D e l i u s b o o k pack a g e r s www.delius-books.

de

A rchi t ec t u r e

Content Baroque 1550–1790

Topics include: Bernini, Borromini, Mansart, Louis Le Vau,
Castles, Bohemian, Iberian, Islamic, Ottoman,
Pre- and Early History 10,000 BCE–300 BCE Rococo
Topics include: Prehistoric Architecture, Egypt, Spotlight: Versailles
Mesopotamia and Persia, Minoan and Mycenaean Innovations: Concave and Convex facades
Building Techniques: Megaliths Around the World: Japan, Latin America

Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE–600 CE Neoclassicism 1640–1850
Topics include: Greek, Roman, Byzantine Topics include: Wren, Nash, Schinkel, Latrobe, Jefferson
Spotlight: The Parthenon and the Colosseum Spotlight: The US Capitol
Innovations: The Classical Orders Innovations: The Rebirth of the orders
Around the Wold: India, Early Buddhism, China, the Americas
19th Century
Romanesque 790–1140 Topics include: Greek Revival, Neo-Renaissance, Gothic
Topics include: Carolingian Renaissance, Ottonian, Revival, Egyptian Revival, Exoticism, the
German, Cluny, Norman, Moorish Haussmannization of Paris, Second Empire...
Spotlight: Monasteries Spotlight: Louvre
Innovations: The Vault Innovations: Industrial Architecture
Around the World: East Asian, Early Mosques, Pueblos
20th Century - before 1945
Gothic 1140–1520 Topics include: Sullivan, Flank Lloyd Wright, Art Nouveau,
Topics include: French and British styles, German, Modernism, Walter Gropius, Le Courbusier,
Bohemian, Spanish, Italian, Fortifications Social Housing Estates, Totalitarian Architecture
Spotlight: Westminster Abbey Spotlight: Steel Frames
Innovations: Gothic height and divisions
Around the World: Southeast Asia and Ethiopia Architecture after 1945
Topics include: Mies van der Rohe, Louis Kahn, Eero Saarinen,
Renaissance 1420–1620 Oscar Niemeyer, Siza, SOM, Pei, Norman Foster,
Topics include: Brunelleschi, Alberi, Michelangelo, High Tech Architecture, the New York Five,
Palladio, France, Germany, Elizabethan Theoretical Urban Utopias, Gehry, Hadid,
Spotlight: St. Peter’s Basilica Koolhaas, Blobitecture...
Innovations: The Dome of Florence Cathedral Spotlight: Sydney Opera House and the Seagram Building
Around the World: India, East Asia Innovations: Complex Curvature
 Essential Architecture A World History of Western Architecture

published in the series Essentials Essential

target group general audience

age from 14 years on
format 12 x 16 cm
pages 512 pages This is a handy, quick reference guide to Western architecture from prehis-

THE HisToRy of WEsTERN ARCHiTECTURE

architecture
toric times up to the present. The book is arranged in chronological order,

illustrations ca. 1000 illustrations covering all the main time periods (Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance
etc.), movements such as Neo-classicism, Modernism etc. and well-known
architects. There are time lines before each section as well as brief introduc-

word count ca. 100 000 words

tions as to what is happening politically, socially and scientifically at the
time, and also in-depth looks at the famous architects of the period. The text
is accessible and authoritative. Highly illustrated and with a layout that is
easy to follow, this is, in short, an ideal quick guide to the history of Western
printing, paper full color on 140 g Offset architecture.

binding flexicover HERBERT PREss LoNDoN

an imprint of A&C Black
www.acblack.com

pub date spring 2008 ISBN 978-0-7136-8839-9

90100
architecture
THE HisToRy of WEsTERN ARCHiTEC TURE

9 780713 688399
£12.99 Essential
HERBERT
special feature ca. 1 000 illustrations, introduction and reference

EssArcht_42mm_GB.indd 1 11.12.2007 15:22:49 Uhr

description This incredibly informative pocket-size explained in an easy-to-understand way. Sales arguments:
volume promises much — and delivers. Each chapter is opened by a time-line and • ca . 1 000 illustrations, low price
Organized chronologically, it encompasses an introduction pointing out the essential • a survey of the greatest architects and
the story of architecture from ­pre-histor­ developments of the time in design and buildings
i­cal examples such as Stonehenge to building techniques. • creative and technical inventions and
present day ecological office buildings and While the focus lies on Western architec­ their lasting effects
Blobitecture. ture, each chapter also includes pages • chronologically and thematically sorted
The history of architecture unfolds examining the Islamic, Asian and African for easy reference
through colorful and insightful images styles and methods. • unique combination of visual and text
and texts that trace the development of Fullcolor photographs are enriched by information
book packagers major movements and their architects floor plans and drawings that outline every­
Leibnizstrasse 33 throughout the ages and around the thing you need to know about architecture.
D – 10625 Berlin world. Technological innovations, build- Great for anyone interested in the stylistic
www.delius-books.de ing methods, and historical references are and technical aspects of everyday living.
ARCHITECTURE
A WORLD HISTORY

Daniel Borden, Jerzy Elżanowski,

Cornelia Lawrenz, Daniel Miller, Adele Smith,
and Joni Taylor

Abrams, New York

 Contents 90 German High Romanesque
92 Building Techniques: The Vault
10 Pre- and Early History 94 Clunaic Pilgrimage Churches
12 Timeline 98 England and the Normans
14 Introduction 100 Northern Italy
18 Prehistoric Architecture 102 Islam & Christianity in Spain
20 Ancient Egypt 106 Norwegian Stave Churches
22 The Great Pyramids of Giza 108 Secular Architecture
24 Middle and Late Egypt 110 East Asian Religious Architecture
Stonehenge, page 18 28 Mesopotamia and Persia Pisa Baptistery, Cathedral, and Campanile, page 101 112 Great Mosques of Early Islam
32 Building Techniques: 114 Ancient Pueblos
Megaliths
4

5
34 Minoan and Mycenaean 116 Gothic
118 Timeline
36 Antiquity and Early Christianity 120 Introduction
38 Timeline 126 The Birth of Gothic
40 Introduction 128 Notre Dame de Paris
44 Building Techniques: The Classical Orders 130 High Gothic in France
46 Greek Architecture 132 Rayonnant and Flamboyant Gothic
50 The Acropolis in France
52 The Parthenon 134 Building Techniques: Gothic
Cathedrals
54 Early Roman Architecture
136 Early Gothic in the UK
56 The Colosseum
138 Westminster Abbey
58 Roman Urban Planning
140 Late Gothic in the UK
60 Roman Empire
142 Late Gothic in Germany
64 Early Christian Architecture
144 Bohemian and Polish Gothic
66 Byzantine Architecture 148 Iberian Gothic
68 Pre-Mughal Architecture 150 Late Gothic in Northern Italy
70 Early Buddhist Architecture 152 Italian Civic Architecture
72 Early Chinese Architecture 156 Rock Churches of Lalibela
74 Mesoamerican Architecture
158 Renaissance
76 Romanesque 160 Timeline
78 Timeline 162 Introduction
Colosseum, page 57 80 Introduction 168 Filippo Brunelleschi
84 Carolingian Renaissance 170 Building Techniques:
86 Monasteries The Dome of Florence Cathedral
88 Ottonian Cathedrals Chartres Cathedral, page 127 172 Leon Battista Alberti
Architecture: A World History Contents
 174 Ideal Urban Planning 258 Bohemian Baroque
176 Donato Bramante 260 Building Techniques:
178 Giuliano da Sangallo Baroque Dynamism
180 Michelangelo Buonarroti 262 Iberian Baroque
182 St. Peter’s Basilica 264 Sir John Vanbrugh
184 Raphael 266 Rococo Architecture
186 Jacopo Sansovino 270 Bartolomeo Rastrelli
188 Vincenzo Scamozzi 272 Islamic Architecture
Fillippo Brunelleschi: Florence Cathedral, 190 Giulio Romano 274 Ottoman Empire
page 170 276 Japanese Architecture
192 Andrea Palladio
194 Michele Sanmicheli 278 Baroque in Latin America
6

7
196 Baldassare Peruzzi
198 French Châteaux 282 Neoclassicism
202 Germany and Austria 284 Timeline
206 Northern Renaissance 286 Introduction
208 Renaissance in the UK 290 Building Techniques:
Neoclassical Styles
210 Iberian Renaissance
292 Sir Christopher Wren
212 Eastern Europe
294 WIlliam Kent
214 Mughal Empire
296 Robert Adam
216 East Asian Architecture
298 John Nash
Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Konzerthaus on 300 Sir John Soane
218 Baroque Gendarmenmarkt, page 309
302 Sir Robert Smirke
220 Timeline 304 Claude Nicolas Ledoux
222 Introduction 306 Carl Gotthard Langhans
228 Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola 308 Karl Friedrich Schinkel
230 Gian Lorenzo Bernini 312 Russian Neoclassicism
232 Francesco Borromini 314 Benjamin Henry Latrobe
234 Pietro Berrettini da Cortona 316 The US Capitol
236 François Mansart 318 Thomas Jefferson
238 Jules Hardouin Mansart
240 Louis Le Vau 320 19th Century
242 Versailles 322 Timeline
244 French Castles and Gardens 324 Introduction
246 Urban Planning in Paris 328 Building Techniques:
248 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach Industrial Architecture
Versailles, page 243 250 Johann Dientzenhofer 330 William Wilkins
252 Jakob Prandtauer 332 The Inwood Family
254 Johann Balthassar Neumann 334 Gottfried Semper
Architecture: A World History Contents
 336 Scottish Baronial 418 Art Deco in New York
338 Egyptian Revival 420 Totalitarian Architecture
340 Sir Charles Barry
342 Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin 424 Architecture after 1945
344 Sir George Gilbert Scott 426 Timeline
346 William Butterfield 428 Introduction
348 Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 434 Mies van der Rohe
350 James Renwick Jr. 438 Seagram Building
352 Haussmannization of Paris 440 Louis Kahn
Charles Garnier: Paris Opéra (Palais
Garnier), page 365 354 The Louvre 442 Syndey Opera House
356 Second Empire in the USA 444 Eero Saarinen
8

9
358 Richard Morris Hunt 446 Kenzo Tange
360 Henry Hobson Richardson 448 Oscar Niemeyer
362 Exoticism 450 Brutalism
364 Charles Garnier Le Corbusier: Notre Dame du Haut, page 415 452 Tadao Ando
366 Henri Labrouste 454 Álvaro Siza Viera
456 Urban Utopias: Theoretical Urban
368 20th Century 1900 to 1945 Planning
370 Timeline 458 Building Techniques:
Daniel Burnham: Complex Curvature
Flatiron Building 372 Introduction
(Fuller Building), 378 Louis Sullivan 460 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
page 381 464 I. M. Pei
380 Building Techniques: Steel Frames
382 Frank Lloyd Wright 466 Sir Norman Foster
386 Victor Horta 470 High Tech Architecture
388 Hector Guimard 474 Venturi & Scott-Brown
390 Antoni Gaudí 476 Sir James Stirling
392 Charles Rennie Mackintosh 478 Aldo Rossi
394 Otto Wagner 480 New York Five
396 Joseph Maria Olbrich 482 Postmodern Classicism
398 Adolf Loos 484 Peter Eisenman
400 Peter Behrens 486 Frank Gehry
402 Erich Mendelsohn 490 Zaha Hadid
404 Gerrit Thomas Rietveld 494 Daniel Libeskind
406 Walter Gropius 496 Rem Koolhaas
408 Bauhaus Sir Norman Foster: Reichstag Dome,
498 Herzog & de Meuron
410 Social Housing Estates page 467 500 Blobs
412 Le Corbusier
416 Nordic Modernism 502 Index
Architecture: A World History Contents
 Pre- and Early History
Europe
10,000 BCE 4800 BCE 2500 BCE 2000 BCE 1600 BCE 1200 BCE
Neolithic period; mud Megalithic structures in Bronze Age; The Minoans construct The Mycenaeans rule Mycenae falls to
bricks are first used Brittany Stonehenge large royal palace com- the Mediterranean; invaders; start of a
plexes on Crete royal burial mounds at 400-year Greek dark
Mycenae age, during which
building halts and
Greek innovations stall
12

13
p. 18

p. 35
10 , 000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 500 300

Middle East
3200 BCE 1200 BCE builds the Ishtar Gate and
Sumerians rule Mesopotamia; Assyrian period; King Sen- the Hanging Gardens of
construction of a proto-zig- nacherib constructs Babylon
gurat, the White Temple in Uruk palaces at Nineveh

p. 29
560 BCE
2100 BCE 612 BCE Persian Achaemenid dy-
Construction of the Ziggurat Neo-Babylonian period; nasty; royal palaces and
at Ur King Nebuchadnezzar II tombs at Persepolis

Egypt
3000 BCE 2575 BCE 1550 BCE 332 BCE
Early Dynastic period; Old Kingdom; the Great New Kingdom; construction of Greco-Roman period; Ptolo-
Egyptian state forms; first Pyramids of Giza large temple complexes near maic pharaohs build temples
use of stone as a building Thebes and royal tombs in the in an early Egyptian style; cross-
material; first pyramid, the
2125 BCE Valley of the Dead; reigns of influences with Roman archi-
Step Pyramid of Djoser, is First Intermediate Pharaohs Hatshepsut and tecture mean that innovations
built period; Egypt splits in two, with Ramses II and styles are shared between
capitals in Memphis and the two
Thebes
p. 23
 Prehistoric Architecture
10,000–1500 BCE

 Single family houses, barns, and communal dwellings were built  Early
buildings were made from natural materials such as timber, clay, and mud bricks
 Massive stone slabs were used to mark graves and important sites
 left: The Menhirs of Carnac, ca. 3300 BCE, Carnac, Brittany

10,000 BCE Neolithic cul- Around 10,000 BCE, people began farming and creating
ture appears on the east
coast of the Mediterra-
the first architecture in their settled communities. In
nean; grains are cultivated Turkey and the Middle East, early buildings and towns
18

19
and mud bricks are used were constructed from mud bricks, while Neolithic Euro-
8000 BCE Neolithic culture peans used timber framing and made walls of woven
spreads to Syria and Iraq
sticks covered with clay. The first buildings were primarily

Neolithic and Bronze Age

Neolithic and Bronze Age

7000–5500 BCE Communi-

ties appear in southern for the practical uses of shelter and storing food. How-
and central Europe ever, early humans also created monuments, including
3500 BCE Neolithic cultures
in the Tigris and Euphrates graves and other ceremonial structures. Stone circles and
river valleys develop into menhirs, or upright rows of megalith stones, were
Bronze Age urban civiliza- Reed-Thatched Houses, Cueva de Menga Grave at of which weighs 180 tons. As
erected. Several of these architectural feats, such as the
tions, and the Sumerian reconstruction, ca. 1800–1500 Antequera, ca. 3000–2000 BCE, was typical, after the burial
civilization emerges as a menhirs of Carnac, still stand. The tallest stone at Carnac BCE, Roeschitz, Austria Spain chamber was completed, the
prominent culture stands 60 feet (18 meters) high. Though the purpose of whole structure was buried
Because only stone structures A dolmen is a type of Neolithic
1800–1500 BCE Bronze these monuments is uncertain, they show humankind’s under an artificial hill. When it
Age technologies arrive in have survived, we see Neolithic tomb built from upright stones
Europe, improving con- early desire to manipulate nature on a large scale and to people as preoccupied with and capped by a horizontal roof was discovered and opened in
struction techniques leave behind lasting markers of their existence. monuments and death. Less slab. Cueva de Menga is the the 19th century, the skeletons
durable dwellings, such as largest dolmen in Europe, built of several hundred people were
Other Works Stonehenge, ca. 3100–2200 markable engineering feat. The
these, are known only from using 32 megaliths, the largest found inside.
BCE, Wiltshire, UK stones are oriented to precisely
Çatalhöyük, ca. 7500 BCE, their foundations, which con-
Stonehenge is an example of mark the location of the sun on tained holes for their timber
Anatolia, Turkey
megalithic construction that the summer solstice, showing a structure. These round houses
Mehrgarh, ca. 7000–3200 sophisticated knowledge of astro-
began as a series of circular dit- are typical of the Aunjetitz cul-
BCE, Buluchistan, Pakistan
ches ca. 3100 BCE. The 12-foot- nomy. Little is known of the build- ture in Germany and Austria.
Skara Brae, ca. 3100–2500 (4-meter-) high stones were ers, but some believe the site to Dug partly into the ground,
BCE, Orkney, UK
erected 1,100 years later, a re- have been a place of worship. they had walls of wood mesh
covered with clay and thatched
roofs. Large rectangular build-
ings, called longhouses, shel-
tered whole communities. One
end of a longhouse was used
for grain storage, the middle for
sleeping and eating, and the
area near the door for work.
Prehistoric Architecture
 The Great Pyramids of Giza
About 75 years after the construction of Legend: Great Pyramids, 26th estimated number of workers
11 1
the Step Pyramid of Djoser, Djoser’s 1 Air Shafts century BCE, Giza needed ranges from 30,000 to
2 Grand Gallery Many mysteries surround the 300,000 men working for 20
grandson, Khufu—son of Snefru— 10
2
3 Horizontal Passage pyramids, especially their con- years. The Pyramid of Menkaure
began his own pyramid. Learning from 3 (foreground), son of Khufu, is
4 Ascending Passage struction. How were 2 million
the mistakes of Snefru’s pyramids, the 9 about half as tall as his father’s.
4 5 Entrance blocks of stone quarried,
architects devised ingenious tech- dressed, and moved into place? The three main pyramids were
6 Descending Passage
niques to build Khufu’s Great Pyramid 5 Theories include the use of surrounded by a necropolis of
7 Mortuary Temple
on a truly monumental scale. At 480 long, straight ramps leading to the tombs of nobles, including
8 Subterranean Chamber
22

23
the top of the structure, or a the small pyramids for
feet (146 meters) high, the pyramid was 8
9 Queen’s Chamber Menkaure’s queens. The scale
the world’s tallest building until Lincoln 6 ramp winding up the outside
10 Air Shafts of the pyramids. Some of the project is staggering, but
Cathedral was completed in 1300.

Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt

7 11 King’s Chamber scientists believe an in- perhaps equally impressive are

Along with the two later pyramids next ternal ramp was used the leaps made in technical
to it, the Great Pyramid remains one of to build them, and skill—builders, who started
that it still lies working with stone only 75
humankind’s greatest achievements.
inside. years earlier, were able to
The Great Pyramid of Khufu has master masonry on
The
two air shafts and two main such a large scale.
chambers. Near the center of
the pyramid lies the main
room—the King’s
Chamber—and the
Queen’s Chamber lies
just beneath.

The masonry inside the Great The Great Pyramid of Khufu is

Pyramid is so fine that a knife made of about 2,400,000
tip cannot be inserted between blocks, each weighing an aver-
the stones. The Grand Gallery, age of 2.5 tons. The rough inte-
shown above, leads to the rior blocks were quarried ne-
King’s Chamber. Thought to be arby, but the granite for the
the pharaoh’s burial room, interior King’s Chamber came
today it holds only an empty from about 500 miles (800 km)
sarcophagus. away.
Pre- and Early History 10,000–300 BCE
 Ishtar Gate, Babylonian,
ca. 600 BCE, Iraq
Mesopotamia and Persia The Ishtar Gate was the largest
and most beautiful of eight en-
ca. 3200–330 BCE
trances into the ancient city of
I Sumerians built cities and stepped ziggurats in present-day Iraq I Mud Babylon. After devastating inva-
brick was widely used I Assyrians adopted Sumerian styles I King Neb- sions, King Nebuchadnezzar II
uchadnezzar II rebuilt Babylon I King Darius founded Persepolis ordered the gate’s construction
I left: Winged Bull Gateway, 721–705 BCE, found in Khorsabad, Iraq
as part of a fortified wall to pro-
tect the city. The gate was fin-
ished with bricks glazed with a
ca. 3200 BCE The proto-zig- While the Egyptians were building cities on the Nile, an- deep blue color and decorated
gurat White Temple is built other urban civilization developed in the region between with relief images of dragons
in the Sumerian city of Uruk and young bulls. The arched
2112–2095 BCE Sumerian the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in present-day Iraq. In this
central opening resembles later
28

29
ruler Ur-Nammu builds the area, known as Mesopotamia, the Sumerian culture Roman triumphal arches. A 1-
ziggurat at Ur thrived. They developed agriculture and invented a mile- (1.6-km-) long processional
705–681 BCE King
written language, which they etched into clay tablets. way led from the gate to the

Mesopotamia and Persia

Mesopotamia and Persia

Sennacherib constructs
palaces at the Assyrian Their cities were mainly composed of mud-brick build- city’s main temple. It was lined
capital Nineveh ings. Wet clay was pounded into wood molds and left to with tall blue-glazed brick walls
605–562 BCE King Neb- with reliefs of 120 lions. Each
dry in the sun. Later, the Sumerians began firing bricks in year, statues of the gods were
uchadnezzar II builds the
Ishtar Gate and the Hang- ovens, resulting in harder and more durable building ma- paraded through the Ishtar Gate
ing Gardens of Babylon terials. Pigmented glazes were added to the bricks to and down the processional way
559–330 BCE Persian create brilliant colors. during the New Year’s celebra-
Achaemenid dynasty; tion. Nebuchadnezzar II carried
Persepolis and royal tombs The cities of Mesopotamia were dominated by
out other ambitious building
are built stepped pyramids called ziggurats. Unlike Egyptian
projects throughout Babylon.
Ziggurat at Ur, pyramids, ziggurats were not built as tombs, but rather His own palace complex in-
Sumerian, ca. 2113–2096 as man-made mountains that reached to heaven. cluded the famous Hanging
BCE, Iraq The Sumerian gods were associated with the large distant Gardens of Babylon, named as
The ziggurat at Ur is the mountains to the east, and the ziggurats were one of the Seven Wonders of the
best preserved of the an- Ancient World.
cient ziggurats. The stepped Etemenanki Ziggurat at King Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt
pyramid has a core of mud the tower as part of his recon-
Babylon, Babylonian, 605–562
brick finished with an outer
BCE, Iraq struction of Babylon. Excavations
casing of fired brick. Its walls
show it had a square base plan
have flat buttresses and Believed to be the inspiration for
and three stairs. The Greek his-
slope in slightly with the zig- the biblical Tower of Babel, the
gurat’s elevation, to exag- torian Herodotos described the
ziggurat was part of a religious ziggurat as multi-colored,
gerate height. Three con- complex located in the city
verging ramps lead to the suggesting it was finished
center. The tower had seven tiers, with glazed brick. Alexander
first platform, and a central
stairway continues to the with a temple to the god Marduk the Great conquered
top, where a small temple on top. An earlier ziggurat nearby Babylon and ordered the
to the city’s patron god was already 1,000 years old when ziggurat’s destruction in
Nanna once stood. invaders destroyed it in 689 BCE. 323 BCE.
Pre- and Early History 10,000–300 BCE Mesopotamia and Persia
 Classical Orders
The Classical orders are systems for designing build-
ings based on proportions between the individual
parts. The ancient Greeks developed the orders in
their early wooden temples. They used a basic struc-
tural system—the post-and-lintel, or vertical columns
supporting horizontal beams. The Classical orders
gave their buildings an aesthetic sophistication by
ensuring consistency and visual harmony between
44

45
buildings, regardless of size or materials used.
There are three orders: the Doric, Ionic, and Corin-
thian. Each has a unique set of rules defining its use.

