Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Agricultural Water Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agwat

Review

Irrigation development and management practices in Ethiopia: A

systematic review on existing problems, sustainability issues and
future directions
Gebremeskel Teklay Berhe a, b, *, Jantiene E.M. Baartman a, Gert Jan Veldwisch c,
Berhane Grum b, Coen J. Ritsema a
a
Soil Physics and Land Management group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
b
School of Civil Engineering, Mekelle University, P.O. Box 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia
c
Water Resources and Management group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor - Dr Z Xiying In spite of the investment and efforts made for irrigation development, many irrigation schemes in Ethiopia are
performing below design expectations leaving huge areas and many beneficiaries out of irrigation. In this study, a
Keywords: systematic literature review was conducted on management practices, problems and future directions of com­
Irrigation munity managed small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia. Out of 1282 published research reports retrieved
Community-managed
from the data bases of Web of Science and Scopus, eventually 83 publications fulfilled the inclusion criteria.
Irrigation technology
Failure and under-performance of irrigation schemes in Ethiopia is reported to mostly relate to problems during
Sustainability
Ethiopia design and implementation and/or operation and maintenance. Low level of community participation, lack of
site specific reliable hydrological data, poorly designed irrigation infrastructures, high construction cost and
delayed project completion are most mentioned problems during the design and implementation phases of
irrigation projects. Presence of weak local scheme managing institutions and users’ exclusion in management
decisions are among the main problems of small-scale irrigation management practices in Ethiopia. Regardless of
their water sources, irrigation schemes face similar problems in Ethiopia. Adoption of a holistic development and
management strategy that integrates technical, socio-economic and environmental aspects is needed to overcome
problems and sustainability challenges of community managed irrigation schemes in Ethiopia. Supporting the
irrigation sector via research-based findings and adoption of advanced technologies needs further investments
and efforts to narrow challenges of irrigation schemes sustainability gaps.

1. Introduction et al., 2020) and provides significant employment to the rural commu­
nity (de Bont et al., 2019; Woodhouse et al., 2017).
Farming practices in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) mainly focus on staple Ethiopia is the second most populated nation in SSA. Its smallholder
crop production for food consumption of the rural poor. They are highly rainfed-based farming system would not be able to fill the food re­
rainfed dependent and characterized by low yields and subject to quirements of the country due to spatial and temporal rainfall vari­
climate driven fluctuations (Burney and Naylor, 2012). Various factors ability, land degradation, fertility depletion and climate change effects
including rainfall variability, land degradation and low levels of soil (Zerssa et al., 2021). Soil moisture stress due to longer dry spells, shorter
fertility are among the production constraints in the region (Worqlul rainy seasons and sometimes a total lack of rain are among the main
et al., 2019). Small-scale irrigation is a priority development in SSA to reasons of crop failure in rainfed Ethiopian farming practices (Araya and
increase agricultural production, ensure food security and reduce Stroosnijder, 2011). Different water harvesting structures have been
poverty levels of rural smallholders (Bjornlund et al., 2020; Sakaki and built for irrigation purposes and to reduce the adverse effects of soil
Koga, 2013). Small-scale irrigation development is also seen as an moisture stress across different parts of Ethiopia (Embaye et al., 2020;
effective way to mitigate climate change effects (Amede, 2015; Balana Haregeweyn et al., 2006). Irrigation development in Ethiopia is

* Corresponding author at: Soil Physics and Land Management group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
E-mail address: gebremeskelteklay.berhe@wur.nl (G.T. Berhe).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107959
Received 25 March 2022; Received in revised form 17 August 2022; Accepted 20 September 2022
Available online 21 October 2022
0378-3774/© 2022 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

