIFE – Nickel and Ferrous.

Note: Inner core rotates slightly faster than the rest of the planet.

● The density at the outer core is at 5.5 g/cm3 which increase to 13 g/cm3 in the
inner core.

Note:

Dynamo theory: It suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the
Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field.

Schematic sections through the Earth:

● Continental crust
● Oceanic crust
● Upper mantle
● Lower mantle
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● Outer core
● Inner core

Boundaries in the Earth’s interior

Conrad Discontinuity: Between Upper and lower Continental Crust.

Mohorovičić discontinuity, “Moho”: Crust-Mantle boundary

Gutenberg discontinuity: Core-Mantle boundary

Lehmann discontinuity: Boundary between Outer and Inner Core

Important Facts

● Earth’s radius: 6370 km.

● Earth diameter: about 12756 km at equator &
about 12715 km at the poles.
● Crust: 0.5 % of the volume of the Earth
Mantle: 83 % of the volume of the Earth
Core: 16 % of the volume of the Earth
● Temperature, Pressure and Density increases with the increasing distance from
the surface to the interior in deeper depths
● Gravitation force is greater near the poles and lesser near the equator
● Gravity anomaly is the difference in gravity value according to the mass of the
material

Earthquake

● It is a shaking of the Earth which is caused due to the release of energy along a
fault line.
● Hypocentre or Focus: The point where the energy of an earthquake is released
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● Epicentre: It is the point on the surface, directly above the focus, the first one to
experience the waves.

Earthquake waves are divided into

● Body waves: created due to the release of energy at the Hypocentre (focus).
These waves travel in all directions through the body of the earth.
It can be divided into:
1. P-waves: They are called Primary waves. They move faster and are first
to arrive at the surface. They are similar to sound waves and can travel
through Solid, Liquid and Gaseous materials. P waves vibrate parallel to
the direction of the wave which causes stretching and squeezing of the
material
2. S-waves: They are called Secondary waves which arrive at a time lag with
Primary waves. They can travel only through Solid materials. S-waves
vibrate in perpendicular to the wave direction which creates crests and
troughs.
● Surface waves: the body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate
surface waves which move along the surface rocks. They are the last to report on
the Seismograph and are the most destructive They cause displacement of rocks
and structural collapse. Surface waves vibrate perpendicular to the wave
direction.

The velocity of the waves is directly proportional to the density of the material through
which they travel. Differing density leads to reflection or refraction of the seismic waves.

Shadow Zone

Shadow zones are those specific areas where seismic waves are not reported. These
zones are distinct for P and S-waves.

● Within the distance, up to 105° from epicentre has recorded the arrival of both
waves.
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● The zone between 105° - 145° from epicentre is identified as a shadow zone for
both types of waves (P & S).
● Beyond 105° Zone does not receive S-waves. Thus the shadow zone of S-wave
is much larger than P-wave.
● P-wave appears after 145° from the epicentre.

Types of Earthquake

● Tectonic: They are caused due to the sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
● Volcanic: they are confined to areas of active volcanoes. They are caused due to
the explosion of volcanos and the corresponding tectonic disturbances.
● Collapse: they are caused in areas of intense mining activities where the roofs of
underground mines collapse causing minor tremors
● Explosion: they are caused due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.

Important facts

● A seismograph is an instrument that records the waves reaching the surface.

● Richter Scale: it is known as Magnitude scale as it measures the energy released
during the quake. It is expressed in absolute numbers 0-10.
● Mercalli Scale: it is called an Intensity scale as it measures the visible damage
caused by the earthquake. The range is from 1 – 12.