Antiquity
Antiquity

In theory, historians can use the orders like architec-

tural DNA to reconstruct a temple from a single
column or piece of entablature. The orders were later adopted by the Romans,
who added elements such as arches and vaulting. Forgotten for centuries during
the Dark Ages, the orders were redis-
covered during the Renais-
sance. Since then, architects
have used them to design
buildings that have a sense of
timelessness and elegance.
Corinthian Temple of Diana, ca. 200 CE, Column Proportions of the Three Orders
Evora, Portugal Beginning with Palladio in the 1st century BCE,
Each order has a unique column design. Doric architects have studied Greek and Roman buildings
columns, from the Greek mainland, are broad, to establish the ideal proportions for the three or-
with capitals composed of a round, pillowlike ders. Columns are distinguished by the ratio be-
echinus and a flat, square bottom slab called tween their base diameter and height—for a Doric
an abacus. The thinner Ionic columns’ curling column, it is about 1:6, for an Ionic column, 1:9. The
slight tapering of the columns at the top is called
volute capitals originate from the Greek
entasis, and the area above the columns is known as
colonies in Asia Minor, while the
the entablature. Buildings created in the Doric order
Corinthian capital, a variation on have a frieze with alternating triglyphs and metopes
the Ionic, has carved creating rectangular areas of high and low depth.
acanthus Triglyphs are styled after elements of earlier
leaves. wooden construction and are fashioned after the
ends of wood beams. The triangular pediment
below the roof line was sometimes filled with sculp-
tures, as at the Parthenon.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE –600 CE Classical Orders
 Callicrates: Temple of
Athena Nike, 427 BCE, Athens
The Acropolis Though small, the Temple of
Athena Nike sat in a promi-
ca. 550–404 BCE
nent location overlooking the
I The Acropolis was a sacred hilltop in Athens dedicated to the goddess Athena grand stairway to the Acrop-
I Early temples were destroyed by the Persians I The sculptor Phidias oversaw their olis. The tiny site forced
reconstruction I The completed buildings were a triumph of Greek architecture Callicrates to design a small
I left: Mnesicles: The Erechtheion, 421–405 BCE, Athens
structure only 11 feet (3.4 me-
ters) high. The temple has
tetrastyle, or four-columned,
ca. 550 BCE First temple The collection of buildings on the Acropolis represent the porticoes on both the front
dedicated to Athena is and back. The ratio of the col-
built on the Acropolis high point of ancient Greek architecture. The flat-topped hill
overlooking Athens was the site of a Bronze Age fortress and umns’ diameter to height is
480 BCE Persians attack 1:7, slightly squatter than the
50

51
Athens and destroy the later housed temples to the goddess Athena. Early archaic typical Ionic ideal of 1:9, but
temples on the Acropolis temples to the protectors of the city stood on this site, but in the columns are capped with
461–429 BCE Pericles rules
480 BCE, after a devastating war with the Persians, the Acrop- Ionic capitals. The 16.5-

Antiquity
Antiquity

Athens during its golden

age of peace and pros- olis lay in ruins. As Athens entered its golden age, the ruler square-foot (5-square-meter)
perity; he begins the re- Pericles commissioned the sculptor Phidias to oversee the interior held a wooden cult
building of the Acropolis statue of Athena Nike, the
and puts the sculptor reconstruction of the Acropolis. Phidias skillfully laid out
goddess of victory. The entab-
Phidias in charge the structures on the Acropolis to create spatial harmony lature was decorated with re-
438 BCE The Parthenon and heighten visual drama. Each structure was placed to re- lief sculptures. The friezes de-
temple and its cult statue
of Athena are dedicated late spatially to one another and the landscape. Most of the picted victories of the
432 BCE Completion of buildings were built to Doric proportions, though some em- Greek military.
Parthenon sculptures ploy Ionic elements. The Acropolis is more of a high city than The Acropolis, reconstruction, 437–404 BCE, Athens
404 BCE Athens is con- a temple complex and was added to throughout the Helle-
quered by the Spartans After climbing the great stairs, visitors
during the Peloponnesian nistic and Roman periods. passed through the Propylaea. Ahead
War and construction on was a bronze sculpture of Athena
the Acropolis ends The Propylaea, 437–404 BCE, marble columns of the Propylaea
Promachos. To the left was the
Athens still serve as the entrance to the
south porch of the Erech-
The Propylaea was a gate that temples of the Acropolis. Built
theion, supported by six
surrounded the Acropolis. Today, under Pericles, the Propylaea was
marble columns carved
the ruined not meant to serve as a fortifica- as maidens.
tion, but rather as a demarcation
of where the holy area of the
Acropolis began. The gate was
fashioned out of white marble,
accented with gray marble or
limestone and reinforced with
iron. Construction of the Propy-
laea was never fully completed,
due to the outbreak of the Pelo-
ponnesian War between Athens
and Sparta.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE –600 CE
 Early Roman Architecture
ca. 600 BCE –100 CE

I Early Romans embraced Greek culture I Classical orders were used I The Ro-
mans adopted Etruscan innovations like structural arches I Military victories ex-
panded Rome’s influence I Temples and aqueducts were built in new territories
I left: Roman Maison Carrée, 19–16 BCE, Nîmes

ca. 600–300 BCE The Etr- Roman architects owed a large debt to the Greeks. They
uscans build temples and
tombs in central Italy
dressed their buildings in the Classical orders and deco-
ca. 550 BCE Greek Doric rated them with copies of Greek statues. Many distinctly
54

55
temples at Paestum, Italy Roman features, such as the arch, were developed by the
ca. 300 BCE The Romans Etruscans, who had lived in Italy centuries before. These
absorb Etruscan culture
two cultures combined to produce the Roman style. The

Roman Antiquity
Roman Antiquity

and architecture
ca. 30 BCE Vitruvius writes Roman Maison Carrée in Nîmes uses the Greek style but
his influential The Ten is based on Etruscan models. Greek temples sat close to
Books of Architecture the ground, with steps and columns wrapped all around.
ca. 50 BCE –100 CE Roman
buildings are built in far- This building is on a high podium. Stairs, only in the front,
flung provincial cities lead to a porch of Corinthian columns.
Other Works
Temple of Alatri,
ca. 600–300 BCE, recon-
structed at the Villa Giulia,
Rome
Cloaca Maxima,
ca. 600–200 BCE, Rome
Temple of Jupiter Aqueduct, ca. 100 CE, Thermopolium, ca. 100 CE,
Capitolinus, ca. 200 BCE, Segovia Ostia Antica
Rome
The Romans learned hydraulics Restaurants like this served hot
Temple of Augustus from the Etruscans, who had food as well as spiced wine from
and Livia, ca. 25 BCE, built early sewers to drain clay jars set in the marble
Vienna Rome’s swamps. Using the sci- counter. The Romans pioneered
ence of arch building, the Ro- the use of concrete to create
Casa Sannitica, house, one of the oldest in the opening onto it. The atrium roof mans were able to engineer curved forms. Here, the walls and
reconstruction, ca. 200 BCE, town, was based on Etruscan sloped inward and opened in the monumental aqueducts. This arches are concrete, poured into
Herculaneum models. The large atrium was the center, allowing sunlight and rain- example, built of unmortared a brick veneer that served as a
Like Pompeii, Hercula- center of the home. A loggia, dec- water to enter. Richly decorated granite blocks, towers 92 feet framework and molded the con-
neum was an Italian town orated with Ionic columns, with stucco and frescoes, the (28 meters) above the streets of crete to look like bricks. The mo-
buried in the eruption of wrapped around the second floor, house likely belonged to a pros- Segovia and still carries water saics that adorn the building’s
Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE. This with bedrooms and offices perous businessman. 19 miles (30 km) from a spring. floors were a Greek innovation.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE –600 CE Early Roman Architecture
 The Colosseum
When Emperor Vespasian came to power in 69 CE, Rome was in a state of chaos.
In order to appease the masses, he announced the construction of an enormous
public amphitheater. His sons Titus and Domitian succeeded him as emperor,
creating the Flavian dynasty and giving the building its official name, the Flavian
Amphitheater. When the ampitheater opened in 80 CE, the historian Dio Cassius
wrote that Rome celebrated with 100 days of games during which 9,000 animals
were killed. For centuries, the Colosseum witnessed staged battles between man
and beast and man against man, and was even flooded for mock naval battles.
56

57
Built to seat 50,000 spectators, its efficient system of tiered seating and spacious
passageways remains a model for stadium design to the present day. Later dam-
aged by fire and earthquakes, the Colosseum was abandoned, and its walls were

Roman Antiquity
Roman Antiquity

used as a marble quarry. In 1749 Pope Benedict XIV called for its preservation as
a shrine to the early Christians martyred there. Today the Colosseum is a vivid The Colosseum’s three-tiered umns and entablatures—Doric and square windows. At the
monument to the aspirations and decadence of imperial Rome. facade resembles the design of on the first story; Ionic, second; top, brackets carried the masts
Roman aqueducts. The arcades and Corinthian, third. An attic from which the valerium, a can-
are faced by three-quarter col- story has Corinthian pilasters opy for shade, was suspended.
The Colosseum, 72–80 CE, Rome
The Colosseum was built on a drained lake bed in Em-
peror Nero’s once lavish gardens. A 131-foot (40-
meter) statue of Nero stood near the site, and it
was this “colossus” that gave the amphitheater
its popular name. Over centuries, the bronze
statue was remolded to resemble new rulers
and in the end melted down, but the
name still endures.

The oval could

shape of the Col- be held. Trap
osseum’s arena floor pre- doors allowed cages or
vented combatants from backing into corners. scenery to be lifted from below. Tunnels con-
Two years after it opened, Emperor Domitian or- nected to aqueducts were used to flood the
dered the construction of a network of tunnels stage for naval battles, while pipes to the city
below the floor where gladiators and animals sewer could later drain it.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE –600 CE
 Anthemios and Isidoros:
Hagia Sophia, interior,
Byzantine Architecture 532–537, Istanbul
After mobs destroyed the
330–554 Cathedral of Constantinople in
I Constantinople (now Istanbul) was founded I Ravenna became the 532, Emperor Justinian vowed
western capital of the Roman Empire I New structural techniques were to rebuild on a monumental
used for Hagia Sophia I Buildings were decorated with mosaics scale. He gave his architects the
I left: Church of St. Vitale, ceiling vaults, 527–548, Ravenna, Italy
difficult task of placing a round
dome on a square-planned
church. Their daring solution
330 Byzantium becomes The city of Rome was weak and militarily vulnerable was to use concave triangular
the capital of the Roman when Emperor Constantine dedicated his “New Rome” at sections of masonry, called pen-
Empire dentives, that carry the dome’s
the Greek city of Byzantium, later called Constantinople.
395 The Roman Empire is weight to corner piers. The
66

67
divided into western and Soon after, the Roman Empire was split in two, with sep- ribbed dome rises 184 feet (56
eastern empires arate capital cities for each half—Constantinople in the meters) and seemingly floats
402 The capital of the east and the Italian city of Ravenna in the west. Among over a row of small windows.

Early Christianity
Early Christianity

western empire is moved the structures from this period, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul Embellished with multicolored
to Ravenna, a small but is exceptional both for its scale and the technical daring marble and gold mosaics, the
easily defended Italian city building is both a culmination
near the Adriatic Sea of its construction. The monuments of Ravenna, al-
of Roman architectural ambi-
532–37 Eastern Emperor though smaller, are nevertheless renowned for their fluid tions and an inspiration for later
Justinian builds the church space and stunning mosaic decoration. Unlike earlier buildings. Orthodox churches
of Hagia Sophia in Con- Roman floor mosaics made with stone, Byzantine mo- today use the central plan and
stantinople saics were made from glass, either in brilliant colors or dome, and Islamic shrines, like
554 Rome is reduced to a layered with gold leaf. The ceiling vaults of the octag- the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, are
camp of about 30,000 modeled after it.
people, while Constan-
onal Church of St. Vitale in Ravenna appear to dissolve,
tinople has about 1 million replaced by angels, animals, and holy apostles floating in Anthemios and Isidoros:
people a sea of heavenly light. Hagia Sophia, exterior,
532–537, Istanbul
Other Works Mausoleum of Galla
Perhaps due to its daring de-
Placidia, 425–430, Ravenna,
Chora Church, ca. 333, sign or shortcuts taken in its
Italy
Istanbul construction, the dome of
This small tomb for the daughter Hagia Sophia collapsed after an
Hagia Irene, ca. 360, of Emperor Theodosius I, built in earthquake in 563 and was re-
Istanbul the form of a Greek cross, is the placed with the current version.
Arian Baptistery, ca. 490, earliest and best preserved of Later, the support walls were re-
Ravenna, Italy Ravenna’s mosaic monuments. built and heavily reinforced.
St. Apollinare Nuovo, The vaulted ceilings and cupola Crusaders sacked the city in
493–496, Ravenna, Italy are covered with glass and gold 1204, leaving the building
Church of St. Sophia, leaf tiles depicting a beardless badly damaged. In 1453, it was
527–565, Sofia, Bulgaria Jesus Christ and his 12 apostles, converted to a mosque, and
as well as fanciful geometric mo- Christian mosaics were plas-
St. Apollinare in Classe,
tifs. The windows are panels of tered over. Now a museum, the
530, Ravenna, Italy
translucent stone. building has been restored.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE –600 CE Byzantine Architecture
 Pagoda, 669 CE, at Xingjiao
Buddhist Temple, Shaanxi
Early Chinese Architecture Province
A combination of the layered
220 BCE –700 CE
Indian stupa tower and Chinese
 Neolithic Chinese built villages and tombs  China was unified, and con- watchtowers, the first Chinese
struction of the Great Wall began  Classic Chinese architectural styles deve- pagodas were built of wood
loped under the Han dynasty  The arrival of Buddhism inspired early temples and square in plan. Later pa-
 The pagoda form appeared  Buddhist shrines were carved into cliffs
godas were octagonal or round.
This early brick pagoda marking
the burial site of Xuanzang, a
220 BCE Emperor Qin Shi For centuries, China’s vast area was populated by remote pilgrim who brought Buddhist
Huang first unifies China tribes, some nomadic and others living in farming villages scriptures back from India, has
under the Qin dynasty; his distinctly Chinese features such
mausoleum complex in surrounded by stamped-earth walls. In 220 BCE, China was
as projecting roof eaves.
72

73
Xian covers 1.3 square unified, and parts of the Great Wall were constructed to
miles (2 square km) protect the country’s borders. Other Works
206 BCE –220 CE During the Under the Han dynasty, the classic style of Chinese ar-

Around the World: China

Around the World: China

Han dynasty many classic Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum,

Chinese building styles chitecture developed. Palaces and temples were laid out 207 BCE, Xian, Shaanxi Province
first appear symmetrically. A grid of round columns supported a large, Mogao Caves, begun
ca. 100–700 CE Buddhist horizontal roof with upturned eaves. Light, nonstructural ca. 400 CE, Dunhuang, Gansu
Chinese-style pagodas walls served as screens against the elements. The Indian Province
and temples are built
throughout the unified stupa form was combined with the Chinese lou, a multi- Longmen Caves,
empire story watchtower, to create Buddhist pagodas. begun ca. 500 CE, Henan
Province
Pavilion at Old Dragon campaigns also include the Ter-
Songyue Temple Pagoda,
Head (Lao Long Tou), racotta Warriors, spread the up-
520 CE, Dengfeng, Henan
ca. 220–210 BCE, near turned eaves and steep roofed
Province
Shanhaiguan style throughout
Four Gates Pagoda, 611 CE, China.
Situated at the starting point of
Licheng, Shandong Province
the Great Wall, the Old Dragon
Great Wall of China, Head was built under Em-
peror Qin and renovated in
ca. 500 BCE–1600 CE
the 15th century. Multilevel
The world’s longest man-made buildings first appeared in
structure, the Great Wall began China under the earlier
as a series of rammed-earth for- Han dynasty, and Em-
tifications. Successive emperors peror Qin, whose mas-
marked changing borders by sive building
extending the wall using stone
and brick. The present wall
dates from the 15th century. In
1449 CE, the Mongols in the
north defeated the Ming dy-
nasty, who had rebuilt the wall
to protect their capital, Beijing.
Antiquity and Early Christianity Early Chinese Architecture
 Carolingian Renaissance
800–ca. 871
I Carolingian monarch Charlemagne promoted architecture based on early
Christian models I In size, organization, and detail, buildings reflected canon-
ical Roman works I The basilica was reintroduced as an architectural form
I left: Odo of Metz: Palatine Chapel, octagonal dome, ca. 790–ca. 800, Aachen

800 Charlemagne In a strategic effort to develop an empire with a culture to

crowned Holy Roman Em-
peror in St. Peter’s, Rome;
rival that of Rome, Charlemagne spread culture to main-
the Palatine Chapel is ded- tain cohesion throughout the Holy Roman Empire. The
84

85
icated Benedictine monasteries that he set up were often the
814 Charlemagne dies only source of social structure in an otherwise dispersed
820 Plan for an ideal mon-
population. By promoting Latin as the official secular and

Early Romanesque
Early Romanesque

astery drawn at St. Gall,

establishing a model for religious language he was able to preserve the Classical
medieval monasteries texts in circulation. Overtly, not much remains of his archi-
843 Charlemagne’s em- tectural legacy. Yet many of the Romanesque and Gothic
pire is divided
ca. 871 Fall of the Carolin- churches and monasteries functioning today were built Odo of Metz: Palatine Chapel, 800,
gian Empire on the foundations of Carolingian architecture. Aachen, Germany
The Palatine Chapel is all that is left of a palatial
Other Works complex built by Charlemagne and based on the
Monastery of Centula Lateran in Rome. Charlemagne was clear about
(now Saint-Riquier), his intentions of inheriting the legacy of the
ca. 800, near Amiens, Roman Empire and used architecture to assert
France that claim. Strongly based on the church of St.
St. Salvator, 804–875, Vitale in Ravenna, but with a distinctly Carolin-
Werden near Essen, gian simplicity, the chapel is a centralized domed
Germany building with arcades that join to an ambulatory
Church of and a double-height gallery.
Germigny-des-Prés, 806,
near Saint-Benoît-sur- Church of St. Vitus, westwork, 873–885,
Loire, France Benedictine Abbey at Corvey, Germany
Abbey Church of Fulda, The disposition of programmatic elements in the
821, Germany westwork gave Carolingian church facades a spe-
Church of Saint-Germain, cific character. The westwork was both function-
841–859, Auxerre, France ally and symbolically the gateway to the church.
As at Lorsch, a triple arcade opens onto a low
Gatehouse of the the entrance to the Lorsch Monas- ments of a westwork—the arched vaulted vestibule flanked by staircases that lead
Lorsch Monastery, tery. Scholars debate over the use entrance, the upper hall, and the to a double-height chapel space above. The twin-
ca. 792–805, Lorsch, of its first-floor hall, but mor- two stair towers—are recombined towered facade of the westwork became a stan-
Germany phologically the building is clearly here in a creative evocation of the dard for most Romanesque and Gothic churches
This gatehouse stood at linked to a westwork. The ele- Roman triumphal arch. in western Europe.
Romanesque 790–1140 Carolingian Renaissance
 Islam & Christianity in Spain
711–1492
I The Muslim rulers of southern Spain descended from the Umayyad dy-
nasty in Damascus I Architectural forms were derived from early Syrian
models I A local architectural culture developed that influenced both the
Muslims and Christians in Spain

711 Muslim armies con- Political struggles over Spain between Christians and
quer Spain Muslims led to a diverse architectural style on the Iberian
961–976 Great Mosque of
Cordoba extended Peninsula. After the fall of Cordoba in 1236, its Great
102

103
1236 Cordoba falls to Mosque was converted into a church. The magnificent
Christian armies 10th century sanctuary was left intact, even after the con-
1238 Alhambra Citadel in struction of a 16th-century cathedral at the center of the

Late Romanesque in Spain

Late Romanesque in Spain

Granada begun as the seat

of the Nasrid dynasty hypostyle prayer hall, a building with columns supporting
1333 Conversion of the a flat roof. From this position, the cathedral rose from the
Alhambra from a citadel never-ending rows of arches, its buttresses hooking into
into a palace begins the columnar grid. The earlier mosque had been so mas-
1492 Spanish armies take
Granada, ending Muslim sive that an entire cathedral could go unnoticed within its
rule in Spain walls. The moment of transition between the seemingly
infinite horizontality of the mosque and Great Mosque, interior, begun 785, Cordoba
the vertical pull of the cathedral is at
Given how complex the interior feels, the Great
once jarring and sublime—perhaps a Mosque is astonishingly simple in plan. A contin-
metaphor for the ambivalent relation- uous wall defines the regular quadrangle. The
ship that defined Islam and Christianity first third of the building is devoted to an exterior
in Spain. The followers of the court, and the remaining part is an expansive hy-
postyle hall used for prayer. Two tiers of arches
Great Mosque, begun 785, Cordoba carry the roof, the lower set supported by an-
The first of its kind in Europe, the Great Mosque tique stone columns and capitals. The poly-
at Cordoba served for centuries as a model for chrome effect comes from using a combination
Moorish architecture throughout the Iberian of stone and brick wedges.
Peninsula. The mosque that stands today is a re-
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela,
sult of many building campaigns under both Is-
lamic and Christian rule. The original mosque Pórtico de la Gloria, 1168–88
was much smaller than it is now, with only 10 Pilgrims from all over Europe met near the Pyre-
rows of arcades reaching the kibla, the wall ori- nees Mountains and traveled to Santiago de
enting worshippers toward Mecca in the south. Compostela, the purported resting place of the
Caliph al-Hakam II extended the Great Mosque in apostle St. James. The Romanesque portals of the
the mid-10th century, adding not only further cathedral have been incorporated into the later
rows of arcades, but also ornamental domes with Baroque facade, a reminder of the medieval ori-
complex patterns of intersecting ribs. gins of the pilgrimage.
Romanesque 790–1140 Islam & Christianity in Spain
 Borgund Stave Church,
ca. 1150–1200, Lærdal,
Norwegian Stave Churches Sogn og Fjordane
The term stave comes from the
1016–ca. 1250 Norse word stavr, referring to
I Traditional wood frame construction lined with boards, roofed with shin-
the large wooden posts that
gles, and treated with tar I Approximately 1,300 stave churches have been formed the structural basis for
indexed; of those, 28 survive in Norway the churches. The system of
I left: Urnes Stave Church, detail, 11th–12th century, Sogn og Fjordane
braced posts set on founda-
tional stones created a stable
yet flexible frame around which
1016–30 The spread of During the Middle Ages wood was the most popular and the church could be con-
Christianity in Norway is structed. At Borgund, the 12 in-
enforced during the reign often the only building material used in northern Europe.
terior posts support the tallest
of King Olaf II Scandinavia was dotted with wooden forts, houses, and,
106

107
portion of the roof, which then
1031 King Olaf II is canon- later, churches. In Norway alone more than 1,000 wooden
ized, prompting the descends almost to the ground
construction of shrines churches were built over the course of three centuries. over three separate slopes.
Although this tradition has all but disappeared, remark- Owing to the weather, there are

Wooden Architecture
Wooden Architecture

ca. 1050 Stave churches

begin to appear through- ably, 30 original stave churches have survived. These have no large windows, only peep-
out Norway holes in a portion of the nave
ca. 1130 Urnes, one of
been used to reconstruct other churches. In these simple wall, analogous to the
the oldest surviving stave buildings, the Romanesque use of stone was artfully ex- clerestory of Romanesque
churches, is constructed pressed in wood. Stave churches were built entirely of churches. The apse roof follows
atop the foundations of an
even older church wood, either dovetailed or pegged and wedged, but the general profile of the nave
never nailed. Columns, capitals, arches, and portals were and choir but then separates
1150–1250 Most existing
stave churches are built from the main volume and proj-
carved to mimic Romanesque details. These were often ects into an amusing turret.
ca. 1250 The construction
of stave churches begins combined with both figurative and abstract motifs from Often a single window over the
to be phased out Norse mythology. west porch brought dim light
into the building, but candle-
Other Works Borgund Stave Church,
light services were common.
interior, ca. 1150–1200, Lærdal,
Heddaln Stave Sogn og Fjordane Urnes Stave Church,
Church, 12th and 13th ca. 1130, Luster, Sogn og
The existing stave churches of
centuries, Notodden, Fjordane
Norway are not stylistically ho-
Telemark
mogeneous. They vary greatly Of the 28 stave churches surviv-
Hopperstad Stave in plan, structure, and size. ing in Norway, UNESCO chose
Church, ca. 1150, Vik, Borgund is a large stave church, Urnes to represent this building
Sogn og Fjordane with a complex plan and sec- typology as a World Heritage
Kaupanger Stave tion. Freestanding columns, Site. One of the oldest surviving
Church, ca. 1150–1200, braced to carry the tall roof, churches, it was built using dec-
Sogndal, Sogn og support the central portion of orative elements from a pre-
Fjordane the rectangular nave. A narrow vious 11th-century structure. Its
ambulatory encircles the nave, carvings are exquisite, uniting
Gol Stave Church, 13th
echoed by an exterior porch. Christian symbolism with sin-
century, reconstructed,
Three gables and an apse uous abstractions of dragons
Olso Folk Museum
project from the main volume. and lizards.
Romanesque 790–1140 Norwegian Stave Churches
 Other Important Works
Secular Architecture Qal’at Salah El-Din
(Fortress of Saladin),
Castle Keep,
begun ca. 1080,
1066–1142 10th–12th century, near Newcastle-upon-
Haffeh, Syria Tyne, UK
I Castles in the UK and Ireland developed in the late 9th century as a response Colchester Castle, Rochester Castle,
to Viking invasions I Earth and wood castles were rebuilt in stone under the 1069–1100, Essex, UK begun ca. 1080,
Normans I Permission to build a castle was granted by the king Richmond Castle, Kent, UK
I left: White Tower, Tower of London, interior, ca. 1077–97, London 1071–86, Hedlingham Castle,
Yorkshire, UK ca. 1140, Essex, UK

