EXPLOSIVES AND TOXIC CHEMICAL

WEAPONS

NAME OF THE STUDENT :- P R A T E E K

NARAYANABISOYI
CLASS :- +3 FINAL YEAR

ROLL NO :- CHEBS19-169

GUIDED BY:- BIDYDH AR A SETH Y

SCIENCE COLLEGE(AUTONOMOUS),HINJILICUT
A Project report on

“EXPLOSIVES AND TOXIC

CHEMICAL WEAPONS”
Submitted for the partial fulfilment of degree of B.Sc(Hons) in Chemistry.

SUBMITED BY
Name - PRATEEK NARAYANA BISOYI
Class - B.SC FINAL YEAR
Semester no – 6th
Roll no – CHEBS19-169
Regd no-

UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF

SRI BIDYADHARA SETHY
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

SCIENCE COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), HINJILICUT

2
 MARCH 2020
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work with the title “EXPLOSIVES

AND TOXIC CHEMICAL WEAPONS” submitted by me for the

partial fulfilment of the degree B.Sc (HONS) in CHEMISTRY under

the Science College (AUTONOMOUS),Hinjilicut is my original work

and has not been submitted earlier to any other University for the

fulfilment of any course. However, extracts of any literature has been

used for this report has been duly acknowledged providing details of

such literature in this reference.

PLACE: HINJLICUT Signature

Name: PRATEEK NARAYANA BISOYI
DATE:
Roll no: CHEBS19-169
Science college ( AUTONOMOUS )
HINJILICUT
3
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify MR.PRATEEK NARAYANA BISOYI a

student of B.Sc Chemistry honours bearing Exam roll number

CHEBS19-169 of Science College(AUTONOMOUS), Hinjilicut

has worked under my supervision and guidance for his project

work and prepared aproject report with title “EXPLOSIVES AND

TOXIC CHEMICAL WEAPONS”.

PLACE: HINJILICUT Signature:

DATE: BIDYADHARA SETHY
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
SCIENCE COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS),
HINJILICUT.

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and the foremost, I would like to offer my sincere gratitude to

my supervisor, SRI. BIDYDHARA SETHY for his immense
interest and enthusiasm on the project. He was always accessible and
workedfor hours with me. He was always kind and generous to me
and lend me a helping at all stages of my project. He has been a
constant source of encouragement for me.

I would also like to appreciate the efforts put in by my friends during

various stages of my thesis preparation. I would also like to thank all
technical assistants in our department for their constant help.
Last but not the least, I wish to profoundly acknowledge my parents
for their constant support.

PRATEEK NARAYANA BISOYI

CHEBS19-169

5
 ABSTRACT

An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that

contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an

explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the

production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An explosive charge isa

measured quantity of explosive material, which may either be

composed solely of one ingredient or be a mixture containing at least

two substances.

6
 CONTENTS
TOPIC. PAGE NO

1. INTRODUCTION 8-9
(Chemical explosives and
Chemical weapons)

2. TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES
• RDX 9-20
( Properties, Uses, Name, Synthesis,
Toxicity, History, Biodegradation)
• TNT 21-30
( Names, Properties, History, Prep.;
Application, Energy content, Toxicity)
• HMX 31-35
( Names, Properties, Application,
Toxicity, Biodegradation)
• DYNAMITE 36-44
( Properties, History, Production,
Difference, Regulation)

• Reference

7
1. INTRODUCTION:
• Explosive:
An Explosive is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of
Potential energy that can produces an explosion if released suddenly
usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and
pressure. An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive
material, which may either be composed solely of one ingredient or
be a mixture containing at least two substances.
Most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing -
NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups that, when detonated, release
gases like the aforementioned (e.g., nitro glycerine, TNT, HMX,
PETN, nitrocellulose).
• Toxic Chemical weapon :
A chemical weapon (CW) is a specialized munitions that uses
chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans. According to
the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), "the
term chemical weapon may also be applied to any toxic chemical or its
precursor that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or
sensory irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery
devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled,
are also considered weapons themselves." Chemical weapons are
classified as weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), though they are
distinct from nuclear weapons, biological weapons, and radiological
weapons. All may be used in warfare and are known by the military
acronym NBC (for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare).

8
2.DIFFERENT CHEMICAL WEAPONS

❖ RDX: (RESEARCH DEPARTMENT EXPLOSIVE)

3D PICTURE OF RDX
CHEMICAL FORMULA OF RDX:

RDX is an organic compound with the formula (O2NNCH2)3.

It is a white solid without smell or taste, widely used as an
explosive. Chemically, it is classified as a nitramide, chemically
similar to HMX.A more energetic explosive than TNT, it was used
widely in World War II and remains common in military
applications.
9
 NAMES
❖ IUPAC NAME
1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazinane

OTHER NAMES
1,3,5-Trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine
RDX
cyclonite, hexogen
1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane
1,3,5-Trinitrohexahydro-s-triazine
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine
Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-s-triazine
Trimethylenetrinitramine
❖ PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL FORMULA C3H6N6O6

MOLAR MASS 222.117 g·mol−1

APPEARACE Colorless or yellowish

crystals

DENSITY 1.858 g/cm3

MELTING POINT 205.5 °C (401.9 °F,478.6 K)

BOILING POOINT 234 °C (453 °F; 507 K)

SOLUBILITY IN WATER INSOLUBLE

10
❖ EXPLOSIVE DATA
SHOCK SENSITIVITY Low

FRICTION SENSTIVITY Low

DETONATION VELOCITY 8750 m/s

RE FACTOR 1.60

➢ USES:
It is often used in mixtures with other explosives and plasticizers or
phlegmatizers (desensitizers); it is the explosive agent in C-4
plastic explosive. RDX is stable in storage and is considered one of
the most energetic and brisant of the military high explosives, with a
relative effectiveness factor of 1.60.