Tsunami

● These are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves or tidal waves produced by

the sudden or abrupt displacement of large volumes of water (including when an
earthquake occurs at sea.)
● The effect of Tsunami would occur only if the epicentre of the tremor is below
oceanic waters and the magnitude is sufficiently high.
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Landforms: Fluvial, Glacial, Karst, Coastal & Arid

Process Upper or Middle or Mature Lower or Senile

Youth Stage Stage Stage

Erosion Vertical Vertical and lateral Later deposition

Erosion erosion

Gradient Steep valley U-Shaped valley Almost base level

sides – V-
Shaped valley

Deposition Active erosion Erosion equals Lot of deposition.

with very little deposition Formation of Deltas
deposition near river mouth
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Landforms Rapids and Meanders formation, Floodplains, deltas,

waterfalls, V- ox-bow lakes, estuary, meanders
shaped interlocking spurs, and oxbow lakes
valleys, river cliffs and slip-off
gorges, river slopes
capture

Glacial Landforms

Landforms of Highland Glaciation

1. Corrie, Cirque or Cwm: A steep horseshoe-shaped basin.

2. Aretes or Pyramidal Peaks: When two corries cut back on opposite sides of a
mountain, knife-edged ridges are formed called Aretes.
3. Bergschrund: a deep crack at the head of the glacier.
4. U-Shaped glacial troughs: Valley formed due to the downward movement of
glaciers.
5. Hanging valleys: A tributary valley ‘hangs’ above the main valley so that its
stream plunges down as a waterfall.
6. Rock basins and rock steps: Excavation of bedrock due to the glacial erosion
process
7. Moraines: Pieces of rock fragments which becomes stationary after the glacier
melts. They may be lateral moraine, median moraine, terminal moraine etc.

Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands

1. Roche moutonnee: a resistant residual rock hummock.

2. Crag and Tail: a mass of rock with precipitous slope on the upstream side and
softer leeward slope.
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3. Boulder clay or Glacial till: an unsorted glacial deposit comprising a range of

eroded materials forming a monotonous and featureless landform.
4. Erratics: Boulders of varying size transported by the ice and composed of
materials entirely different from those of the region.
5. Drumlins: Oval, elongated whale-back hummocks. It is known as the Basket of
Eggs topography.
6. Eskers: they are long, narrow, sinuous ridges composed of sand and gravel
which mark the former sites of sub-glacial meltwater stream.
7. Terminal moraines: Coarse debris deposited at the edge of the ice sheet.
8. Outwash plains: fluvioglacial deposits washed out from the terminal moraines.
They are called Knob and kettle topography.

Arid or Desert Landforms

Desert Landscape

1. Hamada or Rocky desert

2. Reg or stony desert
3. Erg or sandy desert
4. Badlands: Hills are eroded into gullies and ravines.
5. Mountain deserts: Dissected desert highlands due to erosion.

Erosional Landforms

1. Deflation hollows: Winds lower the ground by blowing away the unconsolidated
materials.
2. Mushroom rocks: A mushroom rock, also called rock pedestal, or a pedestal
rock, is a naturally occurring rock whose shape, as its name implies, resembles a
mushroom.
3. Inselbergs: isolated residual hills rising abruptly from the level ground.
4. Demoiselles: These are rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks above soft
rocks as a result of differential erosion of hard and soft rocks
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5. Zeugens: A table-shaped area of rock found in arid and semi-arid areas formed
when more resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate than softer rocks around it
under the effects of wind erosion
6. Yardangs: Yardang, a large area of soft, poorly consolidated rock and bedrock
surfaces that have been extensively grooved, fluted, and pitted by wind erosion.
The rock is eroded into alternating ridges and furrows essentially parallel to the
dominant wind direction.
7. Ventifacts or dreikanter: these are pebbles faceted by sand-blasting.

Depositional landforms

1. Dunes: Dunes are hills of sand formed by the accumulation of sand and shaped
by the movement of winds.
1. Barchans: Crescent-shaped dunes occurring transversely to the wind
direction.
2. Seifs: Longitudinal dunes, which are long, narrow ridges of sand, often
over a hundred miles long lying parallel to the direction of prevailing winds.
2. Loess: the fine dust blown beyond the desert limits is deposited on neighbouring
lands as loess.
3. Bolsons: It is a semiarid, flat-floored desert valley or depression, usually centred
on a playa or salt pan and entirely surrounded by hills or mountains. It is a type of
basin characteristic of basin-and-range terrain
4. Playas: an alkali flat or sabkha, a desert basin with no outlet which periodically
fills with water to form a temporary lake.
5. Pediments: a broad, gently sloping expanse of rock debris extending outwards
from the foot of a mountain slope, especially in a desert.
6. Bajadas: A bajada consists of a series of coalescing alluvial fans along a
mountain front. These fan-shaped deposits form from the deposition of sediment
within a stream onto flat land at the base of a mountain