1066 William the Con- Anglo-Saxon England had efficient fortifications before Dover Castle, keep, begun ca. 1180, Kent, UK
queror is crowned king of the Norman Conquest of 1066, but very few stone struc-
England at Westminster The windows at the White Tower were enlarged
Abbey, and fortification of tures were built. William the Conqueror changed this sit- in the 18th century, making it appear more hos-
108

109
London takes place uation entirely in the second half of the 11th century. His pitable to a 21st-century visitor. Yet it is the omi-
ca. 1077–97 The White first major accomplishment was the construction of the nous solidity of Dover that communicates the
Tower of the Tower of real purpose of the fortified residence: defensibil-
Tower of London, at the edge of the city, overlooking the

Fortifications
Fortifications

London is constructed ity. During the Romanesque period, the main de-
1099 Jerusalem is cap- Thames and surrounding countryside. The tower was fensive positions were on the roof instead of at
tured by Christian armies both a royal residence and a key fortress, influencing ar- the slits or loops that came into use later.
during the Crusades
chitectural styles for fortifications throughout England.
1142 The Knights Hospi-
taller take possession of With the launch of the first Crusade in 1095, military archi-
Krak des Chevaliers tecture was particularly important. Contact with the East
meant the introduction of
new technological inno-
vations that could both
be brought back for use
in European wars and put
to the test abroad.
White Tower, Tower of
London, ca. 1077–97
The White Tower is the keep, or
residence, built within the forti-
fied complex of the Tower of
London. The keep is rectangular
in plan, with stair towers at
three corners and the fourth oc-
cupied by a semicircular projec-
tion that contains the chapel.
The upper floor includes two Krak des Chevaliers, with rounded projections provided several lines of de-
large halls and the royal chapel, begun 1142, near Homs, Syria formed a complex polygon. In- fense. The castle was an impor-
all surrounded by a gallery Krak des Chevaliers was an ad- side, a wide buffer zone gave tant military outpost from
running along the perimeter vanced piece of military tech- way to a massive inner struc- which Crusaders could control
walls. nology. A set of fortified walls ture, with layered walls that the Syrian coast.
Romanesque 790–1140 Secular Architecture
 Ancient Pueblos
ca. 1000–ca. 1300
I The Anasazi inhabited large parts of southwestern North America I They
were the ancestors of modern-day Pueblo peoples I Many cliff dwellings and
stone pueblos were discovered in the late 19th century and later excavated
I left: Cliff Palace, ca. 1200–ca. 1300, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado

ca. 1000 Stone begins to The main social space for the Pueblo peoples was the
be used, along with the kiva—a round, subterranean room that served spiritual,
traditional mediums of
wood and mud, as a con- political, and familial purposes similar to the functions of
114

struction material a chapel or parish church in Europe. The Anasazi lived in

ca. 1130–80 The Pueblo large communities of up to 1,000 people, divided into fa-
Bonito is abandoned
milial units. The life of each family revolved around the
Around the World: the Americas

1276–99 The Great

Drought takes place in kiva, so that several round kivas would be interspersed
what is today the south- with tight rows of rooms used for living, storage, and
western United States
sometimes even burial. The entire pueblo could be com-
ca. 1300 The Anasazi
people abandon their pared in scope to the large communal European abbeys
communities of the same era.
Pueblo Bonito, dwellings, As in many surrounding com- nity kivas. These were backed
Other Works ca. 920–ca. 1180, Chaco Canyon munities, dwellings faced by layers of rooms that had dif-
National Park, New Mexico south, stepping down so that ferent uses depending on the
Tuzigoot, occupied from
ca. 1000, Verde River valley, Ari- The tallest structures at Pueblo the roof of one was the terrace availability of light. Roads lead-
zona Bonito were at the back of the of the next. At Pueblo Bonito, ing to neighboring settlements
White House, 1066–1275, structure, along the protective there were about 30 family and resource areas have been
Canyon de Chelly National north-facing windowless curve. kivas and two central commu- discovered.
Monument, Chinle, Arizona Pueblo Bonito,
Montezuma Castle, ca. 1100, ca. 920–1180, Chaco Canyon
Verde River valley, Arizona National Park, New Mexico
Aztec Ruins National Monu- Pueblo Bonito was a semicirc-
ment, 1111–15 and mid-13th ular five-story megastructure
century, Aztec, New Mexico gathering a village with hun-
Great Kiva at Casa Rinuanda dreds of inhabitants into one
(Corner House), ca. 1150, building. In plan it looked
Chaco Canyon National somewhat like a cell, with a
Park, New Mexico membrane, nucleus, and free-
floating elements. In section it
Cliff Palace, traditionally lived in pit houses the pits, turning them into kivas resembled a Roman theater,
ca.1200–ca. 1300, Mesa Verde on the mesa, began to move to and adding multilevel houses terracing down to a central
National Park, Colorado sheltering cliff dwellings. They that hugged the natural con- plaza. Its straight edge was
Around 1150 the Anasazi, who retained the circular forms of tours of the cliffs. closed off by a layer of rooms.
Romanesque Ancient Pueblos
 Gothic
1140–1500 1220–1520 1220–1520 Around the World:
Gothic in Rayonnant and Mediterranean Southeast Asia
p. 129
France Flamboyant Gothic and Africa
The construction of the Gothic Italian Gothic architec- As European cathedrals
choir of Saint-Denis, near ture features polychrome grew taller, cultures in
Paris, creates an “archi- In France and England surfaces and geometric Southeast Asia were
118

119
structural elements such
tecture of light” using forms; in Spain and building massive temple
as vaulting and ribs
skeletal frames that com- Portugal, Flamboyant complexes that also
become increasingly intri-
partmentalize buildings Gothic mixes with highly reached to the heavens,
cate and ornate
and increase the possibil- ornate local styles such as while in Ethiopia, chur-
ities of height and orna- the Manueline style ches were hollowed out

p.142
mentation of the earth

1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600

1174–1517 1230–1520
Gothic in Gothic in Central
the UK and Northern
Europe

p. 155
Gothic styles spread from
France to the UK, where
German, Austrian, Polish,
Flamboyant, or Deco-
and Bohemian architects
rated, and Perpendicular
adopt French Gothic
styles create new forms of
styles, building wider
tracery and vaulting
structures of brick
p. 141

p. 148
p. 133
 Chartres Cathedral, after 1194

The Birth of Gothic At Chartres, the focus was on interior rather than
exterior clarity. The cathedral’s external beauty
lies in how clearly the layers of construction
1140–1281
throughout different campaigns can be seen.
 Religious fervor sparked the construction of many churches  Light was Begun during the early Gothic period, the west-
used as an element of design  Skeletal structures replaced load-bearing ern facade is a fusion of a late Romanesque base
walls  Architectural elements such as the pointed arch, the flying but- with an early Gothic facade and a late Gothic
tress, the rose window, and the triple portal were first used together spire. Chartres was structurally revolutionary for
its time. When it was built, the cathedral’s vaults
were the highest in Europe, and were supported
1140–44 West facade The building that marks the beginning of the Gothic era by flying buttresses. At 118 feet (36 meters) tall,
and ambulatory of Saint- is the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, near Paris. It was built the nave is an uninterrupted volume
Denis is built
under the direction of Abbot Suger, one of the most influ- framed by clustered columns and re-
126

127
ca. 1144 Abbot Suger de-
ential political figures of the time. Suger, describing the markable fenestration. The
scribes the construction
of Saint-Denis construction of Saint-Denis, wrote of a new light that was cathedral re- tains almost all
ca. 1160 Laon and Paris its medieval stained glass,
to pervade his church, one that would aid the religious ex-

Gothic in France
Gothic in France

cathedrals begun filling the interior with

perience. Following the Neoplatonic emphasis on God as splashes of colored light.
1194–1220 Chartres
Cathedral is rebuilt in the light, Suger argued that the contemplation of physical
Gothic style after fire beauty would lead to enlightenment. It was the will to
ca. 1200–50 West facade turn light into an element of architecture that logically Laon Cathedral,
of Notre Dame de Paris is interior and facade,
led to the replacement of solid walls with skeletal struc-
built begun ca. 1160
tures and windows. Through a strict geometrical ra-
1231–81 Construction of Although Laon retains
nave and choir at Saint- tionale, the architecture of light came to influence build-
the round arches and
Denis ing techniques for centuries. heavy walls of Roman-
Abbey Church of Saint- esque architecture, the
Other Works
Denis, 1140–1281, near Paris deep recess of the por-
Abbey Church of Saint-Denis was the first tals and windows
Saint-Étienne, vaults, late create a characteristi-
building to use and unify all of
11th century, Caen cally Gothic play of light
the architectural elements that
Durham Cathedral, define Gothic as a style. Pointed and shadow. The playful facade lacks the rigor and
choir-aisle vaults, later arches, column clusters, and sculptural unity of Paris or Amiens, but its com-
choir, and nave vaults, cross-rib vaulting had been partmental nature made it a prototype for other
1093–1133 Gothic churches. The triple portal, the rose
seen before, but it was not until
Nave of Sens Cathedral, the building of Saint-Denis that window, and the open gallery are basic elements
begun ca. 1130 these elements came together of a Gothic facade. The nave’s divisions and
Notre Dame de Paris, in a coherent whole. The result rhythms clearly borrow from Romanesque de-
begun ca. 1160 was a skeletal enclosure based signs, with the exception of one important inno-
Nave of Noyon Cathe- on freestanding columns rather vation: the new triforium passage, a low arcade
dral, begun ca. 1170 than solid walls. In the ambula- just below the clerestory, which added extra
tory, stone ribs support brick height to the nave. This element was retained in
Soissons Cathedral,
vaults—a technique that al- later Gothic churches, replacing the earlier tribune
south transept, begun
ca. 1180 lowed for minimal scaffolding gallery as the separation between the arcade and
during construction. the expanded clerestory above.
Gothic 1140–1520 The Birth of Gothic
 Notre Dame de Paris
Notre Dame de Paris is neither the tallest nor the
most extravagant of Gothic cathedrals but has a mo-
numental dignity and clarity of plan that has made
it an architectural icon. Later modified, the first plan
of Notre Dame was strikingly compact. A long nave
with a semicircular apse was embraced by a double
ambulatory that continued alongside the nave, for-
ming the side aisles. The transept projected only
128

129
slightly beyond the exterior walls, but did not inter-
rupt the rhythm of the aisles. Although the simplifi-
cation of form and absolute emphasis on verticality

Gothic in France
Gothic in France

of later churches is still muted at Notre Dame, its satisfying proportions and well-
integrated ornament unify the space. The scholastic movement influenced the
strict compartmentalization of early
Gothic works, but also introduced con-
trast into architecture—at Notre Dame,
slender shafts fall uninterrupted down
the height of the thin nave wall, but
stop abruptly, balancing on massive ca-
pitals.
Notre Dame, chevet with buttressing,
1163–1230, Paris
The flying buttresses at Notre Dame were among
the first of their kind and were modified during a
construction phase that enlarged the clerestory
windows. Architects sacrificed exterior clarity for in-
terior light, obscuring the exterior walls, and
making them less tangible and more mysterious.
Notre Dame, nave, after 1178, Paris
Full of contrast, Notre Dame has thin, transparent
nave walls, essential to the sublime light of Gothic
buildings, resting on monumental piers. The com-
plex problem of creating an illusion of weightless- Notre Dame, facade, not appear to rise fluidly from metrical figures: the square,
ness both inside and out is solved through the use 1200–50, Paris the soil, like Reims. Instead it is the circle, and the triangle, ar-
of light—the interior is dematerialized with light The facade of Notre Dame is an orderly and comprehensible ranged on a grid throughout
and the exterior with the complexity of shadow. anything but vertical. It does image based on primary geo- its elevation.
Gothic 1140–1520 Notre Dame de Paris
 Other Works Troyes Cathedral, crossing,
ca. 1230
Rayonnant and Flamboyant Abbey Church of Saint-Denis,
nave and transept, begun 1231,
Less concerned with height,
13th-century architects focused
Gothic in France Paris
Church of Saint-Urbain,
on refining the nave wall. By re-
choir and transept, begun 1262,
placing columns with groups of
1220–1500 Troyes colonnettes and running them
I Architects concentrated on details and ornamentation I Windows became
up the entire height of the wall,
Rouen Cathedral,
larger, with more glass I Interiors were brighter and felt more spacious north transept, west facade and they achieved progressively
towers, 1281–1500 more unified interior eleva-
tions. Vertical elements, like the
Palace of the Popes, 1335–51,
1220 Reims architect Jean In the Rayonnant style the early and High Gothic obses- Avignon clerestory tracery, elegantly
Le Loup first links the trifo- dropped down to pick up the
rium and clerestory
sion with height was replaced with a systematic refine- Saint-Maclou, begun 1434,
arches of the triforium below,
1226–70 Louis IX reigns in ment of detail. Smaller churches and chapels were built Rouen
132

133
uniting the levels.
France anew, while many existing buildings were modernized,
ca. 1230 First mature Ray- enlarged, or simply finished in the new style. The Abbey
onnant works appear at
Church of Saint-Denis was almost totally rebuilt, while

Late Gothic in France

Late Gothic in France

Troyes and Saint-Denis

1231–81 Abbot Suger’s Chartres Cathedral and Notre Dame de Paris received
choir at Saint-Denis is elaborate new transept facades. Rayonnant-style build-
linked to a west narthex ings were no longer demonstrations of religious fervor
with a new nave and
transepts but were concerned with more secular explorations of
1246 Sainte-Chapelle is architectural language. After over 300 years, the limits of
begun in Paris Gothic architecture were finally reached in the 16th-cen-
1254 Louis IX returns from
the Seventh Crusade tury French late Gothic style known as Flamboyant,
1337–1453 Hundred named after the extravagant flame-shaped tracery that
Years' War between Eng- filled the last Gothic windows, portals, and facades. The
land and France elaborate stone tracery of Flamboyant Gothic architec-
1500 Many early Gothic
buildings are finished in ture is usually fashioned after the same S-curved line that
late Gothic styles is found in much Gothic art.
Rouen Cathedral, detail of
the west facade, late 15th
century
The Flamboyant style was con-
cerned with surface treatment
rather than the structural or
spatial problems that had Sainte-Chapelle, vaults in over the young French nation. to the intricate metal reli-
mostly been solved during the the upper hall, 1246–48, Paris The pivotal objects legitimizing quaries made to carry these ob-
High Gothic period. By virtue of The Court style betrayed a that power were precious relics jects of medieval worship.
being added to existing build- growing secular influence on often brought back from the Above the parish church, the
ings, Flamboyant ornamenta- French ecclesiastical architec- Crusades. Many scholars point private upper hall was simpli-
tion was often only an appliqué ture. Louis IX was eager to build to the jewel-like quality of fied to one entirely glazed
of overlapping layers of tracery. a shrine asserting his power Sainte-Chapelle as a response space.
Gothic 1140–1520 Rayonnant and Flamboyant Gothic in France
 Gothic
Cathedrals
Medieval masons understood that forces in a building 2
1
could be expressed as directional loads, or vectors. The
structural feats in the construction of Gothic cathedrals 3

were a creative way of separating vertical and lateral

loads by redistributing spaces. Working with the same
design and construction methods used for centuries, 5
134

135
4
cathedral architects introduced innovations that were
pivotal to the development of Gothic planning. By

Gothic
Gothic

modifying the system of vaulting and using flying

buttresses, architects gained an unprecedented
freedom in plan. This created the Gothic aesthetic as
well as the structural 6
a support needed for
the new heights of
b cathedrals. 7

Legend: Reims Cathedral, plan,

1 Radiating chapels 1211–1311
c The four-part ribbed vault, the
2 Ambulatory
flying buttress, and the use of
3 Choir dead weight for stability revo-
lutionized medieval construc-
4 Crossing
tion. Gothic churches were
d 5 Transept based on sets of flexible struc-
6 Nave tural bays instead of the
monolithic barrel vault. Using
7 Narthex adjustable ribs, masons could
vary the proportions of each
a Transverse rib bay without affecting its
height. The geometry of the
e b Flying buttress pointed arch produced smaller
c Clerestory lateral loads and transferred
the vertical ones directly down
f d Triforium to the supporting columns. Reims Cathedral, main cathedral is composed of the rium that takes up the blind
e Buttress Any residual lateral forces were nave looking west, mid-13th
removed through flying but- following elements in ascend- space of the aisle roof, and fi-
f Main arcade century ing order: the arcade linking the nally the clerestory window
tresses connected to weighted
g
g Aisle pillars outside. The nave wall of a High Gothic nave with its aisles, the trifo- reaching up to the nave vault.
Gothic 1140–1520 Gothic Cathedrals
 Westminster Abbey
Henry III commissioned the rebuilding of Westmin- Westminster Abbey, begun
ster Abbey in the Anglo-French Gothic style. Preoccu- 1245, London
pied with geometry, Gothic buildings that were built Designed in direct reference to its
by French architects had plans based on regular French counterparts, Westmin-
grids, with an emphasis on height. The English Gothic ster Abbey included features
method instead presupposed long volumes that often absent from other English
were subdivided into various programmatic ele- cathedrals. A thin nave wall re-
quiring flying buttresses, an un-
ments. Westminster Abbey combined French height
138

139
obscured clerestory, and a chevet
and sleek proportions with English length, resulting
with radiating chapels were all
in a truly monumental space. Unlike in France, where borrowed from contemporary
royal functions were distributed between different

Gothic in the UK
Gothic in the UK

French models. Yet the English

buildings at Reims, Saint-Denis, and Paris, Westmin- combined traditional and experi-
ster Abbey was at once England’s coronation church, mental styles to distinguish West-
mausoleum, and national shrine. As part of a com- minster Abbey from its French
plex of buildings of which only Westminster Hall sur- prototypes. The prominent
vives, it was the most important church in England, transepts, subdivisions of spaces,
as well as the center of governance. and great length, typical even to
pre-Gothic plans, were combined
with an abundance of color and
variation in details that guar-
antied a distinctly English flavor.
Westminster Abbey, Lady
Chapel, fan vaulting, 1503–19
The lady chapel was often
added to the east ends of Eng-
lish cathedrals in honor of the
Virgin Mary. Although the
foundation stone was laid in
1220, this chapel was replaced
in the early 16th century. The
ceiling is an exquisite example
of fan vaulting, paralleled only
by King’s College Chapel at
Cambridge. The vaults’ stone
decoration conceals the struc-
tural ribs beneath lavish
hanging fan cones.
Gothic 1140–1520 Westminster Abbey
 Other Works
Fortified Cities Old Town of Ávila, founded
11th century, Spain
Carcassonne and Mont-Saint-Michel Monpazier, 1284, Pays-de-
1204–1448 Bergerac, France

I Present-day Mont-Saint-Michel and Carcassonne are the result of major Aigues-Mortes, rebuilt in the
restoration work I Restorations focused on Gothic and Picturesque qualities 13th century, France
I left: Crossing Tower, begun 11th century, Mont-Saint-Michel, France Citadella, 13th century, near
Vicenza, Italy
1204 New monastic build- The origins of fortified cites and towns are as varied as Caernarfon, 13th century, UK
ings are built at Mont- the places themselves. Some were ancient forts like Car- Historic Center of Avignon
Saint-Michel with exqui- with Fortified Papal Complex,
site Gothic vaulting cassonne, occupied and rebuilt by consecutive invaders.
146

147
13th and 14th century, France
1226 External defensive Others, such as the castles on the Loire, were villages and
walls are built around monasteries whose inhabitants built fortifications during
Carcassonne Mont-Saint-Michel, Tour Tied to France, but reaching out Mont-Saint-Michel, view
the violent 9th and 10th centuries. Still others were com-

Gothic Fortifications
Gothic Fortifications

de la Liberté, 11th–16th to England, its architecture from the east, 11th–16th

1262 The residents of Car-
cassonne are expelled by missioned by dukes or kings and built in one campaign as century, France reflects the remarkable tension century, France
the king after a revolt military outposts. Mont-Saint-Michel is a combination of The entire history of medieval that existed between the two The nave and transept of the
1270 The old chancel of all three, but due to its unique situation on an outcrop Anglo-Norman and later French countries. At Mont-Saint-Michel abbey church cross at the peak
Carcassonne Cathedral is accessible by foot only at low tide, it does not fit any one architecture is revealed on one opposites were reconciled. The of the mountain, where a tower
demolished to make room rocky outcrop named Mont- bold fortifications spoke of the both conquers and ennobles
for a new Gothic chancel, category completely. Carcassonne, on the other hand, is
Saint-Michel. Begun as a Bene- invincibility of its medieval the summit of the island. The
completed in the 1320s the definitive example of the ancient fortified city—a dictine abbey and Norman builders. Yet the same people Romanesque nave was sophis-
1448 The choir at Mont- spontaneous network of narrow winding streets leading military outpost during the prayed to God with humility, ticated for its time, with a light-
Saint-Michel is begun in up to a central castle or church. During the 19th century ness that anticipated Gothic
10th century, it sits in a shallow from fragile chapels balanced
the Flamboyant style to
replace the destroyed Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (p. 348) renovated Carcassonne, bay off the coast of Normandy. over cold waters. additions. The nave terminates
Romanesque choir restoring the city’s Gothic elements. with a sublime Flamboyant-
style choir almost as tall as the
Fortified City of Carcas- tower itself. Its spiky pinnacles
sonne, primarily 13th and 14th seem to grow out of the moun-
centuries, France tain island.
Carcassonne is one the oldest
fortifications in France. Located
on the site of a prehistoric hill-
fort, Romans later built stone
fortifications there during the
1st century BCE. Later, Visigoths,
Arabs, and Franks all occupied
and added to the fortress. The
existing castle, church, and
walls date back to the 12th and
13th centuries, when the town
acquired its picturesque me-
dieval look.
Gothic 1140–1520
 Siena Cathedral,
late 13th century
Late Gothic in Northern Italy The Siena Cathedral is intensely
ornamented. The facade has
1209–1420 white marble bands dominat-
I Gothic architecture made little impact in Italy I Gothic elements were
ing over thinner green inlays.
used as two-dimensional motifs in screen facades I Contrasting colors of Inside, the proportions are al-
marble resulted in striking polychrome walls tered, and equal value is given
I left: Milan Cathedral, pinnacles, after 1387
to white and green marble, cre-
ating an aesthetic that recalls
ancient Egypt. Leading
1209 St. Francis of Assisi Gothic architectural styles arrived late in Italy, and human- artists worked on further sculp-
founds the Franciscan ist Renaissance thought began early, resulting in Gothic tural ornamentation.
monastic order
architectural styles being only an inflection upon the pre- Other Works
150

151
1308–21 Dante Alighieri
writes The Divine Comedy dominantly Classical tradition. Even key buildings such
St. Maria Novella, begun 1246,
1348 Outbreak of the as the cathedrals of Florence or Siena were transitional Florence
Black Plague stops en- moments between the established Italian Romanesque