➢ NAMES:
RDX is also known, but less commonly, as cyclonite, hexogen
(particularly in Russian, French, German and German-influenced
languages), T4, and, chemically, as cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine.
In the 1930s, the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, started investigating
cyclonite to use against German U-boats that were being built with
thicker hulls. The goal was to develop an explosive more energetic
than TNT. For security reasons, Britain termed cyclonite as
"Research

11
Department Explosive" (R.D.X.). The term RDX appeared name
in the United States in 1946.

The first public reference in the United Kingdom to the RDX,

or R.D.X., to use the official title, appeared in 1948; its authors
were the managing chemist, ROF Bridg water, the chemical
research and development department, Woolwich, and the director
of Royal Ordnance Factories, Explosives; again, it was referred to
as simply RDX. RDX was widely used during World War II, often
in explosive mixtures with TNT such as Torpex, Composition B,
Cyclotols, and H6. RDX was used in one of the first plastic
explosives. The bouncing bomb depth charges used in the
"Dambusters Raid" each contained 6,600 pounds (3,000 kg) of
Torpex; The Tallboy .
Armourers prepare to load 1,000-lb MC bombs into the bomb-bay
of an Avro Lancaster B Mark III of No. 106 Squadron RAF at RAF
Metheringham before a major night raid on Frankfurt. The
stencilled lettering around the circumference of each bomb reads
"RDX/TNT".

Grand Slam bombs designed by Wallis also used Torpex.

RDX is believed to have been used in many bomb plots, including
terrorist plots.

RDX is a base for a number of common military explosives :

12
COMPOSITIONA: -
Granular explosive consisting of RDX and
plasticizing wax, such as composition A-3 (91% RDX coated with
9% wax) and composition A-5 (98.5 to 99.1% RDX coated with
0.95 to 1.54% stearic acid).
COMPOSITION B: -
Castable mixtures of 59.5% RDX and 39.4% TNT
with 1% wax as desensitizer.
COMPOSITON C: -
The original composition C was used in World War
II, but there have been subsequent variations includingC-2, C-3, and
C-4; C-4 consists of RDX (91%), a plasticizer, dioctyl sebacate
(5.3%), a binder, which is usually polyisobutylene (2.1%), and oil
(1.6%).
COMPOSITION CH-6: -
97.5% RDX, 1.5% calcium stearate, 0.5%
polyisobutylene, and 0.5% graphite DBX (Depth Bomb
Explosive): Castable mixture consisting of 21% RDX, 21%
ammonium nitrate, 40% TNT, and 18% and formation of a
powdered aluminium, developed during World War II, it was to be
used in underwater munitions as a substitute forTorpex employing
only half the amount of then-strategic RDX,[ as the supply of RDX
became more adequate, however, the mixture was shelved.
CYCLOTOL: -
Castable mixture of RDX (50– 80%) with TNT (20–
13
50%) designated by the amount of RDX/TNT, such as Cyclotol
70/30.
➢ HMX: -
Castable mixtures of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminium, and D-2
wax with calcium chloride.
➢ H-6: - Castable mixture of RDX, TNT, powdered
aluminum,and paraffin wax (used as a phlegmatizing
agent).
➢ PBX: -
RDX is also used as a major component of many polymer-
bonded explosives (PBX); RDX-based PBXs typically consist of
RDX and at least thirteen different polymer/co-polymer binders.
Examples of RDX-based PBX formulations include, but are not
limited to: PBX-9007, PBX-9010, PBX-9205, PBX-9407,PBX-9604,
PBXN- 106, PBXN3, PBXN-6, PBXN-10, PBXN-201, PBX0280,
PBX , etc.

➢ SEMTEX: -
Plastic demolition explosive containing RDX and PETN as
major energetic components .

➢ TORPEX: -
42% RDX, 40% TNT, and 18% powdered aluminium; the
mixture was designed during World War II and used mainly in
underwater ordnance .
Outside military applications, RDX is also used in controlled
demolition to raze structures. The demolition of the Jamestown
Bridge in the U.S. state of Rhode Island was one instance where
RDX shaped charges were used to remove the span.

14
❖ SYNTHESIS: -
RDX is classified by chemists as a hexahydro- 1,3,5-
triazine derivative. It is obtained by treating hexamine with white
fuming nitric acid.

This nitrolysis reaction also produces methylene dinitrate (not to be

confused with dinitromethane), ammonium nitrate, and water as
byproducts. The overall reaction is:

C6H12N4 + 10 HNO3 → C3H6N6O6 +

3CH2(ONO2)2
+ NH4NO3 + 3 H2O
Modern syntheses employ hexahydro triacyl triazine asit
avoids formation of HMX.
HISTORY: -
RDX was used by both sides in world war II .The
U.S. produced about 15,000 long Modern syntheses employ
hexahydro triacyl triazine as it avoids formation of HMX.
A different method of production to the Woolwich
process was found and used in Canada, possibly at the

15
McGill University department of chemistry. This was based on
reacting paraformaldehyde and ammonium nitrate in acetic
anhydride. A UK patent application was made by Robert Walter
Schiessler (Pennsylvania State University) and James Hamilton
Ross (McGill, Canada) in May 1942; the UK patent was issued in
December 1947.[ Gilman states that the same method of production
had been independently discovered by Ebele in Germany prior to
…
Schiessler and Ross, but that this was not known by the Allies.
Urbanski provides details of five methods of production, and he
refers to this method as the (German) E-method.
WOOLWICH METHOD: -
In 1941, the UK's Tizard Mission visited the U.S. Armyand
Navy departments and part of the information handed over
includeddetails of the "Woolwich" method of manufacture of RDX
and its stabilisation by mixing it with beeswax. The UK was
asking that the U.S. and Canada, combined, supply 220 short tons
(200 t)(440,000 lb ) of RDX per day.