Karst Topography
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● Grykes/Clints: Clints are the blocks of limestone that constitute the paving, their
area and shape are directly dependent upon the frequency and pattern of grykes.
Grykes, or scailps, are the fissures that isolate the individual clints
● Swallow holes/Sink Holes (Dolines or Uvalas): A sinkhole is a depression or hole
in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer.
● Stalactites/Stalagmites: A stalactite is an icicle-shaped formation that hangs from
the ceiling of a cave, and is produced by the precipitation of minerals from water
dripping through the cave ceiling. A stalagmite is an upward-growing mound of
mineral deposits that have precipitated from water dripping onto the floor of a
cave.
● Caverns: Large-scale features where caves are formed due to the dissolution of
limestones. May include Poljies.

Coastal Landforms

Erosional Features

1. Capes and Bays: On exposed coasts, softer rocks are worn back into inlets,
coves or bays due to erosion while the harder rocks persist as headlands,
promontories or capes.
2. Cliffs and wave-cut platforms:

3. Cave, arch, stack and slump

4. Geos and gloups: Where a cave roof collapses, a narrow inlet or geo is formed.

Depositional Features

1. Beaches: Sands and gravels loosened from the land are moved by waves to be
deposited along the shore as beaches.
2. Spits and bars: Deposition of material piling up into a ridge forming a spit with
one end attached to the land and the other end projecting into the sea. When the
ridge of shingle is formed across the mouth of a river, it is called a bar.
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3. Marine dunes and dune belts: Due to on-shore wind’s force, a large amount of
coastal sand is driven landwards forming marine dunes.

● Coastline of Submergence
1. Ria coasts: Formed in upland coastal regions where the mountains run in
right angles to the sea where the lower valley is submerged due to
deglaciation.
2. Fiord coasts: Submerged U-shaped glacial troughs.
3. Dalmatian coasts: Longitudinal coasts where mountains run parallel to the
coast.
4. Estuarine coasts: In submerged lowlands, the mouths of rivers are
drowned so those funnel-shaped estuaries are formed.
● Coastline of Emergence
1. Uplifted lowland coast: Smooth, gently sloping coastal lowland is formed
with shallow lagoons, salt-marshes and mudflats.
2. Emergent upland coast: Faulting or earth movement thrust up coastal
plateau so that whole region is raised, with consequent emergent features
such as a steep cliff, deep off-shore waters etc.

Climatology: Classification of Clouds

Types of Clouds

Various kinds of clouds exist. They vary in size, shape, or colour from each other.

They are basically classified into 2 types:

1. Based on their shape

2. Based on their altitude

Clouds on the basis of there shapes:

1. Cirrus
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2. Cumulus
3. Stratus

Cirrus Clouds:

● Cirrus is an atmospheric cloud generally characterized by thin, wispy strands. It

derives its name from the Latin word cirrus, which means a ringlet or curling lock
of hair.

Cumulus Clouds:

● Cumulus clouds have flat bases and are as "puffy", "cotton-like" or "fluffy" in
appearance.
● Their name derives from the Latin cumulo-, meaning heap or pile.

Stratus Clouds:

● Stratus clouds have a uniform foundation of horizontal layers. The word "stratus"
is derived from the Latin prefix "strato-", meaning "layer".
● The term stratus represents flat, hazy, featureless clouds of low altitude varying
in colour from dark grey to white.

Clouds on the basis of their altitude:

1. Low Clouds
2. Middle Clouds
3. High Clouds

Low Clouds

● They are situated below 6,500 feet or 2,000 meters.

● Low clouds are also known as Stratus Clouds.
● They appear dense, dark, and rainy (or snowy) and can also be cottony white
clumps interspersed with blue sky.
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Middle Clouds

● They develop between 6,500 feet and cirrus level or from 2000 to 6000 metres.
● They are known as “Alto” clouds.
● They frequently indicate an approaching storm.
● They may sometimes produce Virga, which is a type of rain or snow that does
not reach the ground.

High Clouds

● They are situated above 6000 metres or 20,000 feet.