Gothic in Italy
Gothic in Italy

largement of Siena St. Francesco, 1250, Bologna

Cathedral and new Renaissance ideas. With the founding of inde- St. Croce, by Arnolfo di Cambio,
1386 Construction of the pendent city-states in the 13th and 14th centuries, the begun 1294, Florence
Milan Cathedral in the absolutist role of the church was greatly diminished. St. Francesco, Gothic rebuild-
Rayonnant style begins ing begun 1320, Siena
Italian cathedrals were often funded by the city or its oli-
1387–1401 Scholarly de- Orvieto Cathedral, by Lorenzo
bates take place over the garchy and built by civic consensus. The very nature of the Maitani, 1330
construction of Milan process prohibited powerful individuals such as Abbot
Cathedral Basilica of St.
Suger from materializing unified ideas of God and light in Milan Cathedral,
1420 Renaissance styles nave, begun 1386 Francesco d'Assisi,
are incorporated into Flo- vertical masterpieces of faith and political ego. Italian
The effect inside Milan 1228–53, Assisi
rence Cathedral Gothic styles were often highly ornate and colorful.
Cathedral is mystical. A simple Latin cross in
Milan Cathedral, facade, Shadows are cast on plan, the monastery
begun 1386, completed early the heavy pillars that contains upper and
19th century march down the cathe- lower pilgrimage
Milan Cathedral was poised to dral’s five wide aisles. churches. Splendid
be the masterpiece of Italian Unusual hexagonal frescoes cover the
Gothic architecture. Architects column capitals with interior.
and scientists from Italy, France, large statues top the
and Germany were invited to continuous row of
discuss and contribute to the pillars.
proposed plans of 1387. Con-
sensus was hard to reach, as the
architects defended their own
building cultures and styles as
being superior methods. The
Neo-Gothic facade was com-
pleted only in the early 19th
century.
Gothic 1140–1520 Late Gothic in Northern Italy
 Shwezigon Other Works
Pagoda, 11th century,
Southeast Asia near Bagan, Myanmar Bapuon Temple,
ca. 1060, near Angkor,
The Shwezigon Pagoda Cambodia
Angkor Wat and Bagan was the archetype for
ca. 1090–ca. 1430 Ananda Temple,
later pagodas in the re-
ca. 1090–1105, Bagan,
I The Bagan kings and the Khmer of Cambodia were contemporaries I Over
gion. Gilt in gold leaf, Myanmar
the temple is not en-
2,000 religious structures were built in Bagan Mahabodhi Temple,
tered by worshippers,
I left: Angkor Wat, detail, early 12th century, near Siem Reap, Cambodia mid-12th century,
but is rumored to hold Bagan, Myanmar
relics of the Buddha.
ca. 1090 King Kyanzittha The Khmer and Bagan kingdoms occupied large areas Preah Khan
begins construction of nu- Ancient City of (Lokesvara Temple),
roughly equivalent to present-day Cambodia and Bagan, 12th–13th after 1180, Angkor,
merous temples based on
the Shwezigon Pagoda Myanmar (Burma). Although the sites are now accessible centuries, Myanmar Cambodia
154

155
1113–50 Reign of Surya- to tourists, political turmoil has made it difficult to con- Made of bricks from the Dhammayazika
varman II; Angkor Wat duct archaeological research and comprehensive restora- Pagoda, ca. 1196, near
dusty soil on which
built in the capital city of Bagan, Myanmar
tion programs. As a result, much remains to be discov- they stand, thousands

Around the World: Southeast Asia

Around the World: Southeast Asia

the Khmer Kingdom Gawdawpalin

ered about the relationships between architecture and of domed structures
1177 Angkor reconquered dot the plains of Bagan. Temple, late 12th cen-
after being attacked by the local religious practices. At Angkor Wat, geometry played tury, Bagan, Myanmar
The stupas, pagodas,
Chams a major role in defining the layout of the main temple de- Bayon Temple, early
and temples are built in
1181 King Jayavarman VII voted to Vishnu. According to Hindu beliefs, the square 13th century, Angkor,
converts to Buddhism and many different archi-
was the ultimate celestial form. Multiplying, dividing, su- Cambodia
builds Angkor Thom over tectural styles.
the ruins of the old capital perimposing, and layering the square was the answer to
1287 Bagan is sacked by constructing the perfect building. At Arimaddanapura,
the Mongols which was the capital of the kingdom of Bagan (also
ca.1430 Khmer abandon known as Pagan), the stupa, a form of burial mound, was
Angkor Thom after the
kingdom is sacked by the reinterpreted to produce complex domed shrines to
Thai Buddha, and temples were built by the wealthy.
Angkor Wat, early 12th
century, near Siem Reap,
Cambodia
The largest of many Hindu
temples built in the an-
cient Khmer capital,
Angkor Wat is a layered
rectangular compound
surrounded by a wide
moat. Rich with detail and
highly symbolic, it is
meant to evoke both a
mandala rising from the
primordial ocean and
Vishnu’s mountain abode.
Gothic Southeast Asia
 Bet Amanuel, 12th century

Rock Churches of Lalibela The churches at Lalibela are ex-

tremely varied in style. Built in
three major groups—a north-
ca. 1185–1270 ern, western, and eastern
I Rock-hewn and cave churches existed in Akum, Tigray, and Lalibela in group—they seem to draw on
Ethiopia I The Lalibela monoliths were entirely isolated from the sur- Classical, Byzantine, and Islamic
rounding rock I The churches have been use since the 13th century architecture while also incorpo-
I left: Bet Ghiorgis (St. George’s Church), early 13th century
rating several traditional
Ethiopian aspects into their de-
signs. Bet Amanuel is part of the
ca. 1185 King Gebre The rock-hewn churches at the Ethiopian town of Lalibela eastern group. Its symmetric
Mesqel Lalibela ascends to rank among the most interesting interpretations of archi- and Classical facade dividers
the Ethiopian throne mimic an actually built struc-
1187 Jerusalem is recap- tectural tectonics and of the very nature of building. The
156

157
ture. The church is thought to
tured by Muslims; King 12 churches cannot really be classified as buildings, for to have possibly been a royal
Gebre Mesqel Lalibela build means to assemble something larger from smaller chamber.
orders the carving of
elements. Instead, these churches are enormous carvings

Around the World: Ethiopia

Around the World: Ethiopia

several rock-cut churches

hewn out of solid red volcanic rock, presumably with Other Works
in Lalibela to create a new
Jerusalem hammer and chisel. Although laborious, the process of Bet Medhani Alem, 12th–13th
ca. 1229 King Gebre making the churches was straightforward. Huge centuries
Mesqel Lalibela dies; Bet Bet Mascal, 12th–13th
Ghiorgis (St. George’s trenches were dug around the corners of the monoliths,
centuries
Church) may have been which were then carved inside and out to mimic cornices,
commissioned as a me- Bet Denagel, 12th–13th
morial church; legend
pilasters, columns, and lintels—elements that usually play centuries
states that St. George structural roles in buildings, but that here are purely or- Bet Golgotha Mikael and King
oversaw the construction namental. Despite their sculptural qualities, structural sta- Lalibela’s Tomb, 12th–13th
1270 End of the Zagwe bility must have been an issue in creating the churches, centuries
dynasty, which had ruled Bet Mercoreos, 12th–13th
this area of Ethiopia since since the hollowed monoliths cause stress to the rock
centuries
the 9th century through compression and, more importantly, tension.
Bet Mariam, 12th–13th Bet Ghiorgis (St. George’s
centuries Church), early 13th century
The Rock Churches of Lalibela Bet Ghiorgis was the last church
are part of a system of tunnels, to be built at Lalibela and is
passages, crypts, and water fea- dedicated to St. George, the
tures. Bet Mariam (the Church national saint of Ethiopia. Fash-
of Mariam) sits in the middle of ioned on a cruciform plan re-
a large court carved directly out sembling a Latin cross, the
of the volcanic rock terrane. It is church is in an 82-square-foot
connected by a narrow passage (25-square-meter) pit that is
to Madhane Alam, the largest of reached via a tunnel. The
the churches, which bears a church was carved atop a three-
striking resemblance to a Greek tiered base and, as with tradi-
temple, with its sloping roof tional Ethiopian churches, has
and peristyle. three west-facing doors.
Gothic Rock Churches of Lalibela
 Renaissance
1490–1530 1220–1620 1519–1598 Around the World:
High and Late Renaissance Renaissance India and East
Renaissance in Western p. 205 on the Iberian Asia
in Italy Europe Peninsula In India, architects of the
Mughal empire were
Classical styles are rede- Italian Renaissance styles Gothic styles remained greatly influenced by
160

161
veloped and modernized; are adopted in varying de- strong in Spain and Por- Islamic and Persian styles.
Mannerist architecture grees throughout the UK, tugal, which were greatly Meanwhile, in East Asia,
develops France, and northern influenced by the Moorish terraced temples,
Europe; countries appro- tradition. During the late palaces, and fortresses
Giuliano da Sangallo
p. 173

priate the styles to their Renaissance the Desorna- were built with swooping
p. 178 own building traditions mentado style developed eaves

1420 1450 1500 1550 1600 1620

1420–1490 Donato Bramante p. 176 Pierre Lescot 1500–1620 Pedro Machuca

Michelangelo Buonar- Cornelis Floris de Juan Bautista de Toledo
Early roti p. 180 Vriendt Renaissance in Juan de Herrera
Renaissance Baldassare Peruzzi Robert Smythson Central and
p. 196 Lieven de Key
in Italy Raphael p. 184
Eastern Europe
The rediscovery of Michele Sanmicheli Italian architects were

p. 217
architectural styles from p. 194 brought to Germany,
antiquity transforms Jacopo Sansovino p. 186 Austria, Poland, and
Italian architecture Giulio Romano p. 190 Bohemia by wealthy pa-
Andrea Palladio p. 192 trons in order to mod-
Filippo Brunelleschi Vincenzo Scamozzi ernize central and eastern
p. 168 p. 188 European residences
Leon Battista Alberti
p. 172 Jacopo Strada
Alberto Luchese
Lüder von Bentheim
Georg Ridinger

p. 211
p. 199

Elias Holl
 Filippo Brunelleschi
1377, Florence–1446, Florence
I Leading builder of domes in Florence I His technical prowess and
knowledge of the architecture of antiquity gained him great prestige
I Developed a system by which he could measure the dimensions of a
room exactly, thereby becoming a pioneer of freestyle perspective

1377 Born in Florence Filippo Brunelleschi is one of the key figures of Renais-
1392–98 Trains as a sance architecture. Although his early works were still
goldsmith
very much related to Gothic designs, he later developed
168

169
1402 Participates in a con-
test for the two bronze an individual architectural style that combined elements
doors of the Florentine from Tuscan Romanesque and Gothic—such as massive
Baptistery, but his design
pillars, lancet arches, and medieval ornamentation—with

Early Renaissance in Italy

Early Renaissance in Italy

loses to Ghiberti’s
1402–04 Travels for his a formal style from antiquity—columns, elegant pillars,
studies to Rome, probably and geometric forms and proportions. Brunelleschi es-
with Donatello
1415 Creates his first linear
tablished fixed mathematical and technical principles in
perspective drawing, his designs. He was able to make a clear break with the
greatly influencing both styles of Gothic architecture with the design and con-
art and architecture
1417 Designs a cupola for
struction of the massive dome of the Florence Cathedral
the Florence Cathedral (p. 170). Brunelleschi was also an innovator of perspective
1446 Dies in Florence drawing and construction techniques. Ospedale degli Innocenti, 1424–45, Florence
Other Works Pazzi Chapel at Brunelleschi’s design of the Ospedale degli Inno-
St. Croce, 1429–61, centi, an orphanage, included a nine-part loggia,
Palazzo di Parte Florence or gallery, that is arcaded with composite arches
Guelfa, 1421–22, that mix the Classical orders. In contrast to Gothic
Florence This small chapel was
one of the first cen- arches, half-circle arches are used, spanning a
Sagrestia Vecchia wider space and creating a more geometric fa-
(the Old Sacristy) of
trally planned con-
structions of the cade. As with many of his other buildings,
St. Lorenzo, 1421–40, Brunelleschi was concerned with mathematic
Florence Renaissance. The
and geometric precision in the design.
Barbadori Chapel at
arcaded facade’s
St. Felicità, 1423–25, middle cupola mir- Basilica of St. Lorenzo, 1420–69, Florence
Florence rors the shape of the Brunelleschi linked elements of local building
Palazzo Busini, before main interior space. tradition with elements of the architecture of an-
1427, Florence The inner chamber tiquity. The evenly arranged windows allow a
was originally consistent amount of light into all the sections of
St. Maria degli Angeli,
1434–37, Florence planned as a burial space, which was an innovation from medieval
chapel for the family architecture. The combination of gray sandstone
St. Spirito, 1434–82, Flo-
of the benefactor, structures and white plasterwork is one of
rence
Andrea de’ Pazzi. Brunelleschi’s trademarks.
Renaissance 1420–1620 Filippo Brunelleschi
 The Dome of Florence Cathedral
In 1294 the citizens of Florence decided to build a new
cathedral. As one of the richest Renaissance city-
states, Florence was able to afford a building of phe-
nomenal size. Filippo Brunelleschi’s (p. 168) bold
dome, designed after most construction had finished,
was a groundbreaking achievement in engineering.
The design relied on the law of physics that two cor-
relating, inclined structures will mutually support one
170

171
another. Brunelleschi positioned bricks in an overlap-
ping ring arrangement, using a fast-drying mortar to
join them in a herringbone pattern. He was therefore

Building Techniques
Building Techniques

able to abandon traditional methods of scaffolding.

Composed of two shells, the
inner shell supports the weight
of the outer shell. This system
was first developed in antiquity.
Ten marble columns, inter-
twined within the structure,
also help support the dome.

Filippo Brunelleschi: design competition in 1418

Dome of Florence Cathedral, with his piecemeal herring-
1420–36 bone-patterned dome. Almost
The Florence Cathedral is a immediately builders faced the
monument to a city’s self-confi- problem of constructing the
dence. Following decades of building’s curvature, because
architectural standstill, the citi- an architect had never before, The enormous height of the The dome reflects the Floren- dome stood at the forefront of fourth-largest Christian cathe-
zens of Florence decided in not even during antiquity, been dome was increased through tine topography, influenced by modern cathedral design. At dral in the world, following St.
1357 to push ahead with the able to erect a circular room the construction of an octag- the communal spirit of the city, 502 feet (153 meters) in length, Peter’s Basilica in Rome, St.
construction of the massive that could span a 138-foot onal foundation. Large round centralized around and united and 125 feet (38 meters) in Paul’s Cathedral in London, and
cathedral. Brunelleschi won the (42-meter) diameter. windows illuminate the dome. by the church. Brunelleschi’s width, the cathedral is the the Milan Cathedral.
Renaissance 1420–1620 The Dome of Florence Cathedral
 Ideal Urban Planning
1450–1593
I The styles of antiquity inspired Renaissance urban planning I Earlier
cities were reorganized I Utopian plans for ideal states were popular yet
seldom realized I Rich citizens patroned massive building campaigns that
reshaped Renaissance Europe
Pierro della Francesca: ized both art and architecture ideal—a city constructed in
1450 Alberti writes De Re Cities were the central stages of power during the Renais- Ideal City, ca. 1470, Galleria during the Renaissance. accordance with the rules of
Aedificatoria, in which he sance. The technical and artistic developments of the Ren- Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino Through this innovation archi- perspective—is harmonious
subordinates residential tects were able to envisage and balanced. Because Renais-
needs to the overall plan aissance were adopted in the construction and planning The technique of using linear projects in an orderly fashion sance architects looked back to
174

175
1484–85 Leonardo da of new cities, as architects sought to create a better world. perspective, attributed to the and create more accurate drafts antiquity as the age of reason
Vinci plans a city equipped Strong building laws were passed, which were upheld by Italian artist and architect Fil- and studies. This 15th-century and order, they adopted similar
with infrastructure
architect guilds. Palaces constructed by the new noble ippo Brunelleschi, revolution- painting of the Renaissance styles in their own ideals.

Renaissance
Renaissance

1527 Dürer sketches plans

for a fortified ideal city classes took over city landscapes, replacing small work- Bernardo Rossellino: Palazzo
1547 The German city of shops and market stalls. Streets and alleyways became Piccolomini, 1459, Pienza
Jülich is codesigned by an centrally organized according to rules of perspective, and
Italian architect
Pope Pius II rebuilt his hometown of
1554–71 Sabbioneta in
cathedrals, castles, palaces, and town halls were moved Pienza in 1459, including the construc-
Parma, Italy, is built as an into the center of the city. The discovery of gunpowder tion of Palazzo Piccolomini on the
“ideal city” drove builders to fortify their new cities with trenches and town square. Nearby the palace he also
1593 Scamozzi sketches erected a cathedral, an episcopal
bastions in order to create more easily defendable cities.
the fortified town of Pal- palace, and a town hall, framing the
manova, one of the few Consequently Renaissance cities often resembled mighty trapezoidal piazza. The cathedral stood
“ideal cities” realized mountains in terms of their size. in the center, around which all building
Piazza Ducale, member Sforza dynasty of Milan. located on the upper floor, while axes were oriented. Rossellino mod-
1492–94, Vigevano Thought to have been designed businesses were at street level. eled his designs for the Palazzo
by Bramante, the piazza is sur- The elongated space is nearly in Piccolomini on Leon Battista
Vigevano was rebuilt be- Alberti’s Palazzo Rucelai
rounded on all three sides by the ideal proportions of 1 : 2, and
tween 1492 and 1494. The facades that are all uniformly de- the city’s main street gives on to in Florence.
town received its new signed and aligned. The houses of the square through an arcade that
piazza under the order of wealthy citizens were found here. unites the entire area.
Ludovico il Moro, a Residential areas were

Other Works
Rome’s Water Supply Infra-
structure, redesigned by
Leon Battista Alberti, ca. 1450
Central Plan of Florence, by
Giorgio Vasari, ca. 1555
Mannheim Gridded Layout,
1606, Germany

Renaissance 1420–1620
 St. Peter’s Basilica
At the beginning of the Renaissance, St. Peter’s Basilica was still the ancient St. Peter’s Basilica, facade after the drafts of and the papal bureau. There was also an aes-
basilica that Constantine I built. Within a few decades, however, one of the might- Carlo Maderno, and Michelangelo’s dome, thetic problem: the facade should practically re-
1607–12, Rome main in the background, so as not to obstruct
iest and largest cathedrals in the world was built. In 1455, the initial plans for the
Carlo Maderno was only able to construct the the view of Michelangelo’s magnificent dome.
expansion of the church’s foundations were prepared, and before long they de- To solve these problems, a two-story cross
facade after great difficulty. The nave of the
veloped into a gigantic new construc- structure was built using the Corinthian
church was exceptionally wide, and the in-
tion project. Many famous architects cumbent Pope Paul V required that there order. Second-floor windows provide a
worked on the over 200-year-long be a structural link between the vestibule platform for papal speeches.
development and planning of the
182

183
cathedral, including Bramante (p. 176),
Raphael (p. 184), Michelangelo (p. 180),
and Bernini (p. 230). Each architect con-

Late Renaissance in Italy

Late Renaissance in Italy

tributed innovative ideas and drafts of

ever-increasing size and magnificence.
Early drafts featured a centralized floor
plan with four arms of equal length.
From 1605 to 1621, under the direction
of Carlo Maderno, St. Peter’s Basilica
acquired its present form. From the
standard design of a church with a
cross-shaped floor plan grew an enor-
mous central nave with lateral rows of
columns.
Michelangelo conceived the powerful, 433-foot-
(132-meter-) tall dome over the putative grave of
St. Peter the Apostle. A gigantic windowed
drum soars above the round floor plan, upon
which the arch of the dome sits. After the
death of Michelangelo in 1564, the di-
rection of the dome’s building was
passed on to Giacomo della Portas.
The floor plan of St. Peter’s Basilica
spans an area of about 50,000 square
feet (4,645 square meters), large enough
for 60,000 people. The layout changed from
a Greek cross to a Latin cross as the floor plan
evolved with each successive architect who
took on the project.
Renaissance 1420–1620 St. Peter’s Basilica
 Andrea Palladio
Andrea di Piero della Gondola
1508, Padua–1580, Vicenza
I The most significant Renaissance architect and theorist I Initiated new
rules of villa architecture I Revolutionized Venetian church facades using
temple motifs from antiquity I Influenced architects throughout the world

1508 Born in Padua Proportion, symmetry, and the allusion to elements of an-
1521 Begins an appren- tiquity are the distinguishing hallmarks of Andrea Pal-
ticeship in Vicenza to be-
ladio’s architectural style. His designs have clear floor
192

193
come a mason and
sculptor plans and characteristically symmetrical facades with pil-
1538 Becomes ac- lars, pilasters, porticoes, pediments, and mezzanines. Pal-
quainted with the human- ladio adopted proportion and symmetry from his ancient

Late Renaissance in Italy

Late Renaissance in Italy

ists in northern Italy, via

Count Giangiorgio Roman predecessors, traveling several times to Rome in
Trissino order to study ancient Roman styles. His greatly influen-
1541 Undertakes the first tial reinterpretation and publication of the proportions
of four trips to Rome and symmetry of Roman architecture, use of two-story fa-
1570 Publication of the
architectural treatise The cades, hierarchically ordered columns, and sculptural
Four Books of Architecture floors were functionally appropriated to the needs of
Villa Capra (La Rotonda), corridors lead from all four forms within his plan and fol-
1580 Dies in Vicenza people during the Renaissance. 1566–91, Vicenza columned halls to the central tur- lowed the format of ancient tem-
Other Works by Palladio As the principal example of reted room. Palladio combined ples, opening the building to
Italian villa architecture, the villa’s orderly square, circular, and cubic the surrounding landscape.
Villa Pisani, 1544, Bagnolo
Villa Cornaro, 1552–54,
Villa Barbaro, 1554, Maser
Piombino Dese, Treviso
Casa Antonini, 1556, Udine
The villa’s two-story columned
St. Pietro di Castello, 1558, entrance, lined with Ionic and
Venice Corinthian columns, gives the
St. Giorgio Maggiore, 1562, villa a grandiose appearance
Venice that is visible from the street.
St. Francesco della Vigna, 1562, The decorative interior merges
Venice living quarters and work areas
through the duplication of the
Villa Cagollo, 1565, Vicenza
main floor and the open unity
between the side wings and en-
Villa Poiana, Palladian architecture. Five small ment. Due to the patron’s family trance. The main floor was de-
ca. 1545–50 Poiana windows comprise the mezzanine history, which had a long military signed to look like an ancient
Maggiore, Vicenza level, and the facade’s central and tradition, Palladio refrained from Roman atrium—a style popular
The villa’s facade demon- flanking parts are symmetrically using elaborate decorations so as with the oldest members of the
strates the chief motifs of proportioned, united by the pedi- to make the villa appear fortified. aristocracy.
Renaissance 1420–1620 Andrea Palladio
 French Châteaux
1494–1620
I Ecclesiastic architecture retained late Gothic styles for a long time I French
royalty was particularly well disposed toward new ideas I Châteaux became
models for noble residences throughout Europe I Developments included
the corps de logis and intricate lighting effects in galleries

1494 The French invasion Gothic styles remained popular for a long time in France.
of Italy reveals the Italian The Italian Renaissance style was first adopted into French
Renaissance to France
châteaux in the Loire River valley and, by 1530, was the
198

199
1515–47 Reign of
François I, under whose popular style for all noble houses. New constructions
patronage many Italian ar- rarely featured extensive ornamentation, but were struc-
chitects come to France
turally intricate, like their Gothic predecessors, and there-

High Renaissance in France

High Renaissance in France

ca. 1520 Châteaux of the

Loire River valley are built fore intricate looking. Floor plans departed slowly from
by France’s wealthy elite the divided layouts of Gothic architecture, but gradually
1531 Formation of the first a uniquely French style developed. Châteaux consisted
School of Fontainebleau of a complex of buildings centered around a square-
and the popularization of Château Chambord, château architecture. The often included four round
Italian interior décor shaped inner courtyard, enclosed on all sides. The corps
de logis, or central main building, contained living quar- 1526–37, Loire Valley densely concentrated orna- corner towers with conical
1535 Pierre Lescot begins
work on the Louvre ters and was usually flanked by a striking staircase and The Château Chambord’s roof is mentation, including sculpted roofs, gabled dormer windows
1547–59 Italian Catherine comprised of over 300 towers, leaves and lilies, is reminiscent that break through the plane of
decorative secondary rooms. In contrast to secular build-
de’ Medici is married to gables, and chimneys, creating of Gothic ornamentation. the roof, and simple rectan-
the French king Henry II ings, French churches of the Renaissance era kept true to a stunning example of French French Renaissance designs gular crossbar windows.
1620 Marie de’ Medici their Gothic roots, as their arched style developed into
Château Chambord, floor
popularizes Baroque styles the Flamboyant style. Renaissance architecture plan
Château Chambord, Despite its multifaceted facades
staircase, 1526–37, Loire and elaborate roofing, the floor
Valley plan of Château Chambord is
The double-helix staircase extremely symmetrical. Four
runs openly through the large corridors extend in a cross
center of the château’s formation from the central
floors. Two parallel shafts elaborate staircase on each
allow for undisturbed floor, into living space. Living
movement from top to spaces are also found within
bottom. The staircase the round towers located at the
stands out as the center building’s corners and at the
point of the castle, and is quadratic core of the build-
surrounded by the long ing—the corps de logis—in a
windows of the central similar style to a medieval
towers. castle.
Renaissance 1420–1620 French Châteaux
 Northern Renaissance
ca. 1500–ca. 1630
I The northern bourgeoisie preferred Gothic gabled houses, and late Gothic
and traditional styles continued to dominate I City residences were occupied
by governors because regional princes of the north spent their time traveling
I Architecture in the north developed more slowly than other artistic forms

ca. 1500 Belgium and the The Renaissance began in northern Europe about 100
Netherlands are at the years later than in Italy. Gothic elements such as gazebos,
forefront of European
trade, prompting wealthy balconies, gates, and delicately decorated facades re-
206

207
merchants to build estates mained common in the north until that point. An indi-
1543 The Rossum family vidual variety of architecture developed in Belgium and
constructs residences in
the Netherlands that was different than the architecture

Renaissance in Belgium and the Netherlands

Renaissance in Belgium and the Netherlands

Renaissance styles in
Amheim, Vaasen, and found in Renaissance Italy. The designs of small middle-
Zaltbommel class homes with tall sliding gates and simple floor plans
1572–80 After winning in- changed little with the passage of time. Belgian and
dependence from Spain,
the Netherlands develops Dutch architects typically utilized elements from antiq-
Cornelis Floris de Vriendt: Cornelis Floris de Vriendt, who However, northern architectur-
its own styles of architec- uity only as decoration. Thus, northern European architec- Town Hall, 1561–64, Antwerp had traveled to Rome, drafted al features, such as the separate
ture; cities, guilds, and in- ture remained largely the same until the early 16th
dividuals fund new town This town hall was one of the the town hall in the Renais- tower portion of the facade and
halls and banks century—when the first architectural texts relating to first buildings to mimic the hori- sance style. A ground floor ar- a highly ornamented entrance-
ca. 1630 Baroque styles Roman architectural styles appeared and Italian styles zontal outlines found in Italian cade placed atop square bases way, remained, and were com-
emerge were sporadically adopted in the north. palaces. The Flemish architect is indicative of Italian influence. bined with the new styles.