16
Process was expensive: it needs 11 pounds (5.0 kg) of strong nitric
acid for every pound of RDX.
By early 1941, the NDRC was researching new processes. The
Woolwich or direct nitration process has at least two serious
disadvantages: (1) it used large amounts of nitric acid and
(2) at least one-half of the formaldehyde is lost. One mole of
hexamethylenetetramine could produce at most one mole of RDX.
At least three laboratories with no previous explosive experience
were instructed to develop better production methods for RDX;
they were based at Cornell, Michigan, and Pennsylvania State
universities. Werner Emmanuel Bachmann, from Michigan,
successfully developed the "combination process" by combining
the Canadian process with direct nitration. The combination
process required large quantities of acetic anhydride instead of
nitric acid in the old British "Woolwich process". Ideally, the
combination process could produce two moles of RDX from each
mole of hexamethylenetetramine.
The vast production of RDX could not continue to rely on the use
of natural beeswax to desensitize the RDX.
➢ BACHMANN PROCESS:-
The NDRC instructed three companies to develop pilotplants.
Western Cartridge Company, E. I. du Pont de Nemours &
Company, and Tennessee Eastman Company, part of Eastman
Kodak. At the Eastman Chemical Company (TEC), a leading
manufacturer of acetic anhydride, Werner

17
Emmanuel Bachmann developed a continuous flow-process for
RDX. RDX was crucial to the war effort and the current batch
production process was too slow. In February 1942, TEC began
producing small amounts of RDX at its Wexler Bend pilot plant,
which led to the U.S. government authorizing TEC to design and
build Holston Ordnance Works (H.O.W.) in June 1942. By April
1943, RDX was being manufactured there. At the end of 1944, the
Holston plant and the Wabash River Ordnance Works, which used
the Woolwich process, were producing 25,000 short tons (23,000 t)
(50 million pounds) of Composition B per month. The U.S.
Bachmann process for RDX was found to be richer in HMX than
the United Kingdom's RDX. This later led to a RDX plant using
the Bachmann process being set up at ROF Bridge water in 1955 to
produce both RDX and HMX.
➢ STABILTIY: -
RDX has a high nitrogen content and a high O:C ratio, both
of which indicate its explosive potential for formation of N2 and
CO2.
RDX undergoes a deflagration to detonation transition
(DDT) in confinement and certain circumstances.[ The velocity of
detonation of RDX at a density of 1.76 g/cm3is 8750 m/s. It starts to
decompose at approximately 170 °Cand melts at 204 °C. At room
temperature, it is very stable. It burns rather than explodes. It
detonates only with a detonator, being unaffected even by small
arms fire. This property makes it a useful military explosive. It is
less sensitive than pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN). Under
18
 Normal conditions, RDX has a figure of insensitivity of
exactly 80 (RDX defines the reference point).
RDX sublimates in vacuum, which restricts or prevents its use in
some applications.
RDX, when exploded in air, has about 1.5 times the explosive
energy of TNT per unit weight and about 2.0 timesper unit volume.
RDX is insoluble in water, with solubility 0.05975 g/L at
temperature of 25°C.
➢ TOXICCITY: -

The substance's toxicity has been studied for many

years.[64] RDX has caused convulsions (seizures) in military field
personnel ingesting it, and in munition workers inhaling its dust
during manufacture. At least one fatality was Toxicity attributed to
RDX toxicity in a European munitions manufacturing plant.

During the Vietnam War, at least 40 American soldiers

were hospitalized with composition C-4 (which is 91% RDX)
intoxication from December 1968 to December 1969. C- 4 was
frequently used by soldiers as a fuel to heat food, and the food was
generally mixed by the same knife that was usedto cut C-4 into small
pieces prior to burning. Soldiers were exposed to C-4 either due to
inhaling the fumes, or due to ingestion, made possible by many small
particles adhering to the knife having been deposited into the cooked
food. The symptom complex involved nausea, vomiting, generalized
seizures, and prolonged postictal confusion and amnesia; which
indicated toxic encephalopathy.

19
Oral toxicity of RDX depends on its physical form; in rats, the LD50
was found to be 100 mg/kg for finely powdered RDX, and 300 mg/kg
for coarse, granular RDX. A case has been reported of a human child
hospitalized in status epilepticus following the ingestion of 84.82
mg/kg dose of RDX (or 1.23 g for the patient's body weight of 14.5
kg) in the "plastic explosive" form .The substance has low to
moderate toxicity with a possible human carcinogen classification.[
Further research is ongoing, however, and this classification may be
revised bythe United States.

➢ ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY: -

Remediating RDX contaminated water supplies has
proven to be successful. It is known to be a kidney toxin in humans
and highly toxic to earthworms and plants, and thus army testing
ranges where RDX was used heavily may need to undergo
environmental remediation. Concerns have been raised by research
published in late 2017 indicating that the issue has not been
addressed correctly by U.S. officials.