● They are widely known as Cirrus Clouds.
● They usually have a thin structure and are made up of ice.
● They do not produce rain and hence indicate fair weather.

Climate and its Factors

The Atmosphere

● Gases and vapours form the atmosphere. When they receive solar energy, it
gives rise to ‘Climate’. Thus, the climate is defined as the average atmospheric
conditions of an area over a considerable period of time. When this consideration
of atmospheric condition is about certain place at certain time then it is called
weather.
● There are five layers of the atmosphere. Those are:

Elements of climate

1. Temperature
2. Precipitation
3. Rainfall
4. Pressure and planetary winds
5. Land and sea breezes
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6. Cyclonic activity

Temperature

Temperature decides the following factors-

● Amount of water vapour, the moisture-carrying capacity of the air.

● Rate of evaporation and condensation, governing degree of stability of the
atmosphere.
● Relative humidity affecting nature and types of cloud formation and precipitation.

Factors that affect temperature:

1. Latitude – Temperature diminishes from equatorial regions to poles because of

the earth’s inclination. Direct rays travel a shorter distance and heat up smaller
surface whereas oblique rays travel a longer distance and heat up large area.
2. Altitude – Temperature of air decreases with increasing height above sea level.
This rate of decrease in temperature with increasing altitude is called as ‘Lapse
rate’. This rate is not constant. The lapse rate is greater by day than at night,
greater on elevated highlands than on level plains.
3. Continentality – Land surface gets heated more quickly than water surface
because of the higher specific heat of the water. (Specific heat is energy required
to raise the temperature of giving volume by 1 degree Fahrenheit)
4. Ocean currents and winds – Both transport their heat or coldness into adjacent
regions. On-shore winds carry ocean currents landwards thereby affecting the
temperature of an area. Local winds also change temperature according to their
own temperature.
5. Slope, shelter and aspect – Steep slope show a rapid change in temperature
than a gentle slope. Sheltered slope (north facing) has less temperature than
sunny slope (south-facing).
6. Natural vegetation and soil – Thick vegetation has less temperature than open
spaces. Colour of soil (light or dark) give rise to slight variation in temperature.
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Precipitation

● When condensation occurs at ground level, haze, mist or fog are formed.
● When condensation of water vapour takes place in the atmosphere at a
temperature below freezing point, snowfall occurs.
● When moist air ascends rapidly cooler layers of the atmosphere, water droplets
freeze and fall to the earth as hail or hailstone.
● Frozen raindrops melt and refreeze forming sleet.

Rainfall

● Convectional rain: When earth surface gets heated by conduction, it comes into
contact with air. This heated air contains the capacity to hold moisture. This air
rises up and cools down. When saturation point is reached, rainfall occurs. In
regions with high relative humidity, this moisture carrying capacity is huge,
resulting in torrential downpours. Convection current goes through the process of
expansion, cooling, saturation and finally condensation.
● Orographic rain: When moist air ascends the windward side of a mountain
barrier, it cools down until complete saturation and orographic clouds form.
Precipitation occurs on the upwind side. Leeward side acts as a rain shadow
area where usually low precipitation occurs.
● Cyclonic or frontal rain: When air masses with different temperatures and
different physical properties meet, warmer air rises over cooler air. In ascent, air
expands and cools. Condensation takes place in the form of frontal rainfall.

Pressure and planetary winds

World pressure belts: Circulation of air over the surface of the earth caused by the
difference in pressure forms pressure belts. Those are:

● Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt- Between 5 degrees north and south, also called
as Doldrums. It is the zone of wind convergence.
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● Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt- Between 30 degrees north and south, also

referred to as Horse Latitudes. It is the zone of wind divergence, with cyclonic
activity.
● Temperate Low-Pressure Belt- Between 60 degrees north and south, also called
as sub-polar low-pressure areas. It is the zone of wind convergence, with
anticyclonic activity.
● Polar High-Pressure Belt- At 90 degrees north and south. Here the temperature
is permanently low.

Planetary winds

Within the pattern of permanent pressure belts, winds blow from high pressure to low-
pressure belts, as planetary winds. Trade winds, westerlies and polar easterlies flow
under the effect of Coriolis force.