Other Works Lieven de Key: Vleeshal Old Civil Registry, 1534–37,

(Butchery), tower design, Brugge
Palace of Margaret of 1602–04, Haarlem The acade of the Old Civil Reg-
Austria, by Rombout II
Lieven de Key was one of the istry unites elements of antiq-
Keldermans, begun 1507,
most famous architects in the uity with late Gothic styles,
Mechelen
Netherlands during the Renais- creating a striking Renaissance
Palace of the Prince sance. In the Vleeshal, his de- facade. The symmetrical align-
Bishops of Liège, signs blend popular northern ment, Classically ordered
1526–38 styles, such as the gabled roof, columns, and sculptural figures
Salm Inn, 1534, with Italian Renaissance influ- on the roof indicate Roman in-
Mechelen ences, such as polychrome fluences. Divided
Oude Kerk, tower, facades like those found in pilasters along the building’s
by Joost Jabsz Bilhamer, Siena and Florence, and portrait length and the gabled roofs
1566, Amsterdam friezes. Quoining, or the white, emphasize the remnants of late
accentuated corner stones, Gothic and French styles that
Leiden Town Hall,
shows the adaptation of pop- long remained popular in
facade, ca. 1597–1600
ular French styles. Dutch and Belgian architecture.
Renaissance 1420–1620 Northern Renaissance
 Iberian Renaissance
1519–1598
I Gothic architecture remained the preferred building style longer in Spain
and Portugal I Elements of Moorish architecture were revived I The
Italian Renaissance had relatively little influence I In the late Renaissance,
intricate ornamentation styles were replaced by simpler, stronger forms

1519 King Charles V Renaissance architecture of the Iberian Peninsula was a

avoids Moorish styles dur- mix of various styles. Early Renaissance architecture com-
ing his reign; instead, Ital-
ian architectural models bined Moorish and Gothic styles. It was only with the
210

211
are preferred onset of the 16th century that an original style called Plat-
1556–98 During Spanish eresque emerged. The word comes from the silversmith
absolutism under King
trade and characterizes the rich, ornate, filigree decora-

Renaissance in Spain and Portugal

Renaissance in Spain and Portugal

Philip II, the unadorned

Desornamentado style do- tive elements of Spanish and Portuguese architecture.
minates Sumptuously modeled medallions, animal heads, es-
1567 Juan de Herrera, cutcheons, and small finials decorate the often simple
Spain’s most important
Renaissance architect, monumental buildings. Another direction in architecture, Palace of Charles V, from the Moors. For this reason, Spanish Renaissance architec-
takes over the building of the Desornamentado style, developed concurrently with 1527–68, Granada any Moorish influences were ture. The two-level circular inte-
el Escorial after the death avoided in the design. Elements rior is reminiscent of ancient
of Juan Bautista de Toledo the Plateresque style. Demure yet ornately adorned com- The palace of Charles V, situ-
ated in the Alhambra of Gran- from antiquity, repopularized villas, and the floor plan of
1598 The Plateresque positions are representative of this latter, unique form of
ada, was intended to be a mon- by the Italian Renaissance, be- Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli. The
style evolves into Baroque Spanish architecture. came the chief architectural palace contained an arena for
ument for the Reconquista, or
Other Works the seven-and-a-half-century- features. The large center tower bullfights, modeled on the
long process by which Catholics in the middle of the square- Colosseum, in which the audi-
Tower of Belém, 1515–21, Lisbon, reclaimed the Iberian Peninsula shaped palace was unique to ence sat in the upper gallery.
Portugal
Jerónimos Monastery,
Granada Cathedral, ca. 1523,
16th century, Lisbon
Spain
Alcázar of Toledo, 1537, Spain
Jerónimos Monastery is fash-
ioned in the Manueline style.
La Giralda (Bell Tower), 1568, King Manuel I, influenced by
Seville, Spain discoveries overseas, commis-
Castle Aranjuez, facade, 1571, sioned buildings decorated
Aranjuez, Spain with nautical imagery. The style
São Vicente de Fora, begun 1582, bridges the Portuguese Gothic
Lisbon, Portugal and Renaissance styles. Typical
sculptural motifs include cruci-
El Escorial, 1561–81, library, palace, and tomb for constructed in a realistic, chaste fixes, royal emblems, and col-
near Madrid Spanish kings and was situated in style and is considered the chief umns featuring depictions of
The largest castle in Spain the geographic center of Spain. example of Desornamentado aquatic plants, anchors, knots,
was a monastery, church, The gray granite composition was architecture. and shells.
Renaissance 1420–1620 Iberian Renaissance
 Giovanni Battista di
Quadro: Poznan Town Hall,
Eastern Europe 1536–60
After a fire in 1536, a new fa-
1458–1618 cade in the Italian style was
I Cultural exchange arose between the courts of Italy and eastern Europe erected in front of the remains
I Slavic princes had cities built in a pure Italian style I East European Ren- of the Poznan Town Hall. The
aissance grew under the Jagillonian royal dynasty I Matthias Corvinus, citizens of Poznan hired Gio-
king of Hungary in the 15th century, was an important patron of the arts vanni Battista di Quadro, a
Polish-Italian Renaissance archi-
tect, to build the project. He ap-
1458–90 Hungary’s king, In eastern Europe local princes and kings commissioned plied the basic form of the
Matthias Corvinus, com- castles, palace chapels, and churches. Educated and well- northern Italian loggia, such as
missions buildings in the those that are found at Piazza
Italian Renaissance style travelled, they were aware of the developments of the
212

213
St. Marco in Venice and at An-
1518 King Sigismund I Italian Renaissance and the architectural theories of antiq- drea Palladio’s Palazzo della Ra-
marries Bona Sforza, who uity and comissioned work from Italian architects. Italian gione in Vincenza—a porticoed
brings Italian architects arches, slender pilasters, the Classical orders, and floor- colonnade, open only on one

Renaissance in Eastern Europe

Renaissance in Eastern Europe

and artists to the Polish-

plans overtook local building traditions. Imperial connec- side—to the Polish town hall.
Bohemian court
tions with western Europe brought further influences Three consecutive loggias, sur-
1526 The Hapsburgs in- rounded by archways, decorate
herit the kingdoms of from Germany, the Netherlands, and France. the monumental facade. The
Bohemia and Hungary; art
and architecture flourishes top story forms a slightly set-
at all the Hapsburg courts back, windowless half-story,
1541 The Ottoman army renowned for its unusual
invades eastern Europe height—because of this, the
and destroys many town hall is known as the
Renaissance buildings, “Polish attic.” This attic level is
particularly in Budapest highly ornamented with images
1618 The Thirty Years’ War of kings, a clock, and doors from
begins which two mechanical goats
come out to battle at noon.
Other Works
Belvedere (Royal Summer
Vladislav Hall in Palace), 1538–63, Prague
Hradschin, by Benedikt
With the building of the
Ried, 1493–1502, Prague
pleasure castle of Ferdinand I,
Bakócz Chapel, begun the Belvedere was built as part
1507, Esztergom, Hungary of the complex, in the model of
Villa Hvezda, 1555–58, Francesco Fiorentino: Wawel Italian noble castles and the a summer residence. The build-
near Prague Royal Castle, 1504–48, Kraków Roman Vatican Palace as a model. ing is in the center of flower
The five-cornered inner courtyard The head architect, Francesco gardens. Elegant rows of arch-
Large Ball Court in Royal
of the Polish royal palace marks a Fiorentino, came from Florence. ways open onto the gardens
Gardens, by Boniface
Wolmut, 1567–69, Prague high point of European Renais- At around the same time, the from the ground floor, in a style
sance architecture. A multiple- Sigismund Chapel in the choir of similar to the architecture of
Armory, 1593–1612,
story courtyard surrounded by Kraków’s Wawel Cathedral was Brunelleschi’s Spedale degli In-
Gdansk, Poland
columned arcades was built using built in full Italian style. nocenti hospital in Florence.
Renaissance 1420–1620 Eastern Europe
 Mughal Empire
1530–1707
I Architecture of the Mughal period combined Hindu and Islamic building
styles I The tolerant mind-set of the Mughal emperor led to architectural
diversity I Technical building innovations from Persia were adopted
I Luxury and wealth were displayed through decorative splendor

1530 Humayun becomes The influence of Islamic and Persian architecture became
Great Mughal of India and even stronger in India under the sovereignty of the first
invites Persian artists to his
palace; three-sided Mughal rulers. The Persian-Islamic-influenced culture of
214

215
vaulted niches, called these foreign rulers first started to combine itself with ele-
iwan, become character-
istic elements of almost all ments of Indian architecture after 1526. Mosques, tombs,
Mughal architecture and palaces of the early Mughal period merged Hindu ar-

Around the World: India

Around the World: India

1540 Under Sher Shah, chitectural tradition with Islamic ornamentation and in-
local building styles be- novations. Elements of Islamic architecture, such as the
come more prominent
1556 During Akbar’s reign, pointed arch, the onion-shaped dome, minarets, and mo-
the court workshops in saic decorations started to supersede the plentiful num-
Agra, Delhi, and Fatehpur bers of intricately detailed figures of older Hindu temples.
Sikri are centers of activity
for artists and architects Technological advances accompanied the new style of
1638 Shah Jahan moves architecture, and it became possible to build even larger
Mausoleum of Sher Shah, plan, the dome and its lotus- Mausoleum of Humayun,
the capital from Agra to structures, such as the construction of high-walled ca. 1540, Sasaram shaped tip, inner arcade, and 1564–72, Delhi
Delhi domes, throughout India. The usage of Indian red sand-
1707 End of the reign of The mausoleum is located on corner pavilions on the defense The monument mixes Persian
Aurangzeh, the last Great stone inlaid with white marble and semiprecious stones top of a two-tiered quadratic wall are all characteristic of In- elements, like the double-
Mughal to commission imparted a distinctively Indian colorfulness to Mughal terrace in the center of an artifi- dian tombs constructed in the shelled dome and layered décor,
large-scale architecture. cial sea. The octagonal floor Mughal Empire. with Indian red sandstone.
architectural
works Panch Mahal Palace in gardens, a marketplace, a water- Other Works
Fatehpur Sikri, 1569–74 works and innumerable roofed
Grave of Isa Khan, ca. 1548,
Following the model of streets, staircases, and terraces
Delhi
Islamic urban planning, were assembled into one complex
Red Fort, after 1565, Agra
multi-level palaces, in the city of Fatehpur Sikri. The
five-story palace of Panch Mahal is Akbar’s Palace in Ajmer,
1570–72
situated directly in the middle of
the entire ensemble. The palace Jama Masjid, 1571–74,
Fatehpur Sikri
bears witness to the two oppo-
sing styles of architecture in India Akbar’s Mausoleum, 1613,
Sikandra
during this period—the figurative
architecture of Hinduism and the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula,
1628, Agra
geometric style of Islam.
Renaissance Mughal Empire
 Baroque
1550–1770 1650–1770 1650–1770
Italian Baroque Baroque in Iberian Baroque
Baroque architecture Central and Baroque architecture
develops in Italy; oval
floor plans and convex Eastern Europe is popular in Spain and
Portugal and is exported
and concave surfaces In Germany, Austria, and to the colonies in the
create dynamic Bohemia, Baroque is
220

221
Americas
buildings developed by wealthy
families João Frederico
Pietro Berrettini da
Cortona p. 234 Johann Bernhard Ludovice
Giacomo Barozzi da Fischer von Erlach p. 248 Niccolo Nasoni
p. 242

p. 267
Vignola p. 228 Jakob Prandtauer p. 252 Eufrasio López de Rojas
1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800
Gian Lorenzo 1550–1770 Johann Dientzenhofer 1715–1790 Around the World:
Bernini p. 230 p. 250
Francesco Borromini Baroque in Jan Santini Aichel Rococo Islamic, Ottoman, Japanese,
p. 232 France and Johann Balthasar Rococo architecture and and Latin American
Neumann p. 254 interior decoration is
the UK Kilian Ignaz flamboyantly decorative Architecture
The French king Louis XIV Dientzenhofer Johann Lukas von Islamic and Ottoman architecture
adopts Flamboyant Giovanni Alliprandi develops intricate domes;
Hildebrandt
Baroque styles, and the Japanese architecture
Filippo Juvarra develops the Shoin and
mansard roof is popula-
rized; in the UK, the style Johann Michael Fischer Sukiya styles;
slowly gains popularity François de Cuvilliés Latin American
Francesco Bartolomeo churches adopt
Francois Mansart p. 236 Rastrelli p. 270 Baroque
Louis Le Vau p. 240 Philippe de La Guêpière styles
Jules Hardouin Mansart
p. 238
Nicholas Hawksmoor
p. 249

p. 277
Sir John Vanbrugh
p. 264
p. 235
 Other Works by Borromini
Francesco Borromini Cappella del St. Sacramento,
1627, Rome
1599, Bissone–1667, Rome Palazzo Spada, 1632, Rome
Oratory of St. Phillip Neri, 1637,
I Fascinated by geometry and Galileo I Began his career by assisting Rome
Carlo Maderno I Used interlocking oval and triangular floor plans in the
Maria dei Sette Dolori,
designs of his churches I Extravagant, individual style and technique 1642–48, Rome
I Played with decorative features on domes I Lifelong rival of Bernini
Palazzo Pamphili, 1645–50,
Rome
1599 Born at Lake Lugano Francesco Borromini was born at Lake Lugano in Switzer- St. Giovani in Laterano,
in Bissone, Switzerland 1646–49, Rome
land and was the son of a mason. He moved to Rome at
1619 Goes to Rome, Villa Falconieri, 1648, Frascati
where he works with his the age of 15 and initially worked with his relative Carlo
232

233
relative Carlo Maderno Maderno on St. Peter’s Basilica. After Maderno’s death he St. Carlo alle Quattro
1629–32 Works with worked with Bernini (p. 230), but they developed a fa- Fontane, 1634–68, Rome
Bernini on St. Peter’s and
mously fierce rivalry that persisted throughout Borro- The corner church is an early

Baroque in Italy
Baroque in Italy

Palazzo Berberini, which

contributes to his lifelong mini’s life. His architecture was derived from idiosyncratic example of Borromini’s extrava-
jealousy gant style. The floor plan is
methods and imaginative planning, and his buildings
1634 First independent based on interlocking ovals,
commission at St. Carlo, came to represent the extravagant and dramatic mood of with walls that seem to snake
which exhibits his unique the Baroque. His unconventional genius can be seen in his
style around the alter and chapels.
use of complex spatial compositions, where he used a The concave-convex facade un-
1642 Begins Palazzo di
Propaganda, which indi- system of interlocking triangles and ovals to create a dulates, despite the four
cates Gothic influences sense of movement where surfaces were clearly static. straight columns on each floor.
1644–55 Reign of Pope In- Both the interiors and the exteriors of his many projects Niches and statues are inte-
nocent X, who was favor- grated into surfaces, and the
able to Borromini for Pope Innocent X combine geometric rationalism dome is coffered with designs
1655 Innocent X dies; Bor- with imaginative dramatics. of stars and crosses.
romini loses commissions With the death of the Pope,
1667 Commits suicide and
is buried in his last project, he lost many if his commis-
St. Giovanni dei Fiorentini sions and fell out of favor.
St. Ivo was built for the university, St. Agnese in Agone, 1653, duce a long axis parallel to the
and so many of the elements, Rome facade. This precedes the pop-
such as the spire and layout, ular oval dome that came to
symbolize wisdom. Built at the St. Agnese in Agone was built
signify the Baroque style. The
end of the courtyard, the concave to commemorate St. Agatha.
concave facade supports a
facade merges with the sur- Borromini worked on the
high drum, and the dome is
rounding buildings but reflects church after the death of Giro- framed by two towers that are
the extra complexity of drum and loma Rainaldi, changing the
dome. The church’s layout is of northern Italian influence. It
entry points and incorporating is one of the more restrained of
based on two triangles that form
Palazzo Sapienza and parts of the Pamphili Palace. Borromini’s designs. As with
a hexagonal center and six-
St. Ivo alla Sapienza, pointed star, and the dome com- While still a circle, the ground several of his other works, Bor-
dome and facade, bines rational geometry with plan takes the form of a Greek romini lost the commission
1640–60, Rome Baroque dynamism. cross, as the deep chapels pro- when Innocent X died.
Baroque 1550–1790 Francesco Borromini
 Jules Hardouin Mansart
1646, Paris–1708, Marly
I Great-nephew of François Mansart and developed his ideas about space
and light I Official architect to Louis XIV I Was chief architect at Versailles
after Louis Le Vau I His buildings symbolized the power of the monarchy
I Was adaptable to the tastes of his clients

1646 Born in Paris Jules Hardouin Mansart inherited the legacy, name, and
1675 Appointed the royal architectural plans of his great-uncle François Mansart
architect to Louis XIV
(p. 236). He studied with Libéral Bruant and worked in the
238

239
1678 In charge of the
extensions at Versailles, French Baroque style. As director general of the Maison du
continuing from Le Vau Roi, he oversaw the construction of the royal palaces and
1685 Appointed to the town planning projects. Following Louis Le Vau’s

Baroque in France
Baroque in France

position of premier archi- (p. 240) initial extensions, he built grandiose facades at Ver-
tect for the king
1699 Appointed superin- sailles to suit the monarchy’s taste for power and prestige.
tendant of buildings Adaptable, he could also build with elegant simplicity. His
1690s Works on the inte- dome at Les Invalides is one of the largest in the world.
rior decoration at Ver-
sailles, Trianon, and Marly
1698 Designs Place
Vendôme
1708 Dies in Marly, near
Paris

Other Works
Pavillion de Manse, Château de Marly, 1679–1686, Marly-le-Roi Dome of Les Invalides,1679–91, Paris
1659–89, Auvergne The Marly Château was designed to be a Hardoin Mansart worked with Libéral Bruant
Château de Saint- retreat for Louis XIV away from the pressures at the veterans’ hospital and continued the
Germain-en-Laye, of court life. Hardouin Mansart built a project after Bruant’s death. Les Invalides’s
1663–82, near Paris small palace to house the king and his large ribbed dome dominates the build-
Château de Dampierre- family, but it soon grew to include ing’s structure. He raised the columned
en-Yvelines, 1675–83, elaborate gardens, cascades, and 12 drum area of the dome by adding an
Dampierre-en-Yvelines
separate pavilions for guests. The extra attic level above the cor-
Place des Victories, château had frescoes painted by nice, creating one of the
1684–86, Paris
Charles Le Brun, a decorative greatest examples of
Pont Royal, 1685–89, Grand Trianon, 1687–88, to ground level, becoming the balustrade, and over 200 sta- Baroque architecture.
Paris Versailles first “French windows.” These win- tues that depicted ancient Within, the dome
Château de Meudon, dows opened the structure out
1695, Meudon
At the Grand Trianon, an elegant gods and goddesses. A so- dominates the
open colonnade known as a peri- into the garden. Hardouin Man- phisticated hydraulic interior as the cen-
Place Vendôme, 1698, sart also designed the fountains
Paris style connects the royal apart- system supplied water to terpiece of the
ments. The windows reach down linking the interior and exterior. the garden fountains. chapel.
Baroque 1550–1790 Jules Hardouin Mansart
 Johann Bernhard Fischer
von Erlach
1656, Graz–1723, Vienna
I Leading architect during the Hapsburg era I Brought Italian Baroque styles
to central Europe I Combined influences from antiquity, Europe, and the Orient

1656 Born near Graz One of the most prominent Austrian architects, Fischer
1672 Travels to Italy, where von Erlach came from an artisan family, and his son, Jo-
he meets Bernini and stud-
ies sculpting and archi- seph, completed his final buildings after his death. At a
248

249
tecture young age he moved to Italy, where he trained as a
1687 Returns to Austria sculptor. There he was also exposed to the architecture of
and is appointed court ar- Borromini (p. 232), Bernini (p. 230), and Palladianism, and

Baroque in Germany and Austria

Baroque in Germany and Austria

chitect
1696 Knighted this was to affect his building style. Following the defeat
1704 Travels to Germany, of the Turks at the Battle of Vienna, the Hapsburg impe-
the Netherlands, the UK, rial family wanted an architecture that would display their
and Venice power. Fischer von Erlach’s grand facades and Baroque
1707 Builds Palais Clam
Gallas in Prague splendor encapsulated their aspirations. As court archi-
1721 Publishes Entwurf tect for three emperors he built many triumphal palaces
einer historischen Archi- and churches. He also built spectacular secular buildings,
tektur such as the Vienna Hofbibliothek, or Central
1723 Begins Vienna Hofbi-
bliothek, which is com- Library, with its grand main room. He also
pleted by his son published an influential book recording
1723 Dies in Vienna world architecture.