➢ BIODEGRADATION: -
RDX is degraded by the organisms in sewage sludge as
well as the fungus Phanaerocheate chrysosporium. Both wild and
transgenic plants can phytoremediate explosives from soil and
water.

20
❖ TNT( TRINITROTOLUENE): -

Trinitrotoluene ( TNT) more

specifically knows as 2,4,6trinitrotoluene, is a chemical compound
with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. This yellow solid is sometimes
used as a reagent in chemical synthesis, but it is best known as an
explosive material with convenient handling properties.
It has been suggested that this article be merged with Pink water.
explosive yield of TNT is considered to be the standard measure of
bombs and the power of explosives. In chemistry, TNT is used
togenerate charge transfer salts.
IUPAC NAME
2,4,6-TRINITROTOLUENE

➢ OTHER NAMES

2,4,6-Trinitromethylbenzene
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluol
2-Methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene

21
TNT, Tolite, Trilite, Trinitrotoluol, Trinol, Tritolo, Tritolol,
Triton, Tritone, Trotol, Trotyl
➢ PROPERTIES

CHEMICAL FORMULA C7H5N3O6

MOLAR MASS 227.132 g·mol−1

APPEARANCE Pale yellow solid. Loose

"needles", flakes or prills
before melt-casting. A
sollid block after being
poured into a casing.

DENSITY 1.654 g/cm3

MELTING POINT 80.35 °C (176.63 °F;

353.50 K)
BOILING POINT 240.0 °C (464.0 °F;
513.1 K)
SLOUBILITY IN Soluble
WATER,ACETONE
BENZENE
VAPOUR PRESSURE 0.0002 mmHg (20°C)

➢EXPLOSIVE DATA

22
SHOCK SENSITIVITY INSENSITIVE

FRICTION SENSITIVITY INSENSITIVE TO 353 N

DETONATION VELOCITY 6900 M/S

RE FACTOOR 1.00

➢HISTORY OF TNT: -
TNT was first prepared in 1863 by German chemist Julius
Wilbrand and originally used as a yellow dye. Its potential as an
explosive was not recognized for several years, mainly because it was
so difficult to detonate and because it was less powerful than
alternatives. Its explosive properties were first discovered by another
German chemist, Carl Häussermann, in 1891. TNT can be safely
poured when liquid into shell cases, and is so insensitive that it was
exempted from the UK's Explosives

Detonation of the 500-ton TNT explosive charge as part of Operation

Sailor Hat in 1965. The white blastwave is visible on the water
surface and a shock condensation cloud is visible overhead. Act 1875
and was not considered an explosive for the purposes of manufacture
andstorage.

23
 The German armed forces adopted it as a filling for artillery shells
in 1902 . whereas the British Lyddite filled shells tended to explode
upon striking armour, thus expending much of their energy outside
the ship. The British started replacing Lyddite with TNT in 1907. The
United States Navy continued filling armor- piercing shells with
explosive after some other nations had switched to TNT, but began
filling naval mines, bombs, depth charges, and torpedo warheads with
burster charges of crude grade B TNT with the color of brown sugar
and requiring an explosive booster charge of granular crystallized
grade A TNT for detonation. High-explosive shells were filled with
grade A TNT, which became preferred for other uses as industrial
chemical capacity became available for removing xylene and similar
hydrocarbons from the toluene feedstock and other nitrotoluene
isomer byproducts from the nitrating reactions.

➢ PREPARATION: -
In industry, TNT is produced in a three-step process. First,
toluene is nitrated with a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid to
produce mononitrotoluene (MNT). The MNT is separated and then
renitrated to dinitrotoluene (DNT). In the final step, the DNT is
nitrated to trinitrotoluene (TNT) using an anhydrous mixture of
nitric acid and oleum. Nitric acid is consumed by the
manufacturing process, but the diluted sulfuric acid can be
reconcentrated and reused. After nitration, TNT is stabilized by a
process called sulfitation, where the crude TNT is treated with
aqueous-

24
sodium sulphite solution to remove less stable isomers of TNT and
other undesired reaction products. The rinse water from
sulfitation is known as red water and is a significant pollutant and
waste product of TNT manufacture.
Control of nitrogen oxides in feed nitric acid is very important
because free nitrogen dioxide can result in oxidation of the methyl
group of toluene. This reaction is highly exothermic and carries
with it the risk of a runaway reaction leading to an explosion.
In the laboratory, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene is produced by a two-step
process. A nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric
acids is used to nitrate toluene to a mixture of mono- and di-
nitrotoluene isomers, with careful cooling to maintain temperature.
The nitrated toluenes are then separated, washed with dilute
sodium bicarbonate to remove oxides of nitrogen, and then
carefully nitrated with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and sulfuric
acid. Towards the end of the nitration, the mixture is heated on a
steam bath. The trinitrotoluene is separated, washed with a dilute
solution of sodium sulfite and then recrystallized from alcohol.
➢ APPLICCATIONs: -
TNT is one of the most commonly used explosives for
military, industrial, and mining applications. TNT has been used in
conjunction with hydraulic fracturing, a process used to recover oil
and gas from shale formations. The technique involves displacing
and detonating