Land and sea breezes

● Differential heating of land and sea is basic factor responsible for monsoon. Land
breeze forms a diurnal rhythm and sea breeze form a seasonal rhythm.

Cyclonic activity

● Tropical cyclones (as named in the Indian ocean), typhoons in China sea
(tropical latitudes), hurricanes in West Indian island in Caribbean and tornadoes
in Guinea lands of West Africa and southern USA and willy-willies in north-
western Australia occurs.

List of Major Straits of the World

Sr. No. Strait Name Remarks

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1 PALK STRAIT It connects the Bay of Bengal with the Gulf of

Mannar.

2 STRAIT OF GIBRALTAR It connects the Atlantic Ocean with the

Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and
Spain in the north from Morocco in the south.

3 DUNCAN PASSAGE It is a strait separating Rutland to the North and

Little Andaman to the south.

4 NINE DEGREE CHANNEL This Channel connects Laccadive Islands of

Kalapeni, Suheli Par & Maliku Atoll.

5 TEN DEGREE CHANNEL It separates the Andaman Islands from the

Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.

6 STRAIT OF HORMUZ It lies between UAE and Oman on the south-west

and Iran on the north-east. It connects the Persian
Gulf with the Gulf of Oman. It is strategically very
important as it controls the oil trade from the Gulf
countries.
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7 STRAIT OF BAB-EL- It connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and
MANDAB separates Asia from Africa.

8 MALACCA STRAIT It separates Peninsular Malaysia from Sumatra

island of Indonesia. It connects the Pacific Ocean
to the Indian Ocean. It provides a shorter route
from the Andaman Sea to the South China Sea
and therefore is the busiest waterway of the world.

9 SUNDA STRAIT It connects the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean and
separates Java island of Indonesia from its
Sumatra island.

10 BERING STRAIT It separates Russia and Alaska and connects the

East Siberian Sea in the Arctic Ocean with the
Bering Sea in the Pacific Ocean.

11 ORANTO STRAIT Connect the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian Sea and
separates Italy from Albania.
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12 BOSPHORUS STRAIT Connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara.
It is the world’s narrowest navigable strait.

13 DARDANELLES STRAIT It lies between the Asian Turkey and European

Turkey and connects the Aegean Sea with the Sea
of Marmara. It is a vital link of transportation
between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean
Sea.

14 LA PAROUSES STRAIT It lies between the Sakhalin island and Hokkaido

island of Japan and connects the Sea of Okhotsk
with the Sea of Japan.

15 STRAIT OF It separates Russian Island Sakhalin from

TARTARY/TARTAR Mainland Asia. It connects the Sea of Okhotsk in
the north to the Sea of Japan in the south.

16 TSUGARU STRAIT It lies between Hokkaido and Honshu in northern

Japan and connects the Sea of Japan to the
Pacific Ocean.
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17 TAIWAN STRAIT OR It lies between Taiwan (Republic of China) and

FORMOSA STRAIT Mailand China (People’s Republic of China). It
connects South China Sea with the East China
Sea.

18 MOZAMBIQUE STRAIT It lies in the Indian Ocean between Mozambique

from Madagascar.

19 YUCATAN STRAIT It lies between Mexico and Cuba and connects the
Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean Sea.

20 FLORIDA STRAIT It lies between the Florida state of the USA and
Cuba.

21 HUDSON STRAIT It connects the Hudson Bay (Canada) with the

Labrador Sea.

22 DAVIS STRAIT It connects the Baffin Bay with the Atlantic Ocean.

23 COOK STRAIT It lies between the North and the South islands of
New Zealand and connects the Tasman Sea with
the South Pacific Ocean.
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24 BASS STRAIT It separates Tasmania from the Australian

mainland.

25 TORRES STRAIT It lies in the Pacific Ocean, between Cape York

Peninsula of Australia and Papua New Guinea

26 MAGELLAN STRAIT It separates Mainland South America from Tierra

Del Fuego (an archipelago off the southern-most
tip of the South American Mainland)

27 DOVER STRAIT It lies in the narrowest part of the English Channel,

connecting it with the North Sea. It separates
Britain from Continental Europe.

28 NORTH CHANNEL It separates Ireland from Scotland and connects

the Irish Sea with the Atlantic Ocean.