Other Works Kollegienkirche,

1694–1707, Salzburg
Schloss Frain, 1690–94,
The College Church
Moravia
was one of the three
Dreifaltigkeitskirche, churches built for the
1694–1707, Salzburg prince-bishop of Salz-
Stadtpalais, 1695–98, burg, along with the
Vienna Church of the Trinity
and Ursulinen. It has a
Ursulinenkirche, pitched dome and
1699–1705, Salzburg high cupola with a Church of St. Charles, Erlach referenced other two Trojan pillars, with spiral re-
Batthyany Palais, ca. 1700, convex facade, and is 1716–30, Vienna structures, such as the the liefs, creating a dramatic en-
Vienna a combination of a
longitudinal and a St. Charles is one of the grand- dome from St. Peter’s and the trance. The low, wide front and
Palais Trautson, 1710–16, portico from the Parthenon. huge dome also create vertical
centrally planned est churches of the Baroque pe-
Vienna
church. riod. In his design, Fischer von The central bulk is framed by and horizontal movement.
Baroque 1550–1790 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach
 Baroque Dynamism
Much of the Baroque style was about creating spec- Borromini: St. Carlo alle
tacle and illusion with new methods of design and Quattro Fontane, 1638–41
construction. The straight, rigid lines of the Renais- The innovative use of compli-
sance were replaced by flowing curves, projections, cated interlinking ovals, rather
and recesses. Domes and roofs were enlarged, and than circles or lines, in ground
plans was reflected in the un-
frescoes used complicated trompe l’oeil techniques dulating walls. Simple cruci-
to create the illusion of height and depth on flat sur- form layouts were also treated
faces. Light and shadow were used to create dramatic anew—lengthening naves and
260

261
effects on virtually every type of surface. Buildings placing ellipses or triangles
were full of dark niches, narrow enclaves, and corners. over the crossings. This resul-
ted in a combination of con-
Contrastingly, well-lit protruding pilasters, high win-

Baroque Aesthetics
Baroque Aesthetics

cave and convex surfaces and

dows, and hidden created dynamism in static
sources of illu- walls. These bulges appeared
mination produced both on the interior and exte-
light, shadow, and rior facades. At St. Carlo, the
undulating sur- placement of columns, sta-
tues, and decorations empha-
faces, which cre- sizes the movement of the
ated the Baroque curves.
aesthetic.

Roehampton Great House,

1625, London
English architects who learned
Baroque styles and techniques Bernini: Cornaro Chapel in Cornaro Chapel, with his re- reflect the gilded rays penetrat-
while in Italy on a grand tour St. Maria della Vittoria, Rome, markable sculpture depicting ing the statue, so that they ap-
tended to apply them less ex- 1647–52 St. Theresa of Avila in a state of pear to glow. The colored
travagantly once they returned Bernini’s talents as an artist en- religious ecstasy. The mood and marble contrasts with the an-
home. The curved facades of abled him to work with sculp- exhalation of the work is em- gelic white of the sculpture. The
Borromini and Bernini are used ture and color in a remarkable phasized by different sources of chapel is set up like a stage,
here for secular architecture, manner. Inside the St. Maria light. Bernini placed hidden with figures of the Cornaro fam-
creating a complex floor plan. della Vittoria lies Bernini's windows with yellow glass to ily watching from the sides.
Baroque 1550–1790 Baroque Dynamism
 Bartolomeo Rastrelli
1700, Paris–1771, St. Petersburg
I Prominent architect in Russia I Worked in High Baroque and Rococo
styles I Court architect during the reign of Peter the Great I Favorite archi-
tect of the empresses Anne and Elizabeth I Designed facades with bright
colors and lavish decoration I Fell out of favor with Catherine the Great

1700 Born in Paris Of Italian origin, Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli was

1715 Moves to Russia chiefly responsible for the style that came to be known as
1722–30 Travels to Italy Russian Baroque. Son of the architect and sculptor Carlo
270

271
and France to study archi-
tecture Bartolomeo Rastrelli, he arrived in Russia from France at
1730 Appointed senior the age of 15. He was appointed senior court architect
court architect and was popular with Empresses Anne and Elizabeth. His

Baroque in Russia
Baroque in Russia

1730s Earliest indepen- style was influenced by French and Italian Baroque, but
dent building in Mitau
(now Jelgava, Latvia) the monumental linearity of his designs and his grand,
1764 Catherine the Great colored facades were fitting for the royal buildings of a
prefers the Neoclassical powerful new nation under Peter the Great. His interiors,
style, and his commissions
decline
as well as his exterior stucco decorations, were in a lavish
1771 Dies in St. Peters- Rococo style. He often used light and mirrors, and he in-
Winter Palace, 1754–62, By adding a double layer of co- visual effect. Many artisans
burg structed a large school of artisans. St. Petersburg lumns, the height of the three- were employed on this large-
Other Important Works by Rastrelli The grand Winter Palace embo- story palace seems to increase. scale building project. Three
dies the rising greatness of the Stone statues adorning the ba- large arches lead from the pa-
St. Petersburg Voronostrov, 1749, lustrade and decorative vases lace square through to the
Russian court through Rastrel-
Summer Palace, 1741, St. Petersburg
St. Petersburg li’s design and spatial planning. on the vertical axis add to the inner ceremonial courtyard.
Stroganov Palace,
Hermitage at Cathe- Catherine’s Palace, 1756,
1753, St. Petersburg
rines Palace, 1746–52, near St. Petersburg
near St. Petersburg Grotto at Catherine’s First built by J. F. Braunstein, Ca-
St. Andrew’s, 1747–67, Palace, 1755–56, therine’s Palace was given an
Kiev near St. Petersburg elaborate Baroque redesign by
Rastrelli in 1756. The palace was
Smolny Cathedral, 1748–57, St. Petersburg extended, and stucco decora-
The Smolny Cathedral, on the banks of the Nova tions and gilded columns were
River, is the center of a convent complex and was built onto the exterior facade. It
constructed as a residence for Empress Elizabeth. was said that 220 lbs (100 kg) of
The blue and white color-washed stucco stands gold was used. The interior was
out on the perfectly proportioned structure, given a Rococo finish, and
playing with the senses. It is surrounded by four included grand rooms such as
domed churches, which form a cross. Rastrelli’s the Mirrored Ballroom and the
plans for a tiered belfry were never executed. famous Amber Room.
Baroque 1550–1790 Bartolomeo Rastrelli
 Ottoman Empire
1512–1770
I During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire included Turkey,
the Middle East, and parts of North Africa I Süleyman the Magnificent
oversaw many new building projects I Sinan was the best-known architect
of the Ottoman era I The mosque complex was an integral part of Islamic life

1512 The architect Mimar Under Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–1566), both the
Sinan goes to Istanbul and
learns engineering Ottoman Empire and the arts and architecture flourished.
1530s Sinan’s miltary ex- Architecture was a combination of Byzantine influ-
274

perience exposes him to ences—such as domes and colored glass—and European

the architecture of the influences—the Italian Renaissance. Mosques were built
Middle East, Africa, and
in the Islamic style and were often inside a larger com-
Architecture of the Ottoman Empire

Rhodes
1539 Sinan is appointed plex, or camii, consisting of minarets, domes, and the wall
architect of Istanbul by the facing Mecca, the kibla. Decoration consisted of intricate
grand vizier
1588 Sinan dies tiling and limestone carvings. Mimar Sinan, the great Ot-
1703–57 Turkey’s Tulip toman architect, built over 300 buildings and helped to
era, in which public spaces create the dramatic skyline of Istanbul with his slender Mimar Sinan: Selimiye Mosque, 1569–75, in that its minarets were the tallest in the Ot-
were built, and the begin- minarets and staggered domes. Sinan aimed for a unified Edirne, Turkey toman era, and the interior has an innovative
ning of Baroque mosques mihrab, a niche in the kibla wall, which can be
interior space and experimented with supports, vaulting, The Selimiye Mosque is considered Sinan’s mas-
1770 Westernized tastes terpiece, because its interior is a unified space of observed from everywhere in the prayer hall. The
change architecture and arches. Secular buildings included bazaars and kiosks. mihrab is large enough to allow for windows,
clear geometry. The massive dome is supported
Other Works Mimar Sinan: Süleymaniye by eight pillars, and four semidomes round off which illuminate the glazed tiles on the interior
Mosque, 1551–58, Istanbul the building’s corners. The complex was unique with natural light.
Köse Hüsrev Pasa
Following in the grand style of Mimar Sinan: Şehzade
Mosque, by Mimar Sinan,
the Fatih complex, the Süley- Mosque, interior, 1544–48,
1536–37, Van, Turkey maniye Mosque is a large com- Istanbul
Sultan Süleyman plex for prayer, culture, and ed- The Şehzade complex was
Mosque, by Mimar Sinan, ucation. It consists of one of Sinan’s earliest works
1563, Damascus symmetrical groups in geo- and an architectural ingenuity.
metric shapes. Four minarets The mosque exhibits his work-
Sokollu Mehmed, by
stand in the four corners, and a manship and advanced con-
Mimar Sinan, 1570–74,
large main dome is flanked by struction skills. Created on a
Istanbul two half domes. As in the square plan, four half domes
Laleli Mosque, Byzantine Hagia Sophia, the Sü- flank the large central domed
1760–63, Istanbul leymaniye’s dome is separated building. Four tall piers round
from its supports by a row of into arches and assist in the
Zeynep Sultan
windows. The mosque symbol- dome’s support. The asymmet-
Mosque, by Mehmet Tahir
izes the grandeur of the empire rical central plan is repeated in
Ağa, 1769, Istanbul
and of Istanbul. the courtyard.
Baroque 1550–1790 Ottoman Empire
 Hikone Castle, 1603–22, Shiga

Japanese Architecture The original five-floor tenshu, or “tower,”

of the Hikone Castle was removed,
leaving only three floors. The
1568–1657 building has three moats,
I Predominant Japanese architectural styles are Shoin and Sukiya I The rela- remarkable roof gables,
tionship between exterior and interior spaces was an important stylistic and lotus-shaped
element that influenced structural elements I Gardens and water were im- upper windows.
portant I Sliding doors and screens were often incorporated into residences

1568 During the Azuchi- In 17th-century Japan, the Shoin and Sukiya styles devel-
Momoyama period, forti- oped in the defensive designs of castles, temples for
fied architectural elements
are prominent due to the prayer, and private residences. Sukiya architecture con-
276

277
political climate sists of simple materials and proportions creating a har-
1603 The Edo period monious relationship between interior and exterior
begins, under which struc-
spaces, and was heavily influenced by the designs of tea-

Around the World: Japan

Around the World: Japan

tural and stylistic innova-

tions appear in traditional houses. During Japan’s Edo period, a series of fires in the
architecture capital required massive rebuilding campaigns. In order
1614 Christianity is for- to construct easily rebuilt houses, the government spon-
bidden, and the construc-
tion of Christian sored the building of simple wooden houses. In the reli-
churches ends gious sector, Shoin architecture was employed in Bud-
1641 All foreigners are dhist monasteries, which had functional requirements
banned from Japan until
1853, ending cultural such as contemplative areas with water and gardens. The
exchange between the structures often had sliding decorated screens and
East and West wooden floors. In 1868 castles were destroyed, but
1642 Toshitada renovates Hikone Castle is one of the few remaining examples of
the Katsura Imperial Villa
1657 Great Fire of Meireki
fortified architecture.
destroys most of Edo Katsura Imperial Villa, interior and
(today Tokyo) exterior, 1620, Kyoto Other Works
This villa was first built by Prince
Toshihito as a moon-watching re- Toshogu (Mausoleum of
treat, and its construction Tokugawa Ieyasu),
was continued by his early 17th century, Nikko
sons. The building is Nijo Castle, 1601–03,
composed of untreated Kyoto
wood and tree trunks.
Sukiya-style elements Sento Imperial Palace
such as the balanced Gardens, begun 1629,
proportions of the wall Kyoto
panels were added to Shugakuin Imperial Villa,
give the building a har- begun 1655, Kyoto
monious aesthetic.
Baroque Japanese Architecture
 St. Domingo, 1731,
Oaxaca, Mexico
Baroque in Latin America The St. Domingo de Guzmán
church consists of a complex of
1650–ca. 1770 buildings and was founded in
I The Baroque style was brought to Latin America with European colonia- the 1570s by the Dominican
lism I In Mexico, the Spanish introduced the Churrigueresque style, which order. The sober Baroque
was adapted and used widely I Mining towns like Ouro Preto had many facade conceals an elaborate
Baroque churches I Style retained its popularity until Neoclassicism interior, which is one of the
best examples of Mexican High
Baroque. The many chapels sit
1650–60s Spiral pilasters Baroque architecture was brought to Latin America by alongside gilded plaster orna-
are introduced to Peru the colonizing powers of Spain and Portugal. Francis- ments and towering columns.
from Spain The ceiling decoration shows
1657–73 Monastery of St. cans, Dominicans, and Jesuits were all to leave their mark
278

279
the lineage of St. Dominic.
Francisco precedes a new on the ecclesiastical architecture and religious art of the
wave of the Mudéjar style St. Francisco Church at built in nearby Acatepec in local materials to an art form.
region. The discovery of gold and silver played a large
1664 Jesuit shrine on Acatepec, 1730, Cholula, Puebla, a region famous for its Yellow, blue, and green tiles
role in bringing European architectural styles to what

Around the World: Latin America

Around the World: Latin America

Plaza des Armas is the first Mexico local ceramics. Made from the adorn the red-brick facade of
in the late Baroque style were previously remote villages. The Brazilian school of In the 16th century, nearly 400 local azulejos, or hand-painted this Churrigueresque church.
1698 First example of an Baroque was heavily influenced by Portuguese styles. churches were built to replace tiles, the talevera ceramics can Even the large doorway is cov-
independent Peruvian- Antonio Francisco Lisboa, known as Aleijadinho, was a the Aztec temples destroyed by be seen on many of the remark- ered in tiles and carvings.
Bolivian mestizo in La the exploratory party of Hernán able facades and domes of the The interior is excessively or-
Compañía Church leading Brazilian architect, sculptor, and painter who
built many churches in the Ouro Preto region. Mexican Cortés in the town of Cholula. buildings in the area. St. Francis, nate, with gilded and plaster
1730s Architect Aleija- in particular, elevates the use of decoration.
The St. Francisco Church was
dinho, or “Little Cripple,” Baroque architecture was especially influenced by the
born in Brazil adaptation of the Spanish Churrigueresque style, which
1749 Metropolitan Sac-
risty has tapering pilasters
resulted in highly decorative facades. Late Baroque spiral
ca. 1770 Most Baroque columns (salomónica) were imported from Spain, and ta-
projects are completed pering pilasters (estípite) were widely used. In Puebla,
Catedral Metropoli-
tana, 1667, Mexico City,
Mexico
The Catedral Metropoli-
tana is one of the largest in
the Western Hemisphere.
The lower levels of the fa-
cade, with their twisted
columns, volutes, and stat-
ues, are High Baroque,
while the Classical towers
were added later. The side
chapel is in Churrigue-
resque style. There are five
naves, and the church
forms a cross.
Baroque Baroque in Latin America
 Neoclassical Styles
Although Neoclassicism was influ- Karl Friedrich Schinkel:
enced by the Classical styles of Altes Museum, 1823–30, Berlin
Greece and Rome, these were Schinkel learnt to draw detailed
adapted and developed in Neo- perspective drawings as a result
of his study trips to Italy. His
classical architecture. During the drawings of the Altes Museum
17th century, discoveries in sci- had great influence on the ar-
ence, mathematics, and astronomy chitecture of the time.
influenced building techniques. It is no wonder that
290

291
one of the first great Neoclassical architects, Christo-
pher Wren (p. 292), was a renowned scientist and
physicist. Wren’s St. Paul’s Cathedral in London used

Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism

an innovative three-layered construction to support

the weight of the dome. Experiments in perspective
and optics also resulted in new ways of planning.
Light and color were used with mirrors and skylights.

Giovanni Paolo Pannini: and the return to Classicism Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Karl Friedrich Schinkel: than solely ecclesiastical ones. temple, are instead used as a
Gallery Displaying Views of was a reaction against the ex- Friedrichswerder Church, Altes Museum, 1823–30, Berlin The rotunda and dome of place to venerate art and cul-
Ancient Rome, 1758 cesses of Baroque and Rococo 1824–30, Berlin The dome and rotunda were Schinkel’s Altes Museum in ture—the museum. Inside the
Giovanni Paolo Pannini’s paint- styles. Columns and domes Schinkel’s perspective drawings prevalent features in Neoclas- Berlin is directly influenced by, rotunda, pillars and Greek
ings show the public fascina- were often used, and there was only assisted in the planning of sical architecture, but unlike the and refers to, the Pantheon in sculptures are displayed among
tion with the ruins and temples a renewed focus on remaining the church, but give the viewer styles popular during the Rome. However, in this instance the art, and the square cof-
of ancient Rome. Antiquity was Classical buildings, such as the an impression of its size from a Baroque and Rococo eras, they the drum, rotunda, and dome, fering lightens the weight of
seen as an age bound to reason, Pantheon and Colosseum. human-scaled point of view. were used for buildings other although painted like a Roman the dome.
Neoclassicism 1640–1850 Neoclassical Styles
 Sir Christopher Wren
1632, Wiltshire–1723, London
 Renowned British architect  Respected scientist, mathematician, and as-
tronomer  Influenced by Bernini and Vitruvius  Oversaw the construc-
tion of 51 new churches following the Great Fire of London  Built under
four British sovereigns  Designed academic, royal, and church buildings

1632 Born in East Knoyle, Christopher Wren was born in Wiltshire and studied at
Wiltshire
Oxford. Most renowned as an architect, he also success-
1661 Appointed Savilian
Professor of Astronomy at fully engaged in mechanics, biology, optics, and astron-
292

293
Oxford omy and was a founder of the Royal Society. Having read
1665 Travels to Paris and Vitruvius, he developed an interest in architecture and
sees Bernini’s designs for
visited Bernini in Paris. Shortly after his redesign for St.

Neoclassicism in the UK
Neoclassicism in the UK

the new Louvre

1665 Builds College Paul’s Cathedral was accepted, the Great Fire destroyed
Chapel at Cambridge, his both the church and much of London. Wren was selected
first commission to rebuild not just the church, but also the city. For 50
1666 Great Fire of London
years he was the king’s surveyor and approved 51 new
1669 Appointed king’s
surveyor of works churches. Although not all were built to his designs, they St. Paul’s Cathedral, crowned by a spire. Crowning Old Royal Naval College,
1670 Appointed surveyor were all Classical in form. Wren built Kensington Palace 1674–1710, London the intersection of the church’s 1696–1712, Greenwich
for building the city and Hampton Court Palace for William of Orange. He was transepts, the dome includes
churches Wren had to modify his plans The Old Royal Naval College at
able to combine constructive ingenuity and reason for St. Paul’s Cathedral many three layers. The external aes- Greenwich was originally built
1685 Enters Parliament
and House of Commons with aesthetics. He was knighted and is buried in times to satisfy the medieval thetic wooden dome, which as a navy hospital. It is in the
tastes of the church. The final stands 365 feet (111 meters) English Baroque style, with four
1723 Dies in London St. Paul’s, under his own spectacular dome.
result differed from his original high, is supported by an inner blocks centered around a court-
Sheldonian Theater, design and is constructed on a brick core that separates it from yard and views of the Queen’s
1663, Oxford Latin cross with a large dome the interior cupola. House.
The Sheldonian Theater
was only Wren’s second Other Works by Wren
completed building, but War Memorial, 1671–77,
nevertheless typifies his London
style. Designed in the form St. James, 1674–87, London
of a classic Roman temple,
Royal Observatory, 1675,
the theater is based on the Greenwich
theater at Marcelles.
Trinity College Library,
Wren’s ingenuity and 1676–95, Cambridge
draftsmanship can be seen
in the roofing, where he St. Clement Danes, 1680,
London
developed a new kind of
timber truss with a span of Royal Chelsea Hospital, 1681,
London
72 feet (22 meters).
Neoclassicism 1640–1850 Sir Christopher Wren
 Konzerthaus on Gendar- encing these styles, he there- perspectives and illusions to
menmarkt,1819–21, Berlin fore elevated a cultural building enliven the Classical design.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel Built on the foundation of the
to a position of historic impor- Whereas earlier theaters were
tance. It is situated between laid out in a hierarchical
1781, Neuruppin–1841, Berlin Langhans Theater after it burnt
two churches and accessed by manner, with attention focused
down, Schinkel’s Schauspiel- grand stairs leading up to a por- on the perspective from the
I Architect, painter, and set designer I Helped to define the look of the haus, or “theater,” (now a con- tico of the Ionic order. The inte- king’s seating area, at the Kon-
German capital I Used Gothic Revival and Classical influences to create a cert house) was based on the rior was a simplification of ear- zerthaus on Gendarmenmarkt
Neoclassical style I Held Romantic perceptions of nature and existence designs of the Parthenon and lier extravagant Baroque the seating was arranged in
I Designed and directed at the esteemed Building Academy in Berlin heavily influenced by Hel- elements and a circular shape, providing
lenistic architecture. By refer- uses multiple great views.
1781 Born in Neuruppin Karl Friedrich Schinkel designed churches, theaters, and
1794 Moves to Berlin academies in a Neoclassical style, symbolically elevating
1803 Tours Italy, France, not just religious buildings but also places of culture,
308

309
and Austria
1816 Builds royal guard- learning, and public life. He lived and studied architec-
house in military style with ture with David Gilly and his son Friedrich, who had a
Doric portico large influence on his work and ideas. A remarkable

Neoclassicism in Germany
Neoclassicism in Germany

1821 Publishes Erste Vor-

bilder für Fabrikanten und
painter, he depicted idyllic landscapes based on his Euro-
Handwerker with Peter pean travels. These images were published and greatly
Beuth influential for later generations of artists and architects.
1826 Goes to England and During Napoléon’s occupation, Schinkel painted theater
is impressed by industrial
technology sets, including for the acclaimed Magic Flute by Mozart,
1836 Building Academy and spectacular dioramas and panoramas for the Gropius
opens in Berlin family. His theater experiences would later inform his
1840 Reign of Friedrich plans and buildings. He came to the attention of the
Wilhelm IV, the “architect
king” Prussian court and Friedrich Wilhelm IV, and received
1841 Dies in Berlin commissions for royal furnishings as well as for Queen
Altes Museum, Tegel Palace, 1821–24,
1823–30, Berlin Berlin
Built between the Prussian Schinkel remodeled the original
Palace and the cathedral, palace of 1550 for the wealthy
the New (now referred to Humboldt family. Not only did
as Old) Museum has a he add Classical elements to the
colonnade of 18 Ionic building itself, but he also
columns sheltering its worked on the landscaping,
staircase. The second-floor changing the original Baroque
rotunda is connected to a gardens to Neoclassical ones.
cubic attic and a monu- The Neoclassical style was
mental hall. The Altes Mu- better suited to the building’s
seum takes the form of a purpose—showcasing the
loggia, from which one family’s extensive collection of
can look out over the Lust- sculptures and objects from
garten (pleasure garden). antiquity.
19th Century Karl Friedrich Schinkel
 Industrial
Architecture
With 19th-century advancements in coal and steam Gustav Eiffel and Stephen
energy, new materials such as cast iron, glass, and Sauvestre: Eiffel Tower,
steel were being produced at an accelerated rate. This 1885–89, Paris
signaled the birth of industrial architecture, as archi- The Eiffel Tower was originally
tects and engineers had easier access to materials. built as a temporary attraction
The Galerie des Machines of
328

329
for the World’s Fair of 1889, yet
Utilitarian, public venues became more important, the 1889 Paris World’s Fair
it has come to be the most rec-
and needed to be durable. The popularity of World’s showcased the new methods of
ognized landmark in Paris. Engi-
Fairs resulted in spectacular temporary exhibition construction. Ferdinand Dutert

Building Techniques
Building Techniques

and Victor Contamin built a neer Gustav Eiffel collaborated

halls in Paris and London. Art Nouveau and Neo- with the architect Stephen
374-foot (114-meter) hall of
Gothic styles adorned these new temples of the metal and glass. The tall roof Sauvestre. The tower is a cele- Construction techniques for
future, as cities spread outward and upward, sup- had no central supports, but bration of iron as a building tool the Eiffel Tower came from ex-
ported by new and robust materials. Architects and was created using a three- and set a precedent in demon- pertise learned from the rail-
engineers collaborated, paving the way for modern hinged arch structure. strating the durability and ele- road industry. The tower is a
gance of the material. The large replica of a viaduct pylon
high-rises and skyscrapers. tower is 1,010 feet (308 meters) and consists of a system of
An icon of industrialization, Joseph Paxton’s tall and weighs 7,000 tons. The girders. It was prefabricated
Crystal Palace was constructed to house the weight is evenly distributed to and riveted together on-site
first Great Exhibition in London. A testa- its four supports. using cranes.
ment to industrial materials, it was
composed of nearly 300,000 panes
of glass on wrought iron fra-
ming, and was assembled on-
site from prefabricated ele-
ments.