25
 nitroglycerin in hydraulically induced fractures followed by wellbore
shots using pelletized TNT.
TNT is valued partly because of its
insensitivity to shock and friction, with reduced risk of accidental
detonation compared to more sensitive
explosives such as nitroglycerin. TNT melts at 80 °C (176 °F),far
below the temperature at which it will spontaneously detonate,
allowing it to be poured or safely combined with other explosives.
TNT neither absorbs nor dissolves in water, which allows it
to be used effectively in wet environments.
To detonate, TNT must be triggered by a pressure wave from
astarter explosive, called an explosive booster.
Although blocks of TNT are available in various sizes (e.g. 250 g,
500 g, 1,000 g), it is more commonly encountered in synergistic
explosive blends comprising a variable percentage of TNT plus
other ingredients.
Examples of explosive blends containing TNT include:
Amatex: (ammonium nitrate and RDX)
Amatol: (ammonium nitrate)
Ammonal: (ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder plus
sometimes charcoal).
Baratol: (barium nitrate and wax)

➢ EXPLOSIVE CHARACTER

Upon detonation, TNT undergoes a decomposition equivalentto the

reaction

26
2 C7H5N3O6 → 3 N2 + 5 H2 + 12 CO + 2 C
plus some of the reactions

H2 + CO → H2O + C
And 2CO → CO2 + C.
The reaction is exothermic but has a high activation energy in
the gas phase (~62 kcal/mol). The condensed phases (solid or liquid)
show markedly lower activation energies of roughly 35 kcal/mol due
to unique bimolecular decomposition routes at elevated densities.
Because of the production of carbon, TNT explosions have a sooty
appearance. Because TNT has an excess of carbon, explosive
mixtures with oxygen-rich compounds can yield more energy per
kilogram than TNT alone. During the 20th century, amatol, a mixture
of TNT with ammonium nitrate was a widely used military explosive.

TNT can be detonated with a high velocity initiator or by

efficient concussion. For many years, TNT used to be the reference
point for the Figure of Insensitivity. TNT had a rating of exactly 100
on the "F of I" scale. The reference has since been changed to a more
sensitive explosive called RDX, which has an F of I rating of 80.

➢ ENERGY CONTENT: -
The heat of detonation utilized by NIST to define at one of
TNT equivalent is 1000 cal/g or 1000 kcal/kg, 4.184 MJ/kg or
4.184 GJ/ton. The energy density of TNT is used as a reference
point for many other explosives, including
27
nuclear weapon ,the energy which is measured in equivalent
kilotons (~4.184) Energy content present is a Cross-sectional view
of Oerlikon 20 mm cannon shells(dating from circa 1945)
showing color codes for TNT andpentolite fillings terajoules or
4.184 TJ or 1.162 GWh) ormegatons (~4.184 petajoules or 4.184
PJ or 1.162 TWh) of TNT. The heat of combustion however is
14.5 megajoulesper kilogram or 14.5 MJ/kg or 4.027 kWh/kg,
which requiresthat some of the carbon in TNT react with
atmosphericoxygen, which does not occur in the initial event.
For comparison, gunpowder contains 3 megajoules per
kilogram, dynamite contains 7.5 megajoules per kilogram, and
gasoline contains 47.2 megajoules per kilogram (though gasoline
requires an oxidant, so an optimized gasoline and O2 mixture
contains 10.4 megajoules per kilogram).
➢ DETECTION: -
Various methods can be used to detect TNT,
including optical and electrochemical sensors and explosive-
sniffing dogs. In 2013, researchers from the Indian Institutes of
Technology using noble-metal quantum clusters could detect TNT
at the sub-zepto molar (10−18 mol/m3) level.
➢ SAFE AND TOXICITY: -
TNT is poisonous, and skin contact can cause skin
irritation, causing the skin to turn a bright yellow-orange color.
During the First World War, munition workers who handled the
chemical found that their skin turned bright yellow, which

28
resulted in their acquiring the nickname "canary girls" or simply
"canaries."

People exposed to TNT over a prolonged period tend to

experience anemia and abnormal liver functions. Blood and liver
effects, spleen enlargement and other harmful effects on the
immune system have also been found in animals that ingested or
breathed trinitrotoluene. There is evidence that TNT adversely
affects male fertility. TNT is listed as a possible human carcinogen,
with carcinogenic effects demonstrated in animal experiments (rat),
although effects upon humans so far amount to none [according to
IRIS of March 15, 2000]. Consumption of TNT produces redurine
through the presence of breakdown products and not blood as
sometimes believed.
Some military testing grounds are contaminated with TNT.
Wastewater from munitions programs including contamination of
surface and subsurface waters may be colored pink because of
the presence of TNT. Such contamination,
called "pink water", may be difficult and expensive to
remedy.
TNT is prone to exudation of dinitrotoluenes and other isomers of
trinitrotoluene. Even small quantities of such impurities can cause
such effect. The effect shows especially in projectiles containing
TNT and stored at higher temperatures, e.g. during summer.
Exudation of impurities leads to formation of pores and cracks
(which in turn cause increased shock sensitivity).
29
❖ ECOLOGICAL IMPACT: -
Because of its use in construction and demolition, TNT has become
the most widely used explosive, and thus its toxicity is the most
characterized and reported. Residual TNT from manufacture,
storage, and use can pollute water, soil, atmosphere, and biosphere.
The concentration of TNT in contaminated soil can reach 50g/kg of
soil, where the Ecological impact highest concentrations can be
found on or near the surface. In Sept. of 2001, the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) declared TNT a
pollutant whose removal is priority. The USEPA maintains that
TNT levels in soil should not exceed 17.2 gram per kilogram of
soiland 0.01 milligrams per liter of water.