19th Century Industrial Architecture

 John McArthur Jr.: granite and brick and is
Philadelphia City the tallest occupied
Second Empire in the USA Hall, begun 1871, masonry building in
Philadelphia the United States. The
1855–1880 steep tower was an in-
The Philadelphia City novative architectural
I The Second Empire in France during the reign of Napoléon III spread French
Hall is made from feat for its time.
styles to the United States I Used in mansions, hospitals, government build-
ings, and cottages I The mansard roof gained popularity and was adapted to
American tastes I The style ended with the economic depression

1855 The Great Exhibition Second Empire was an architectural style that coincided
in Paris showcases the with the reign of Napoléon III in France and was enthusi-
Second Empire style and
spreads it internationally, astically applied in America. It was implemented in gov-
356

357
inspiring designs in the ernment buildings, stately homes, asylums, hospitals, and
United States private houses. The most recognizable feature of the Sec-
1857 Additions to the ond Empire style is the mansard roof—a steeply pitched,
19th-Century Architecture in the United States

Louvre by Le Vau draw the

slated roof developed by François Mansard (p. 236) and

19th-Century Architecture in the United States

attention of American ar-
chitects popular in the time of Louis XIV—which had come back
Gridley James Fox Town Hall has a steep
1859 Corcoron Gallery, a into fashion in Napoléon III’s Paris. Other prominent fea-
very early Second Empire– Bryant and Arthur mansard roof and a
style building in America,
tures of the style include square towers, dormer windows, Gilman: Old City Hall, projecting stepped
is built by J. Renwick Jr. decorative brackets, and the use of paired columns, to 1862–65, Boston central bay. The three
1867 Second Great Exhibi- give the impression of height. Protruding central facades One of the first gov- levels have paired col-
tion in Paris and pavilions were also common in larger buildings. ernment buildings to umns, which, with their
1869–77 General Ulysses Because the style’s popularity coincided with the adminis- be built in the Second tall windows, create an
S. Grant’s administration Empire style, the Old imposing facade.
tration of General Ulysses S. Grant, it was also sometimes
1880 Economic depres-
sion brings an end to the referred to as the General Grant style, or simply the Man- Other Important Works
Second Empire style sard style.
Alexander Ramsey Old Post Office,
Alfred B. Mullet: Old House, by Monroe by Alfred B. Mullet,
Executive Office Building, Sheire, 1868, St. Paul,
begun 1871, Washington, 1873–84, St. Louis,
Minnesota Missouri
DC
New York City Court-
The Old Executive Office South Hall, by David
house and Post Office,
Building in Washington is Farquharson, 1873,
by Alfred B. Mullet,
the masterpiece of archi- University of California,
1869–75
tect Alfred B. Mullet. Con- Berkeley
structed from cast iron, Hotel Vendome,
granite, and slate, it took by William G. Preston, Harker Hall, William Boyington, residence is a splendid
17 years to complete. 1871, Boston by Nathan Clifford Jacob Weidenmann, example of American
There are decorative J. T. Elletson: Terrace Second Empire, with its
Hamilton Mansion, Ricker, 1878, University
motifs on the dormer Hill, 1866–69, Des central tower, arched
by J. D. Hall, 1873, of Illinois at Urbana- Moines, Iowa
windows, chimneys, and entrance, and attic
Savannah Champaign
balconies. The large governor’s dormer windows.
19th Century Second Empire in the USA
 Steel Frames
Iron and, later, steel had been used for bridges and in Daniel Burnham: Flatiron Build-
larger public buildings throughout the 19th century, ing (Fuller Building), 1901–03,
but it was not until the 1880s in Chicago that the New York
structural steel frame was invented. After the fire of Although Louis Sullivan had
1871, investors needed to increase their usable floor already addressed questions of
composition in tall buildings, the
area in order to remain competitive. Conventional
prevalent Beaux-Arts movement
masonry allowed for tall buildings, but at 16 stories was ill prepared to deal with a
the wall thickness at ground level exceeded five feet. new building type. Historical
380

381
The answer was to replace load-bearing masonry with models had to be reinter-
a uniform and flexible steel skeleton. preted to accommodate the
proportions of the office
Cass Gilbert: Woolworth Daniel Burnham and

Building Techniques
Building Techniques

tower.
Building, under construction, Charles Atwood: Reliance
1912, New York Building, 1890–95, Chicago
Steel frame construction and el- One of the earliest and most el-
evators meant that height was egant incarnations of the sky-
no longer a limiting factor. Al- scraper, a wall of glass and
though by 1910 steel had been white terra cotta hangs from
in use for two decades, a the riveted, wind-braced steel
50-story building posed new frame. Thin vertical members
challenges—wind loads, foun- rest on continuous spandrel
dation stability, and fire safety panels, emphasizing the
were all factors needing thor- stacked horizontality of skeletal
ough research. construction.
William Le Baron Jenney:
Second Leiter Building,
1889–91, Chicago
The second incarnation of the
Leiter Building was a mature
example of steel frame con-
struction. A self-supporting,
fireproof metal frame was
draped in a comparatively light
masonry curtain wall. With no
load-bearing masonry left, all
the loads had to be carried by
the steel skeleton. It was
erected before cladding and
partition walls were added, de-
termining the building’s layout.
20th Century before 1945
 Unity Temple, interior view,
1905–08, Oak Park, Illinois
Frank Lloyd Wright Inside the temple, two levels of
balconies hover over the cen-
1867, Richland Center–1959, Phoenix
tral square seating area on the
I Iconic figure of American architecture I Spanned generations and styles main level, enabling the entire
I Developed the Prairie style I Used local materials and adapted his plans congregation to sit in close
to the surrounding landscape I Published utopian urban planning proximity to one another. Pro-
projects I Influenced the development of American suburbs tected from the noisy street be-
hind the building, the space is
discreetly entered from below
1867 Born in Richland In the late 1890s Frank Lloyd Wright was building ab- and lit only from the top with
Center, Wisconsin stract, geometric forms while the Beaux-Arts movement a combination of clerestory
1886–88 Studies
engineering at the Univer- dominated Europe and North America. In Europe, Wright’s windows and stained glass sky-
382

383
sity of Wisconsin Art Nouveau contemporaries were grappling with the re- lights. The interior is not orna-
1888–92 Apprentices lationships between ornament and structure, but were mented, but rather unified with
with Adler and Sullivan sets of intersecting volumes,
much less interested in the complex spaces and inter-

Early Modernism in the United States

Early Modernism in the United States

1893 Establishes architec- planes, and lines.

ture practice in Oak Park, secting volumes that Wright began to explore at the
Illinois outset of his career. Influenced by the Shingle style, with Other Important Works by F. L. Wright
1910–11 Publishes work its sprawling porches and sheltering roofs, as well as by Wright House and Hollyhock House,
in Europe Louis Sullivan’s (p. 378) clarity of volume and unique or- Studio, begun 1889, 1919–21, Los Angeles
1911 Moves his practice Oak Park, Illinois
to Taliesin East namentation, Wright developed his own manner, known Ennis House, 1923,
as the Prairie style. “Prairie” proved only a symbolic name, Winslow House, 1894, Los Angeles
1914 Arsonist burns
River Forest, Illinois
Taliesin and murders for Wright’s houses were almost exclusively suburban, Rosenbaum House,
Wright’s family built on relatively small and regular plots. The all-encom- Larkin Building, 1939, Florence,
1938 Begins apprentice- 1902–06, Buffalo, Alabama
ship program at Taliesin
passing horizon of the true prairies led Wright to an exag- New York Price Tower, 1954–55,
West gerated horizontality that creates an illusion of space, Taliesin East, 1911, Bartlesville, Oklahoma
1959 Dies in Phoenix which otherwise is unavailable within the Spring Green, Annunciation Greek
Wisconsin Orthodox Church,
Robie House, 1908–10,
Chicago Imperial Hotel, 1915, 1959–61, Milwaukee,
Tokyo Wisconsin
In the center of the Robie
House, the hearth—an area Fallingwater, over each other and
consisting of the fireplace and 1935, Mill Run, the waterfall below. In
staircase—stands out amid an
Pennsylvania elevation, the entire
open floor plan. Dramatic can-
tilevered roofs shelter the Fallingwater stirred the composition appears
rooms, large courts, and imagination of a so- flat. The volumes are
porches. Low walls, a buried ciety yearning for a se- arranged so master-
garden, and views in all direc- cluded, utopian life. fully that the walls
tions give a feeling of both From pillars rising out seem to slide past each
freedom and protection by in- of the rock, ocher- other in an abstract
corporating open-air spaces colored reinforced manner, like a de Stijl
into the shelter of the home. concrete trays hover graphic.
20th Century before 1945 Frank Lloyd Wright
 Sagrada Família, 1883–,
Barcelona
Antoni Gaudí At Sagrada Família Gaudí rein-
terpreted the structural princi-
1852, Reus–1926, Barcelona
ples of Gothic architecture. He
I Greatly influenced by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc I Interested in botany as eliminated buttresses and sub-
well as biomorphic and geomorphic forms I Built with stone, concrete, stituted them with slanted col-
steel, and ceramics I Used symbolic sculpture as a didactic tool I Drew umns that could take the
upon Catalan styles and Islamic architecture from the Iberian Peninsula lateral loads created by his
parabolic vaults. He tested the
system with brilliant hanging
1852 Born in Reus, near Antoni Gaudí synthesized a multitude of influences into models made of wire, sandbags,
Barcelona a magnificent style that is so personal it defies categori- and canvas that when inverted
1873–77 Studies at the gave the proper distribution of
newly opened Faculty of zation. Parallel to Art Nouveau and incorporating the
390

391
Architecture at the Univer- organic forms of the style, his work is part of the Catalan forces. Gaudí projected that it
sity of Barcelona would take 200 years to build
Modernisme movement, developed in the context of his
1877 Opens his first office the Sagrada Família. No other
Gothic Revivalist training and love for medieval Mediter-

Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau

in Barcelona architect since the Middle Ages

1883 Appointed chief ar-
ranean architecture. Reinterpreting early Modernist men- had attempted a building of
chitect of Sagrada Família tors, like John Ruskin and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (p. 348), that magnitude. Gaudí under-
1887 Studies traditional Gaudí studied structure as a way to convey imaginative stood that to build a church
ceramics with Domènech i forms. In the end Gaudí’s architecture was a product of his surpassing the achievements of
Montaner Gothic masters was to respect
intense Catholic faith, his dedication to Catalan culture,
1888 Contributes to the the medieval process. Paradoxi-
Exposición Universal in and his obsession with nature’s structural logic.
cally, as construction on the
Barcelona
church continues, the institu-
1906 Moves into the
tion devoted to funding this
showhouse in Park Güell
medieval undertaking posts
1914 Declines all commis-
sions, to focus on the progress reports on their foun-
Sagrada Família dation Web site.
1926 Dies in Barcelona Park Güell, 1900–14, Other Works by Gaudí
Casa Milà, 1906–10, Barcelona
Barcelona Finca Güell, 1883–85, Barcelona
Eager to replicate the English
garden style in the city of Bar- Casa Vicens, 1883–88,
At the Casa Milà, simple Barcelona
roof vents are transformed celona, Count Güell commis-
sioned a large park and a Palau Güell, 1886–90,
into groups of masked Barcelona
guardians keeping watch development of villas for the
Catalan bourgeoisie. The resi- Palacio Episcopal, 1889–93,
over the hills of Barcelona. León, Spain
Inside, complex apart- dential district was never com-
ments with polygonal pleted, but the park attests to Casa Calvet, 1898–1900,
Barcelona
rooms resembling a hon- Gaudí’s romantic imagination.
eycomb change from floor Mosaic dragons guard a carica- Colònia Güell Chapel, crypt,
1898–1915, Barcelona
to floor, responding to the tural Doric colonnade, as via-
undulating shape of the ducts of piled stone weave Villa Bellesguard, 1900–05,
Barcelona
facade. through the landscape.
20th Century before 1945 Antoni Gaudí
 Other Works by Gropius
Walter Gropius Deutscher Werkbund Exhibi-
tion, Office and Factory Build-
1883, Berlin–1969, Boston ings, 1914, Cologne
Sommerfeld Residence,
I Director and designer of the Bauhaus I Believed in the unity of visual 1920–21, Berlin
arts and architecture I Defined the course of Modern design I Worked in Bauhaus Building and Masters
academies in both Europe and North America I Profoundly influenced the Houses, 1925–26, Dessau
curricula of art and architecture schools I Used color in his buildings Siemensstadt Housing Estate,
1929–30, Berlin
1883 Born in Berlin Walter Gropius followed one simple principle: insert crea- Gropius Residence, 1938,
Lincoln, Massachusetts
1903–07 Studies at the tive elements at key points in an otherwise repetitive ele-
Technische Hochschule in Graduate Center, Harvard Uni-
Munich, then in Berlin vation. Entrances, staircases, and junctions between buil- versity, 1948–50, Cambridge,
406

407
1908 Employed by Peter ding functions all provided opportunities to introduce Massachusetts
Behrens on AEG Turbine moments of craft into an industrial framework. According Housing Block, 1955–57,
Hall to Gropius’s philosophy, facade treatment only needed to Hansaviertel, Berlin
Modernism Neue Sachlichkeit

Modernism Neue Sachlichkeit

1910 Opens an office near be consistent around a specific function. One building
Berlin with Adolf Meyer Chicago Tribune Tower
1919–28 Director of the
could have multiple, even contradictory, elevations if they Competition, 1922
Bauhaus in Weimar, and in served their respective functions appropriately. At the The simple guidelines and the
Dessau from 1925 Fagus Factory, the structural logic was also completely goal of building “the most
1938 Director of the De- new. The staircase was placed behind a precarious glass beautiful office building in the
partment of Architecture
at Harvard University corner that did not hide its floating white landings. The ef- world” generated hundreds of
fect was an architecture of paradox—monumental and entries and much discussion
1969 Dies in Boston,
fragile at the same time. about the future of high-rises.
Massachusetts
Unlike Mies van der Rohe’s rev-
Fagus Factory, olutionary 1921 skyscraper de-
1911–25, Alfeld an der Leine sign, Gropius proposed a fea-
This factory building is cle- sible building with a structural
arly an inversion of the grid based on the
monumental industrial famous Chicago
logic of Peter Behrens’s window. With
AEG Turbine Hall in Berlin- staggered verti-
Moabit. Instead of glazing cals, definite hor-
the center of the building, izontals, and large
Gropius hung the corners cantilevers, the
of the structure with large building was a
sheets of glass from a pro- synthesis of
jecting steel frame. In con- trends in Modern-
trast, the center was a ism. The winning
solid, windowless volume entry was a Neo-
containing only the en- Gothic tower typ-
trance and a small clock. ical of American
In a factory, time is of the architecture of
essence. the era.
20th Century before 1945 Walter Gropius
 Bauhaus
In 1919 Walter Gropius (p. 406) fused the Weimar Academy of Fine Arts and the
Weimar School of Arts and Crafts to establish the Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany. The
school, supported by leading artists, was a success, and a new Bauhaus opened at
Dessau in 1925. Based on the Deutscher Werkbund
concept of reconciling craft and industry, the Bauhaus
trained professionals to be equally comfortable with
design, craft, and methods of mass production. The-
ater, metalwork, woodwork, ceramics, architecture,
408

409
furniture, and object design were included in the cur-
riculum. The Bauhaus was closed by the Nazis in 1933.

Bauhaus in Germany
Bauhaus in Germany

Walter Gropius: Director’s Herbert Bayer: Font and

Study, 1927, Weimar Workshop Building, 1927,
Walter Gropius’s study was Weimar
symbolically located at the ab- Graphic design, including typo-
solute center of the Bauhaus graphy, was a key element in
school in Weimar, on a bridge the publicity of the Bauhaus.
overlooking all of the elements The school’s books, publica-
of the complex. The simple fur- tions, and posters disseminated
niture, tubular metal fixtures, ideas of Constructivist or de Stijl
and painted colorful rectangles origin to the wider public. The
were influenced by the designs Bauhaus font appears on the
of de Stijl. side of the workshop building.
Walter Gropius: Main
Stairway of the Workshop
Building, 1925, Dessau
In the Bauhaus, color played a
didactic role in identifying
structure, services, and move-
ment patterns. The focus on
essentials aimed not to strip
architecture of aesthetic or
sculptural value, but to increase
the purity of that value by expo-
sing functional elements. In the
stairways, light is used to high- Walter Gropius: Workshop volved new and untested inno- vere heat gain and loss. A cur-
light the structural composi- Building and the Vocational vations. Some experiments tain wall means that the interior
tion, and windows orient the School, 1925, Dessau failed: the glass curtain wall was structure, not the wall, supports
user within the complex. The Bauhaus buildings all in- visually superb, but led to se- the building.
20th Century before 1945 Bauhaus
 Nordic Modernism
1916–1976
I Nordic Modernism combined Neoclassical and Regional influences I Modi-
fied by Alvar Aalto, the movement was included in International Modernism
I Aalto and his wife, Aino Marsio, were pioneers in furniture and object design
I left: Lighting Fixtures, by Alvar Aalto, 1956–61, Bazoches-sur-Guyonne, France

1916–21 Alvar Aalto The two key figures of Nordic Modernism were Swedish
studies architecture at architect Erik Gunnar Asplund and his Finnish colleague
Helsinki University of
Technology Alvar Aalto. Asplund was older than Aalto by 13 years,
416

417
1924 Aalto marries archi- and his work provided the young architect with a point of
tect Aino Marsio and tra- departure for a wholly alternative aesthetic. Although
vels to Italy, developing an
Aalto was interested in economical architecture and mass
Modernism in Northern Europe

Modernism in Northern Europe

interest in Italian styles
1930 Erik Gunnar Asplund production, his attachment to Finnish architectural de-
has his architectural break- sign history tempered his work and gave it a human face
through at the Stockholm that other functionalist architecture lacked. A precedent
Exposition
1940 Asplund dies in for Aalto, Asplund’s Woodland Chapel was a Classical
Stockholm temple fused with a “primitive hut,” creating an unex- Alvar Aalto: Viipuri City their juncture, the library is lit wooden ceiling. Aalto designed
Library, 1935, Vyborg, Russia from above by numerous tu- many of the technical aspects
1976 Aalto dies in Helsinki pectedly Modern effect.
(formerly Viipuri, Finland) bular skylights, while the of the building, including the
Other Works A composition of two offset lecture hall has long windows forced-air ventilation shafts
Woodland Cemetery, by Erik
rectangles, with the entrance at and is lined with a folding within the building’s walls.
Gunnar Asplund and Sigurd Alvar Aalto: Finnish
Lewerentz, 1917–20, Stock- Church of the Holy Ghost,
holm, Sweden 1960–62, Wolfsburg, Germany
Lister County Courthouse, by
The Church of the Holy Ghost is
Erik Gunnar Asplund, 1917–21,
Sölvesborg, Sweden part of a large community
center. Aalto’s unusual church
Tuberculosis Sanatorium, brings Minimalist architectural
by Alvar Aalto, 1929, Paimio,
styles to the ecclesiastical
Finland
realm. It features an enormous
Villa Mairea, by Alvar Aalto, bell tower which, despite its
1939, Noormarkku, Finland Modernist aesthetics, resem-
Finlandia Hall, by Alvar Aalto, bles a stepped Italian campa-
1971, Helsinki, Finland nile. The interior is well lit and
the fan-shaped roof provides
Erik Gunnar Asplund: the main cylindrical reading windows set high in the curved excellent acoustics. Aalto also
Stockholm Public Library, room. Inside, three tiers of wall. There is little ornamenta- designed many of the interior
1918–27, Stockholm books encircle the room. Light tion apart from the entrance elements, such as collection
A U-shaped building surrounds enters through vertical portal and facade banding. boxes and candelabras.
20th Century Nordic Modernism
 Mies van der Rohe Glass Skyscraper, designed
1921, Berlin
Maria Ludwig Michael Mies
A truly visionary project, the
1886, Aachen–1969, Chicago Glass Skyscraper betrays Mies’s
 Modernist architect  Author of the phrase “less is more”  Influenced by early fascination with glass. Its
Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Peter Behrens  Greatly changed the look of com- complex plan—like a blown-
mercial city centers  Used predominantly steel and glass in his buildings up snowflake—produces an
undulating and almost crys-
talline volume. The project
1886 Born Maria Ludwig His famous aphorism “less is more” describes only one as- was designed for a trian-
Michael Mies in Aachen, pect of Mies van der Rohe’s multifaceted style. Mies
Germany gular site near Friedrich-
1907–11 Works for Peter changed the popular conception of built forms and pro- strasse in Berlin, but was
434

435
Behrens in Berlin foundly influenced the evolution of American cities. never built. The emer-
1921 Joins the Deutscher Skeletons of steel and glass replaced the traditional load- gence of new materials
Werkbund such as reinforced con-
bearing walls. The boundary between interior and exte-

International Style
International Style

1929 Designs the German crete and steel and the

Pavilion for the Interna-
rior space blurred, as the glazed curtain wall became production of glass on
tional Exhibition in an industrial scale al-
Barcelona lowed architects to
1930–33 Serves as the last imagine structures
director of the Bauhaus that would only be-
1938 Immigrates to the come technically fea-
USA; becomes director of sible decades later.
architecture at the Armour For Mies, this building
Institute in Chicago (later was more an exper-
the Illinois Institute of
Technology) iment in material and
form, reflection, and
1954–58 Designs and
builds the Seagram Build- transparency than a
ing in New York structural con-
1969 Dies in Chicago cept. The de-
sign forecasts
Lakeshore Drive his glass-box
Apartments, 1948–51, structures.
Chicago
Known as the “glass
houses,” these two 26-
story towers were Mies’s
first steel and glass high-
rise buildings. Revolution-
ary in their structure, the
towers introduced Amer-
ica to an elegance based
on order and clarity rather
than opulence.
20th Century before 1945 Mies van der Rohe
 Kenzo Tange
1913, Sakai–2005, Tokyo
I Fused traditional Japanese styles with Modernism I Designed buildings on
five continents I Influenced a new generation of architects from his teaching
post at Tokyo University I Aided in the rebuilding of Hiroshima, conceived of
an ambitious urban plan for Tokyo, and redesigned Skopje after an earthquake

1913 Born in Sakai, Japan Perhaps the central figure in 20th-century Japanese de-
1949 Wins commission to sign, the architect, author, and urban planner Kenzo
design Hiroshima’s Peace
Tange combined the International style with High Tech
446

447
Center
1964 Achieves interna- architecture and traditional Japanese forms to create a
tional recognition with his visionary synthesis that helped to define the identity of
Yoyogi National Gymna- postwar Japan. Arguing that architecture should reflect or

Late Modernism
Late Modernism

sium Complex, his contri-

bution to the 1964 Tokyo be an expression of social structure that always advances
Olympics from the past to the future, Tange first achieved promi-
1987 Becomes the first nence with his hugely symbolic Hiroshima Peace Center,
Japanese architect to be a peacetime fusion of traditional Japanese tomb archi-
awarded the Pritzker Prize Yamanashi Press and Radio gastructure—that Tange was smaller-scale prototype for an
tecture with a concrete hyperbolic parabola, whose shape
2005 Dies in Tokyo; his Center, 1967, Kofu, Japan experimenting with at the time.
funeral is held in his own signaled at once an acceptance of history and a coura- ideal city of the future, which he
Regarded by some critics as Based on an innovative space-
St. Mary’s Cathedral geous rebirth. hoped would eliminate the iso-
Tange’s most impressive achie- grid frame designed to increase
flexibility by maximizing con- lation between individual
Other Works by Tange vement, the Yamanashi Press
and Radio Center is an example nections between units, Tange buildings and turn urban space
St. Mary’s Cathedral,
of the new structure—the me- himself saw the project as a into a single integrated area.
1961–64, Tokyo
National Gymnasium
Master Plan for the
Complex, 1961–64, Yoyogi,
Reconstruction of Skopje,
Tokyo
1966, Skopje, Macedonia
The National Gymnasium Com-
Master Plan for Expo ’70,
plex was hailed in Tange’s cita-
1970, Osaka
tion for the Pritzker Prize as
American Medical being one of the most beautiful
Association Headquar- structures of the 20th century.
ters Building, 1987–90, Tange claimed that his 1964
Chicago, Illinois gymnastics arena represented a
Arabian Gulf University, significant break with his earlier
1988, Manamah, Bahrain Regionalism. In a radical break
Hiroshima Peace Center, Nara, and the work of Le Corbu- with traditional Japanese styles,
Fuji Television 1949–55, Hiroshima sier, the Hiroshima Peace Center he sought to divorce modern
Building, 1993–96, set the agenda for postwar Japa-
Drawing from both the 8th- Japan from the constraints of its
Tokyo
century Shosoin Storehouse, near nese architecture. historical architecture.
Architecture after 1945 Kenzo Tange
 Brutalism
1952–1975
I Derived its name from French béton brut, meaning “raw concrete” I Es-
pecially prominent in reconstruction projects in the UK after World War II
I Fell out of favor after the failure of positive communities to form in many
Brutalist structures, possibly due to broader processes of urban decay

1952 Le Corbusier devises The Brutalist movement in architecture stems from the
his Unité d’Habitation
principle and builds the
French béton brut—meaning “raw concrete”—a term
Cité Radieuse in Marseille used by Le Corbusier to describe his choice of material.
450

451
1954 The term Brutalism is Associated with social utopianism, the movement sought
coined by the British archi- to use architecture to engineer a more rational urban en-
tects Alison and Peter
vironment. This was to be accomplished through the con-

Minimalist Modernism
Minimalist Modernism

Smithson
1954 Publication of struction of high-density housing blocks based on Le
Reyner Banham’s book The Corbusier’s vision of the Unité d’Habitation. The idea was
New Brutalism, which be-
comes the movement’s to engender more collective and functional patterns of
manual living by reducing ornament and distraction. Highly
1960s Brutalism is popular controversial, this plan achieved only mixed success, alt-
in university campus ex-
pansions across the hough some aspects of Brutalism have managed to be in-
United States corporated into later Sir Denys Lasdun: National middle of London without buildings in the UK. The com-
1975 J. G. Ballard pub- styles. Theater, 1967 anyone objecting,” Denys plex achieves a structural bal-
lishes his novel High-Rise,
which argues that Brutalist Described by Prince Charles as Lasdun’s National Theater regu- ance, smoothing out the
architecture causes mur- “a clever way of building a nu- larly places among the ten most horizontal spaces to match its
derous chaos clear power station in the hated and the ten most loved vertical axis.
Other Works Moshe Safdie: Habitat ’67,
Montreal, Canada
Barbican Estate,
by Chamberlin, Powell, Built as part of Expo ’67, Moshe
and Bon, 1965–76, London Safdie designed Habitat ’67
Tricorn Center, when he was just 24, for his
by Owen Luder, 1965–66, master’s thesis at Montreal’s
demolished 2004, McGill University. Composed of
Portsmouth, UK a series of modular, interlocking
Trellick Tower, by Ernő forms, Safdie hoped his dy-
Goldfinger, 1966–72, namic vision would become
London popular among architects
Robin Hood Gardens, Paul Rudolph: Yale Art and Brutalist architecture in the United around the world. Sadly, his se-
by Alison and Peter Architecture Building, 1958–63, States, the Yale Art and Archi- veral attempts to construct sim-
Smithson, 1969–72, New Haven, Connecticut tecture Building is made of ribbed, ilar structures elsewhere have
London all failed due to lack of funding.
The most renowned example of bush-hammered concrete.
Architecture after 1945 Brutalism
 Álvaro Siza Vieira
1933, Matosinhos
I Works out of the organic conditions of an existing site, rather than impo-
sing his own designs on them I Renowned for his coherent, understated
designs and absence of rhetoric
I left: Schlesisches Tor Apartments, 1980, Berlin

1933 Born in Matosinhos, The sculptor and architect Álvaro Siza Vieira was born in
Portugal 1933 in a coastal town in the mountainous northern
1949 Begins studies at the
University of Porto School region of Portugal. Siza’s fresh, lucid buildings take their
454

455
of Architecture inspiration from the long light and quiet of his birthplace,
1954 Finishes first archi- and his work is characterized by a sensitivity to the
tectural project—four specificities of local contexts. Utilizing a tactile and mate-

Late Modernism
Late Modernism

houses in Matosinhos
rial-focused approach, rather than an overtly visual or
1954 Opens private prac- College of Education, 1986–94, Setubal,
tice in Porto graphic one, Siza has been called a Minimalist for his em- Other Works
Portugal
1955 Completes his archi- phasis on simplicity, balance, and scale. Nevertheless, Boa Nova Tea House, Faculty of Architec-
tecture studies there is also a strong current of sensuality in his work that Striking a balance between rigor and flexibility, 1963, Leça da Palmeira, ture at the University
1966 Begins teaching at Siza’s design for the college tethers a series of Portugal
is revealed by the cool delicacy with which he manipu- of Porto, 1995,
the University of Porto outlying volumes to a central U-shaped founda- Leça Swimming Pool, Portugal
School of Architecture
lates texture. Siza has designed swimming pools, housing tion, like boats moored to a quay. The idea was 1966, Leça da Palmeira Serpentine Gallery
1976 Appointed professor developments, private residences, banks, office buildings, to create a series of freely calibrated, semi-
restaurants, art galleries, shops, and almost every other Duarte House, Pavilion in Hyde Park,
1992 Awarded the Pritzker autonomous spaces that would remain at the
1981–85, Ovar, Portugal 2005, London
Prize type of structure. same time linked to a central whole.
Banco Borges Centro Gallego de Arte
e Irmão, 1978–86, Contemporaneo, 1988–93,
Vila do Conde, Santiago de Compostela,
Portugal Spain
This small bank Unusual among contemporary
branch gave Siza art museums in that it strives to
the chance to re- merge with its surroundings
alize some of the rather then dominate them, the
formal ideas that
Centro Gallego de Arte Con-
he had developed
temporaneo achieves a harmo-
for his unbuilt
works in Berlin. nious relationship with its
Both expansive and urban setting, allowing the
compact, colossal city’s traditional and modern
and delicate, heavy- styles to converge. Siza’s clear-
set and limpid, lined, granite-clad design re-
Siza’s design plays flects his admiration for Ration-
with the paradoxes alism and his sensitivity to local
of space itself. conditions.
Architecture after 1945 Álvaro Siza Viera
 Vasco da Gama Tower at
Expo 1998, Lisbon
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Leonor Janeiro and Nick Jacobs
worked with SOM to create this
1936–Present steel framework tower for the
I Interested in technological and structural advancements I Concerned with Expo 1998 World’s Fair. At the
architecture, design, urban planning, and structural engineering I Create a tower’s base is a three-story
corporate identity in which individual architects come under the general name building, used as the European
of SOM I One of the largest architecture firms in the world
Union Building during the fair.
The tower, shaped to resemble
the sail of a Portuguese ship,
1936 Louis Skidmore and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill is one of the largest architec- leads up to a luxury restaurant
Nathaniel Owings found ture firms in the world. Founded in 1936, the company and an observation deck.
an architectural firm
has a long tradition of multidisciplinary design and re- John Hancock Center
460

1937 First office is opened

461
in New York City search projects, involving more than 10,000 campaigns in 1967–70, Chicago
1939 John Merrill be- over 50 countries. After World War II, When the John Hancock Center
comes a member and the the firm received worldwide recogni- was completed, it held the

Corporate Modernism
Corporate Modernism

firm becomes Skidmore, record for being the tallest

Owings & Merrill (SOM) tion for its cutting-edge corporate
design of the Lever House in New building in the world outside
1952 The structurally in-
New York City. Structural engi-
novative design of the York. The firm’s research and com-
Lever House in the Inter- neer Fazul
missions span the fields of archi- Kahn’s 100
national Modernist style
sets a new standard for the tecture, product design, urban stories are
firm planning, infrastructural planning, made pos-
1970s Involved in the re- and structural engineering, sible by an
designing of Boston’s in- innovative
frastructure systems, using
stressing teamwork under the
technique
innovative technology SOM name. Famous for their
of using X-
2004 Groundbreaking for inventive design and structural shaped
Burj Dubai Other Important Works
research, braces to
Jin Mao Building, SOM’s archi- Lever House, 1952, Wachovia Financial support
1998, Shanghai tects and de- New York Center, 1984, Miami the build-
The Jin Mao Building skill- signers are Air Force Academy Time Warner Center, ing’s
Chapel, 1956–62, 2000–2004, New York height.
fully blends traditional enowned Colorado Springs
Chinese aesthetics like up- San Francisco Interna-
for Haj Terminal, tional Airport, 2001
turned eaves and pagoda
1972, Jeddah, Saudi Ben Gurion Airport
forms with the skyscraper. Arabia Terminal 3, 2004,
SOM designed the Tel Aviv
First Wisconsin Plaza,
building’s proportions
1974, Madison Burj Dubai, 2004–,
around the number eight, Dubai
which symbolizes pros- Sears Tower, 1974–76,
Chicago Pearl River Tower,
perity in China. Structural
Enerplex North 2006–, Guangzhou
innovations absorb shock
Building, 1982, Freedom Tower,
from typhoon winds and
Princeton 2006–, New York
earthquakes.
Architecture after 1945
 Hongkong and Shanghai Bank
Headquarters, 1979–86, Hong Kong
Sir Norman Foster The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank building sig-
nificantly revolutionized the tall building typol-
1935, Manchester ogy. Constructed from five structural modules
 Pioneers new materials, structural and environmental controls, and con- that were prefabricated in Glasgow, UK, the
struction technologies  Projects are often characterized by the extensive building was designed to allow for flexibility in its
use of glass  Emphasizes constructability, materiality, and an adherence internal configuration. With structure and service
to time and budget constraints  Forgoes historical conventions
cores pushed to the periphery, the deep, open
floor plates and a 10-story atrium are naturally lit
by a mirrored central sun-scoop. Although all of
1935 Born in Manchester The architecture practice of Sir Norman Foster is renowned the building’s technology fulfills functional
1961 Receives degree for its pursuit of and Modernist belief in technological inno- requirements, Foster also allowed the structural
from Manchester Univer- elements of the building to be the primary motifs
vation. One of the most famous contemporary architecture
466

467
sity; wins Yale scholarship of its aesthetics, as well as its organization—par-
1967 Founds his own firm, practices in the world, Foster + Partners often works closely ticularly the V-shaped suspension trusses on the
Foster + Partners with engineers and has designed a vast number of large- exterior, which are a prominent symbol of the
1979 Begins Hongkong scale, institutional, and infrastructural buildings around the building and that also form double-height

Corporate Modernism
Corporate Modernism

and Shanghai Bank head- world that are characterized by their use of glass, stainless spaces inside. This relationship between aes-
quarters thetics and technology makes the Hongkong
1983 Wins RIBA Gold
steel, and exposed and aestheticized
and Shanghai Bank one of the icons of High
Medal structures, often in iconic and Tech architecture.
1994 Wins AIA Gold Medal metaphoric forms. Since the 1970s,
1998 Awarded the Stirling the firm has been internationally Reichstag Dome, 1992–99, Berlin
Prize for Imperial War recognized for its environmentally Foster’s glass dome on top of the existing Neo-
Museum, Duxford classical Reichstag building was conceived as a
sustainable designs, which make
1999 Wins the Pritzker Prize visual metaphor for the transparency and open-
2004 Awarded the Stirling
use of natural daylight and pas- ness of the newly unified German government. In
Prize for 30 St. Mary Axe sive climate-control strategies, addition to serving as the primary attraction for
2007 Wins the Aga Khan thus revolutionizing the ty- visitors to the German parliament, with a spiral
Award pology of tall ramp providing panoramic views of the city, the
buildings in interior cone of the dome provides reflected day-
30 St. Mary Axe,
light to the chambers below, with an automated
1997–2004, London this a em- sunshade to reduce heat gain during the warmer
Known as “the Gherkin,” 30 bracing summer months.
St. Mary Axe is London’s
first ecological tall building. Other Important Works by Foster
Its unique shape and trian-
Willis Faber & Dumas Chep Lap Kok
gulated structural surface is Headquarters, Airport, 1992–97,
designed to resist wind, 1971–75, Ipswich, UK Hong Kong
while double glazing allows
Sainsbury Center for The Great Court
for passive solar heating
Visual Arts, 1974–78, at the British Museum,
and natural cooling. De-
Norwich, UK 1994–2000, London
signed to maximize the use
of natural light, the building Canary Wharf Masdar Initiative
is fitted with sensors to min- Underground Station, Master Plan, 2007–,
imize energy waste. 1991–99, London Abu Dhabi

Architecture after 1945 Sir Norman Foster

 Frank Gehry
1929, Toronto
I Rejects both the restraints of Modernism and the historical reference of
Postmodernism I Drew attention to the Los Angeles architecture scene in the
1980s and 90s, which also included Morphosis and Eric Owen Moss I First
architect to use digital technology to fabricate previously unrealizable forms

1929 Born in Toronto With his innovative use of materials and expressive, rec-
1954 Graduates from ognizable forms, Canadian-born Frank Gehry is the most
University of Southern
California School of popularly celebrated contemporary American architect.
486

487
Architecture Gehry’s early work was inspired by the fast pace and arti-
1962 Opens Frank O. ficiality of Los Angeles, the city in which he has always
Gehry & Associates in Los been based. He assembled ordinary materials such as ply-

Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism

Angeles
wood, chain-link fence, and corrugated metal to create
1969–73 Develops the
Easy Edges cardboard Cubist-inspired buildings, including many houses that are
furniture line often associated with the Deconstructivist movement. As
1985–91 Collaborates he moved on to larger projects, his buildings became
with Claes Oldenburg and
Coosje van Bruggen on
increasingly curvilinear. His later works incorporate De- Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, 1991–97,
Chiat/Day building in constructivist elements with flowing lines. Gehry’s firm Bilbao
Venice, California pioneered the use of software from the aerospace in- Clad in titanium, the Guggenheim Bilbao is a
1989 Awarded the Pritzker dustry for the design and fabrication of his buildings, culmination of Gehry’s form-making and techno-
Prize logical pursuits. The building is both a work of
many of which employ high-tech materials. Although his
2001 Exhibition of his sculpture and of urbanism. It was carefully de-
work at the Guggenheim works have been associated with a variety of movements,
signed to integrate with the surrounding urban
Museum, New York he has managed to create a distinguished personal fabric, including the neighboring bridge. The
Vitra Design Museum, museum supported F. L. Wright’s concept of the
1987–89, Weil am Rhein first Guggenheim in New York, in which the ar-
chitecture is as dazzling as the art within.
The white stucco and zinc
cladding of the Vitra De- Other Works by Gehry Nationale Neder-
sign Museum blurs distinc- landen Building,
tions between horizontal Gehry House, 1992–96, Prague
and vertical planes, as well 1977–78, Santa
Monica Also known as “Fred
as interior and exterior and Ginger,” a name
spaces. Unlike Gehry’s ear- Walt Disney Concert
referencing the dance-
lier work, this building is Hall, 1988–2003, Los
Angeles like nature of the two
no longer an assemblage forms, this building
of parts, but instead a uni- Weisman Museum, adopts the regularity
1990–93, Minneapolis
fied, sculptural whole that of its historic surround-
bends into and moves out Gehry Tower, 2001, ings to Gehry’s trade-
of itself. Hanover, Germany mark curves.
Architecture after 1945 Frank Gehry
 Zaha Hadid
1950, Baghdad
I Works in diverse mediums including furniture and interiors I First female
architect to receive the Pritzker Prize I Interested in theory, teaching, and
practice I Associated with the Deconstructivist movement I Unconven-
tional and visionary use of shape and form

1950 Born in Baghdad Zaha Hadid was the first female recipient of the Pritzker
1972 Moves to London Prize. She uses strong, arched shapes that appear to
after studying mathemat-
ics at the American Univer- stretch the limits of their materials. Hadid’s work encom-
490

491
sity in Beirut passes all fields of design, ranging from urban planning to Vitra Fire Station, 1993, from the front, but reveals its in- walls that bend and break in
1977 Graduates from the products, interiors, and furniture. Her work experiments Weil-am-Rhein
Architectural Association teriors from a perpendicular accordance with their structural
with new spatial concepts, intensifying existing urban

Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism

in London One of Hadid’s first infra- viewpoint. Constructed of ex- functions. The building is now
1977–87 Collaborates with landscapes in the pursuit of a visionary aesthetic. Her structural projects, the Vitra Fire posed, reinforced concrete, it used as a showcase for designer
Rem Koolhaas and Elia buildings’ designs make use of multiple perspective Station appears impenetrable uses sharp edges and layered chairs.
Zenghelis at the Office of
Metropolitan Architecture points that at times seem confusing, but the overall effect
in London absorbs viewers and the surrounding environment,
1980 Establishes her own uniting both through her Modernist designs. Her early
firm in London work makes use of asymmetrical sharp angles; tiered, flat-
1988 Participates in De-
constructivist Architecture planed levels; and seemingly hermetic forms that create
Exhibition in New York new and unexpected spaces and angles. In designing
2004 Awarded the her buildings and plans, Hadid combines prelimi-
Pritzker Prize
nary sketches and applies computer design pro-
grams to unite glass and metals,
LFone Pavilion, 1999, Weil-am-Rhein, Phaeno Science Center,
Germany interior, 2005, Wolfsburg,
A fluid yet geometrical extension of a net- Germany
work of surrounding paths, this cement Within the Phaeno Science
structure is an amalgamation of Center a craterlike interior
organic and inorganic solid creates diagonal sectional
planes, blunt edges, and views to the different levels of
Phaeno Science Center, curiosity and discovery in its
tiered levels. the exhibition space, while pro-
exterior, 2005, Wolfsburg, visitors. The bulk of the building truding volumes allow for di-
Germany is elevated on stilts, creating a verse functions. The structural
Allowing for maximum trans- public space for visitors. As with ground supports also provide
parency and porosity at ground her other buildings, Hadid con- space for both cultural func-
level, the science center ap- structed an intricate network of tions associated with the sci-
pears as a mysterious, strange pedestrian and vehicular paths ence center and commercial
object. The design generates throughout the structure. functions.
Zaha Hadid
 Rem Koolhaas
1944, Rotterdam
I Philosopher, writer, and architect I Analytical, intellectual approach to
design and urban experience I Dramatic, innovative use of trajectory
I Interested in the link between urbanity and social practice I His work
gives radical new forms to existing materials

1944 Born in Rotterdam, Born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, Rem Koolhaas spent
the Netherlands four years of his youth in Indonesia, where his father
1966 Works as a reporter
for the Haagse Post served as a cultural director. He first gained international
496

497
1968 Begins studying at recognition when he published Delirious New York, a book
Architectural Association on architectural theory. Koolhaas’s work searches for a
School of Architecture in link between technology and humanity. He uses an

New Directions
New Directions

London
1972 Studies at Cornell intelligent, analytic approach, and is renowned for his in-
CCTV Headquar- top in a cantilevered Other Works by Koolhaas
University in New York novative and radical use of trajectory in his designs. He ters, design, Beijing penthouse. A new icon
1975 Cofounds the Office utilizes materials in a sculptural way, often elongating or of the Beijing skyline, Netherlands Dance Casa da Música,
for Metropolitan Archi- A truly three-dimen-
flattening shapes and making rigid materials appear sional experience, the the structure is a single Theater, 1988, 2001–05, Porto
tecture (OMA) in London The Hague, the
1978 Publishes Delirious malleable. His designs draw from an eclectic mix of two gigantic towers of interconnected loop, Royal Dutch Embassy,
Netherlands 2003, Berlin
New York sources, including elements of Classicism and Moder- Koolhaas’s design for symbolically contai-
the CCTV Headquarters ning all the depart- Second Stage Seoul National
1995 Publishes S, M, L, XL nism, Formalism and Deconstructivism, and transform Theater, 1999, New
with Bruce Mau rise from a common ments that make University Museum of
these ideas into inventive and new forms. Today he is one York Art, 2005
1997 Cofounds archi- platform and join at the broadcasting possible.
tectural think tank AMO
of the world’s most sought-after architects, known for
both his risk taking and his interest in the social and phi- Educatorium, 1997,
2000 Awarded the Pritzker
losophical elements of the urban experience. Utrecht University,
Prize
the Netherlands
Seattle Public Library, Two dramatic planes
2004 fold and interlock to
A structural steel and glass create a single tra-
skin unifies eight horizon- jectory that makes the
tal platforms that are concrete curves ap-
connected by a series of pear malleable. Sloped
elevators and escalators. ceilings and densely
These levels, all of diffe- packed I-beams gener-
rent opacities, densities, ate a series of smaller
sizes, and shapes, allow for spaces within large
versatile uses of space. The rooms. Cement and
sloping glass ceilings and glass walls are used
walls create unusual side by side to allow
lighting and views of the for both privacy and
urban surroundings. views.
Architecture after 1945 Rem Koolhaas
 Blobs
1992–Present
I Digital modeling software creates infinite design possibilities I Archi-
tects are able to fast-track the design process I Designs respond with
greater sensitivity to organic shapes in nature I A new expressive language
for movement and motion that responds to human interaction and scale

1992 Zappi research proj- First coined in 1995, the term Blobs, or Blobitecture, is used
ect pioneers glass as a to refer to amoeboid, fluid designs that are created using
structural element
digital modeling software. By manipulating the algo-
500

1995 First use of the term

Blobitecture by architect rithms of the modeling program, architects are able to
Greg Lynn create new, previously unthinkable shapes and forms and
1997 Construction of streamline the design-to-production process. The
New Directions

Gehry’s Guggenheim innovations in technology such as computer programs,

Museum Bilbao and the
rise of sculptural architec- industrial adhesives, and connectors can produce infinite Lars Spuybroek: Fresh H2O terior is equipped with multiple Other Works
ture free-form and sculptural designs that can be made by Expo Water Pavilion, 1997, motion sensors that detect vis-
2001 Karel Vollers pub- spraying mortar over malleable reinforcing mesh. Cor- Neeltje Jans, the Netherlands itor movement and respond Experience Music Project,
lishes Twist & Build by Frank Gehry, 2000, Seattle
ners and angular beams give way to curvaceous shapes A sensual and interactive struc- with light, sound, and visual
2002 Development of that draw their inspiration from nature. Blobs are sculp- ture, the Fresh H2O Expo Water projections that ripple The Sage Gateshead, 2004,
Liquid Designed Buildings by Foster + Partners, Gateshead
tural, protoplasmic structures that completely redefine Pavilion is regarded as the first throughout the building. This
and complex 3-D design Philological Library, Free
“full” Blob building. No horizon-
programs the language and possibilities of architectural design. creates a truly interactive envi- University, by Foster + Partners,
tals or verticals exist within the
ronment that encourages the 2005, Berlin
fluid, curvaceous form, and the
sculptural geometry is in con- audience to realize their scale Złote Tarasy, by Jerde Partner-
stant variation and flux. The in- and relationship to the design. ship, 2007, Warsaw

Foreign Office Architects

Ltd.: Yokohama Port
Terminal, 2002, Yokohama
A dynamic wavelike structure,
the Yokohama Port Terminal
creates a branch between
urban and aquatic space. The
design challenges previous lin-
ear structures by using looped
and continuous throughways,
sculptural forms, and a reduced
NIO Architecten: Bus Sta- pital is a long, fluid, and styrene foam with a polyester color palate that encourages
tion at Spaarne Hospital, 2003, graceful design that makes in- skin, the design forms a sculp- fluidity and movement while
Hoofddorp, the Netherlands novative use of negative space. tural roundabout that allows a maintaining multifunctional
The bus station at Spaarne Hos- Composed of factory-cut poly- free flow of activity. and differentiated spaces.
Architecture after 1945 Blobs