❖ CHEMICAL BREAKDOWN:-
TNT is a reactive molecule and is
particularly prone to react with reduced components of
sediments or photodegradation in the presence of sunlight. TNT is
thermodynamically and kinetically capableofreacting
with a wide number of components of many environmental
systems. This includes wholly abioticreactants,
like photons, hydrogen sulfide, Fe2+, or microbialcommunities,
both oxic and anoxic.
It’s could also reactive when exposed to sunlight.

30
 HMX: (HIGH MELTING EXPLOSIVE)

3D PICTURE OF HMX CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF

HMX

HMX, also called octogen, is a powerful and relatively insensitive

nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. Like RDX,
the compound's name is the subject of much speculation, having
been variously listed as High Melting Explosive, Her Majesty's
Explosive, High-velocity Military Explosive, or High-Molecular-
weight RDX.

❖ NAMES: -
IUPAC NAME :- 1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazoctane
OTHER NAMES
Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine.

31
❖ PROPERTIES: -

CHEMICAL FORMULA C4H8N8O8

MOLAR MASS 296.155 g/mol

DENSITY 1.91 g/cm3, solid

MELTING POINT 276 to 286 °C (529 to

547 °F; 549 to 559 K)
❖ EXPLOSIVE DATA: -
SHOCK SENSITIVITY Low

Low
FRICTION SENSITIVITY
9100 m/s
DETONATION VELOCITY
1.70
RE FACTOR

The molecular structure of HMX consists of an eight- membered

ring of alternating carbon and nitrogen atoms, with a nitro group
attached to each nitrogen atom. Because of its high molecular
weight, it is one of the most potent chemical explosives
manufactured, although a number of newer ones, including HNIW
and ONC, are more powerful.

32
 ➢ PRODUCTION: -
HMX is more complicated to manufacture than most explosives,
and this confines it to specialist applications. It may be produced by
nitration of hexamine in the Production presence of acetic anhydride,
paraformaldehyde and ammonium nitrate. RDX produced using the
Bachmann Process usually contains 8–10% HMX.

❖ APPLICATION: -
Also known as cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine,
tetrahexamine tetranitramine, or octahydro- 1,3,5,7tetranitro-
1,3,5,7-tetrazocine, HMX was first made in 1930. In 1949 it was
discovered that HMX can be prepared by nitrolysis of RDX.
Nitrolysis of RDX is performed by dissolving RDX in a 55%
HNO3 solution, followed by placingthe Applications solution on a
steambath for about six hours. HMX is used almost exclusively in
military applications, including as the detonator in nuclear weapons,
in the form of polymer-bonded explosive, and as a solid rocket
propellant.
HMX is used in melt-castable explosives when mixed with TNT,
which as a class are referred to as "octols”.
HMX is also used in the process of perforating the steel casing in
oil and gas wells. The HMX is built into a shaped charge that is
detonated within the wellbore to punch a hole through the steel
casing and surrounding cement out.

33
 The pathway that is created allows formation fluids to flow into the
wellbore and onward to the surface.
The Hayabusa 2 space probe used HMX to excavate a hole in an
asteroid in order to access material that had not been exposed to the
solar wind.
❖ TOXICITY:-
At present, the information needed to determine if HMX
causes cancer is insufficient. Due to the lack of information,
EPA has determined that HMX is not classifiable as to its human
carcinogenicity.
The available data on the effects on human health of
exposure to HMX are limited. HMX causes CNS effects similar to
those of RDX, but at considerably higher doses. In one study,
volunteers submitted to patch testing, which produced skin
irritation. Another study of a cohort of93 workers at an ammunition
plant found no hematological, hepatic, autoimmune, or renal
diseases.
HMX exposure has been investigated in several studies on animals.
Overall, the toxicity appears to be quite low. HMX is poorly
absorbed by ingestion. When applied to the dermis, it induces mild
skin irritation but not delayed contact sensitization. Various acute
and subchronic neurobehavioral effects have been reported in
rabbits and rodents, including ataxia, sedation, hyperkinesia, and
convulsions. The chronic effects of HMX that have been
documented through animal studies include decreased.
34
Hemoglobin increased serum alkaline phosphate and decreased
albumin. Pathological changes were also observed in the animals'
livers and kidneys.
Gas exchange rate was used as an indicator of chemical
stress in Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) eggs, and
no evidence of alterations in metabolic rates associated with HMX
exposure was observed. No data are available concerning the
possible reproductive, developmental, or carcinogenic effects of
HMX. HMX is considered the least toxic amongst TNT and RDX.
Remediating HMX contaminated water supplies has proven to be
successful.
BIODEGRADATION: -
Both wild and transgenic plants can phytoremediate
explosives from soil and water.

35
❖ DYNAMITE: -

PICTRUES OF DYNAMITE

EXPLOSION OF DYNAMITE

36
 Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as
powdered shells or clay) and stabilizers. It was invented by the
Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Gees thact and
patented in 1867. It rapidly gained widescale use as a more
powerful alternative to black powder.
Today, dynamite is mainly used in the mining, quarrying,
construction, and demolition industries. Dynamite is still the
product of choice for trenching applications, and as a cost-effective
alternative to cast boosters. Dynamite is occasionally used as an
initiator or booster for AN and ANFO explosive charges.

❖ HISTORY: -
Dynamite was invented by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobelin the
1860s and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than
black powder, which had been invented in China in the 9th century.
Alfred Nobel's father, Immanuel Nobel, was an industrialist,
engineer, and inventor. He built bridges and buildings in
Stockholm and founded Sweden's first rubber factory. His
construction work inspired him to research newmethods of blasting
rock that were more effective than black powder. After some bad
business company,
Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget
deals in Sweden, in 1838 Immanuel moved his family to Saint
Petersburg, where Alfred and his brothers were educated privately
under Swedish and Russian tutors. At age 17, Alfred was sent
abroad for two years; in the United States he met Swedish engineer
John Ericsson and in France
37
studied under famed chemist Theophile-jules pelouze and his
pupil Ascanio Sobrero who had first synthesized nitroglycerin in
1847. It was in France that Nobel first encountered nitroglycerin,
which Pelouze cautioned against using as a commercial explosive
because of its great sensitivity to shock.
In 1857, Nobel filed the first of several hundred patents, mostly
concerning air pressure, gas and fluid gauges, but remained
fascinated with nitroglycerin's potential as an explosive. Nobel,
along with his father and brother Emil, experimented with various
combinations of nitroglycerin and black powder. Nobel came up
with a solution of how to safely detonate nitroglycerin by inventing
the detonator, or blasting cap, that allowed a controlled explosion
set off from a distance using a fuse. In the summer of 1863, Nobel
performed his first successful detonation of pure nitroglycerin,
using a blasting cap made of a copper percussion cap and mercury
fulminate. In 1864, Alfred Nobel filed patents for both the blasting
cap and his method of synthesizing nitroglycerin, using sulfuric
acid, nitric acid and glycerin. On 3 September 1864, while
experimenting with nitroglycerin, Emil and several others were
killed in an explosion at the factory at Immanuel Nobel's estate at
Heleneborg. After this, Alfred founded the company Nitroglycerin
Aktiebolaget AB in Vinterviken to continue work in a more
isolated area and the following year movedto Germany, where he
founded another company, DynamitNobel.

38
 Despite the invention of blasting cap , the volatility of
nitroglycerin rendered it useless as a commercial explosive. To
solve this problem, Nobel sought to combine it with another
substance that would make it safe for transport and handling but
yet would not reduce its effectiveness as an explosive. He tried
combinations of cement, coal, and sawdust, but was unsuccessful.
Finally, he tried diatomaceous earth, fossilized algae, that he
brought from the Elbe River near his factory in Hamburg, which
successfully stabilized the nitroglycerin into a portable explosive.
Nobel obtained patents for his inventions in England on 7 May
1867 and in Sweden on 19 October 1867. After its introduction,
dynamite rapidly gained widescale use as a safe alternative to black
powder and nitroglycerin. Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and
unlicensed duplicating companies were quickly shut down.
However, a few American businessmen got around the patent by
using a slightly different formula.
Nobel originally sold dynamite as "Nobel's Blasting Powder" but
decided to change the name to dynamite, from Ancient Greek word
dynamics , meaning "power".
➢ MANUFACTURE: -
Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders
about 20 cm (8 in) long and about 3.2 cm (11⁄4 in)in diameter, with
a weight of about 190 grams (1⁄2 troy pound). A stick of dynamite
thus produced contains roughly1 MJ (megajoule) of energy. Other
sizes also exist, rated by either portion (Quarter Stick or Half-
Stick) or by
39
weight manufacturer Dynamite usually rated by weight strength"
(the amount of nitroglycerin it contains), usually from 20% to 60%.
For example, 40% dynamite is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and
60% "dope" (the absorbent storage medium mixed with the
stabilizerand any additives).
➢ STORAGE COSIDERATION: -
The maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin based
dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of
manufacture under good storage conditions.
Over time, regardless of the sorbent used, sticks of dynamite
will "weep" or "sweat" nitroglycerin, which can then pool in the
bottom of the box or storage area. For that reason, explosive
manuals recommend the repeated turning over of boxes of
dynamite in storage. Crystals will form on the outside of the sticks,
causing them to be even more sensitive to shock, friction, and
temperature. Therefore, while the risk of an explosion without the
use of a blasting cap is minimal for fresh dynamite, old dynamite is
dangerous. Modern packaging helps eliminate this by placing the
dynamite into sealed plastic bags, and using wax-coated cardboard.
Dynamite is moderately sensitive to shock. Shock resistance tests
are usually carried out with a drop-hammer: about 100 mg of
explosiveis placed on an anvil, upon which a weight of between 0.5
and 10 kilograms (1.1 and 22.0 lb) is dropped from different heights
until detonation is achieved. With a hammer of 2 kg, mercury
fulminate detonates with a drop distance of 1 to 2 cm,
nitroglycerin with 4 to 5 cm,
40
 dynamite with 15 to 30 cm , ammoniacal explosive with 40to 50cm.

➢ MAJOR MANUFACTURE: -
In south africa for several decades beginning in the 1940s, the
largest producer of dynamite in the world was the Union of South
Africa. There the De Beers company established a factory in 1902 at
Somerset West. The explosives factory was later operated by AECI
(African Explosives and Chemical Advertisement for the Aetna
Explosives Company of New York Industries). The demand for the
product came mainly from the country's vast gold mines, centered on
the Witwatersrand. The factory at Somerset West was in operation in
1903 and by 1907 it was already producing 340,000 cases, 23
kilograms (50 lb) each, annually. A rivalfactory at Modderfontein was
producing another 200,000 cases per year. There were two large
explosions at the Somerset West plant during the 1960s. Some
workers died, but the loss of life was limited by the modular design of
the factory and its earth works, and the planting of trees that directed
the blasts upward. There were several other explosions at the
Modderfontein factory. After 1985, pressure from trade unions forced
AECI to phase out the production ofdynamite. The factory then went
on to produce ammonium nitrate emulsionbased explosives that are
safer to manufacture and handle

41
• TNT AND DYNAMITE DIFFERENCE:-
TNT is most commonly assumed to be the same as (or confused
for) dynamite, largely due to the ubiquity of both explosives during
the 20th century and the Non-dynamite explosives civilian practice
of preparing dynamite charges in 8x1" "sticks" wrapped in red
waxed paper and shaped to fit the cylindrical boreholes drilled in
the rock face. This incorrect connection between TNT and
dynamite was enhanced by Bugs Bunny cartoons where animators
started labeling any kind of cartoon bomb (ranging from sticks of
dynamite to kegs of black powder) as "TNT" because the acronym
was shorter, more memorable and didn't require literacy to
recognize "TNT" meant "bomb" (similar to the use of XXX
markings on whiskey bottles and barrels in cartoons).
In actuality, aside from both being high explosives, TNT and
dynamite have very little in common: TNT is a 2nd generation
castable explosive adopted by the military. The German armed
forces adopted it as a filling for artillery shells in 1902, some 40
years after the invention of dynamite, which is a 1st generation
phlegmatized explosive primarily intended for civilian
earthmoving. TNT has never been popular or widespread in
civilian earthmoving, as it is considerably more expensive and less
powerful by weight than dynamite, as well as being slower to mix
and pack into cylindrical boreholes; for its part, dynamite has never
been popular in warfare because it degenerates quickly under
severe conditions and can be detonated by either ,

42
wayward bullet. TNT’s primary asset is its remarkable
insensitivity and stability: it is waterproof and incapable of
detonating without the extreme shock and heat provided by a
blasting cap (or a sympathetic detonation); this conveniently also
allows it to be melted at 178 °F (81 °C), poured into high explosive
shells and allowed to re-solidify with no extra danger or change in
the TNT's characteristics. As such, more than 90% of the TNT
produced in America was always for the military market, with most
filling shells, hand grenades and aerial bombs and the remainder
being packaged in brown "bricks" (not red cylinders) for use as
demolition charges by combat engineers.
➢ EXTRA DYNAMITE: -
In the United States, in 1885, the chemist Russell S. Penniman
invented "ammonium dynamite", a form of explosive that used
ammonium nitrate as a substitute for the more costly nitroglycerin.
Ammonium nitrate has only 85% of the chemical energy of
nitroglycerin.
It is rated by either "weight strength" (the amount of
ammonium nitrate in the medium) or "cartridge strength" (the
potential explosive strength generated by an amount of explosive
of a certain density and grain size used in comparison to the
explosive strength generated by an equivalent density and grain
size of a standard explosive). For example, high explosive 65%
Extra Dynamite has a weight strength of 65% ammonium nitrate
and 35% "dope" (the absorbent medium mixed with the stabilizers
and additives). "
43
ANFO (the civilian baseline standard) or TNT ( the military
baseline standard) example, 65% ammonium dynamite with a 20%
cartridge strength would mean the stick was equal to an equivalent
weight strength of 20% ANFO.
➢ MILITARY DYNAMITE: -
"Military dynamite" is a dynamite substitute,
formulated without nitroglycerin. It contains 75% RDX, 15%TNT,
5% SAE 10 motor oil, and 5% cornstarch, but is much safer to
store and handle for long periods than Nobel's dynamite. Military
dynamite substitutes much more stable chemicals for nitroglycerin.
REGULATION
Various countries around the world have enacted
explosives laws and require licenses to manufacture, distribute,
store, use, and possess explosives or ingredients.

44
 ➢ RERFERENCE: -

• Childs, John (1994). "Explosives" (Google Books extract).

A dictionary of military history and the art of war. ISBN
978-0-631-16848-5.
• "New Drugs" . Can Med Assoc J. 80 (12): 997–998. 1959.
PMC 1831125 . PMID 20325960 .
• Ebadi, Manuchair S. (1998). CRC desk reference of
clinical pharmacology (Google Books excerpt). p. 383.
ISBN 978-0-8493-9683-0. Deutsches Reichspatent
81,664 (1894).
• Thieme, Bruno "Process of making nitropentaerythrit,"
U.S. patent no. 541,899 (filed: November 13, 1894 ;
issued: July 2, 1895).
• Ritchie, Robert (March 1984). Tech. Report ARLCD-TR-
84004, Improving Quality and Performance of Leads
Loaded with Composition A-5 (PDF). Dover, NJ: Large
Caliber Weapons Systems Laboratory, US Army ARDC.
p. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
• DOD (March 13, 1974). "MIL-C-401E, Composition B,
Rev. C" . EverySpec. p. 3. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
• "Alfred Nobel – Dynamit" (in Swedish). Swedish
National Museum of Science and Technology.
Retrieved 1 October 2017.

45
• "dynamite." The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language .
• Fourth Edition. 2003. Houghton Mifflin Company 19
March 2013 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/dyn
amite.
• "dynamite." Collins English Dictionary – Complete and
Unabridged. 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003.
HarperCollins Publishers 19 March 2013.
• "Austin Powder Guide, Dynamite series page 2" (PDF).
Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2012.
Retrieved 9 June 2012.
• NIST Guide for the Use of the International System of
Units (SI): Appendix B8—Factors for Units Listed
Alphabetically.
• Babrauskas, Vytenis (2003). Ignition Handbook.
Issaquah, WA: Fire Science Publishers/Society of Fire
Protection Engineers. p. 453. ISBN 978-09728111-3-2.

*********- -

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47