embraced as a possible solution to maximize agricultural production to and identify practices and gaps, produce decision making guidance and
satisfy the food demands of the ever-increasing population and improve areas for future studies (Liberati et al., 2009; Munn et al., 2018). A SLR
the income of smallholder farmers. To achieve these objectives multiple method called PRISMA (preferred reporting items for systematic review
irrigation projects have been developed throughout the country ranging and meta-analysis) (Mardani et al., 2019; Moher et al., 2009) was used
from few hectares to tens of thousands of hectares. The Ethiopian gov­ in this research. The PRISMA method includes data resources, inclusion
ernment is investing in the development of small-scale community and exclusion criteria, steps of the review process, data abstraction and
irrigation schemes with the aim to reduce food insecurity (FDRE, 2001a; analysis, interpretation and presentation processes (Koutsos et al.,
Zewdie et al., 2020; Zeweld et al., 2015), poverty reduction and liveli­ 2019). The PRISMA method consists of three steps: searching for liter­
hood improvement (Bacha et al., 2011; Hanjra et al., 2009; Mengistie ature (Section 2.1), determining articles eligibility (Section 2.2) and
and Kidane, 2016; Tesfaye and Bogale, 2008) and improve the nutri­ extraction of data and summarizing (Section 2.3).
tional level (Hagos et al., 2017; Passarelli et al., 2018) of the rural
community.
2.1. Information sources and search strategy
Several studies, however, show that many of the developed irrigation
projects in SSA are performing below their design expectations and are
Primary sources of information for this review were electronic
depleted before their design lifetime due to complex problems of tech­
journal databases of Web of Science and Scopus. A fixed set of inclusion
nical, socio-economic, institutional and environmental aspects (Berhane
criteria was used: articles published in English limited to journal articles
et al., 2016a; Embaye et al., 2020; Haregeweyn et al., 2006). Lack of
in all years available in the databases. The search of articles was un­
access to financial capital, limited market availability and extension
dertaken between May and October 2020. A literature search using the
services, technical failure of physical infrastructures, failure of man­
terms irrigation* and Ethiopia* (Table 1), resulted in a total of 1282
aging organizations, low level of technology adoption and declining
articles, out of which 559 were from Web of science and 723 were from
water availability and quality are among the problems constraining
Scopus. All bibliographical details were imported into Mendeley refer­
community irrigation schemes in SSA (Bjornlund et al., 2020; Burney
ence manager (https://www.mendeley.com) to manage the references
and Naylor, 2012; de Bont et al., 2019; De Fraiture et al., 2014; Msume
and eliminate duplications. After removal of duplicated articles, data
et al., 2022; Poussin et al., 2015). After reviewing scientific studies from
papers, and conference proceedings, 818 articles remained for further
13 SSA countries on small-scale pump irrigation systems, Kamwam­
screening. Article screening was done by reading titles and abstracts
ba-Mtethiwa et al. (2016) reported that the performance of small-scale
relevant to this study and irrelevant articles were removed resulting in
irrigation schemes is not addressed at national or basin level, but at
338 potentially relevant articles. Fig. 1 illustrates this selection process.
the outset of projects. Furthermore, small-scale irrigation schemes in
SSA face critical water management challenges and are proved to be
highly unsustainable (Mutambara et al., 2016). 2.2. Selection and eligibility criteria
The current status and performance of small-scale irrigation schemes
in Ethiopia is not different from those in other SSA countries. Small-scale In the selection and eligibility criteria phase, selected articles were
irrigation schemes in Ethiopia are performing below design expectations evaluated based on the scope of the research work. This phase includes
leaving huge areas out of irrigation. Amede (2015) reported that many defining inclusion and exclusion criteria, assessment of articles based on
irrigation schemes are not operating to their design capacity due to their evidence strength, minimizing bias that may exist and reading
design failure, poor water and agronomic management practices, weak selected articles in depth (Koutsos et al., 2019). Table 2 shows the
local institutions and excessive siltation problems. Research findings predefined inclusion and exclusion set of criteria applied in this study.
from Awulachew and Ayana (2011) also indicated that less than 50% of Information sources such as conference papers, report papers, working
the expected irrigation users have benefitted from irrigation schemes papers, technical papers, and articles not related with irrigation man­
developed. Watershed degradation, lack of sustainable funding for agement were excluded. Articles from plot-based experimental research
operation and maintenance, failure of hydraulic structures and poor were also excluded due to their limitations in addressing the entire
extension services are among the main reasons for under-performance of irrigation system management. The management systems of
irrigation schemes in Ethiopia (Awulachew and Ayana, 2011). Recent state-owned irrigation farms depend on the government institutions’
research results (e.g., Abera et al., 2019; Annys et al., 2020a; Gurmu bureaucratic procedures and community participation in such schemes
et al., 2019; Habtu et al., 2020), indicate the poor performance of is negligible. Hence, research reports and book chapters on state owned
small-scale irrigation schemes in different parts of Ethiopia. irrigation schemes were excluded. 97 peer reviewed articles and book
Even though various studies have indicated the problems and causes, chapters were found as potential articles with a main focus on irrigation
there is no study that addresses the management practices of small-scale management in Ethiopia, but 14 articles were excluded as they were
irrigation schemes at national level in Ethiopia. The objective of this about estate irrigation management practices. Finally, 83 peer reviewed
review paper is therefore to address the management challenges and research articles and book chapters (Appendix A) focusing on
problems of small-scale irrigation schemes and future sustainability di­ small-scale irrigation management in Ethiopia were included in this SLR
rections for improvement in Ethiopia. A systematic literature review for data synthesis and analysis. Koga, a large-scale community irrigation
(SLR) was conducted on management practices, problems and future was also included in this review. The Koga irrigation scheme is managed
directions of community managed small-scale irrigation schemes in by both the community and a project operation unit (POU) having their
Ethiopia. This review is the first of its kind in addressing these issues at boundaries in the scheme. The smallholder community members
national level in Ethiopia, from which we hope to draw lessons and manage tertiary, quaternary and field water distribution systems while
future directions for policy makers and practitioners.
Table 1
2. Research methods The search terms and number of publications from each database.
Data base Search string Number of Date of
This study was conducted using a SLR of small-scale irrigation articles acquisition
management practices in Ethiopia. The SLR is a reliable and less biased Web of Search terms using documents title, 559 01/10/2020
review type that can lead to evidence-based conclusions as compared to Science abstract and keyword: (Irrigation*
the conventional review methods (Koutsos et al., 2019). SLR identify and Ethiopia*)
and retrieve relevant evidences to a particular research question or Scopus Main search terms: (Irrigation* and 723 02/10/2020
Ethiopia*)
questions to appraise and synthesize results of previous research works

2
G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

Fig. 1. Systematic reviewflow diagram for database search and article selection
Modified from Moher et al. (2009).

the POU is responsible to manage and operate the reservoir, primary and
Table 2
secondary distribution systems.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria for article selection.
Criteria Decision
2.3. Data extraction and summarizing
When selected keywords are available in the title, keyword, or abstract of Included
the paper Data and information collected from finally selected articles was
Peer reviewed journal articles and book chapters Included
Journal article published in English Included
inventoried in MS excel spread sheet. Each article of the final selection
Journal articles and book chapters having information on irrigation Included was categorized based on its research focus, spatial scale, irrigation ty­
management in Ethiopia pology, water sources, source of energy, research findings, irrigation
Duplicate papers, data papers, conference proceedings and report papers Excluded management systems and identified problems. Data and information
Research papers done outside of Ethiopia Excluded
were extracted by reading the abstract followed by in-depth reading of
Plot-based experimental research papers; articles not related to irrigation Excluded
management the selected articles’ full content. The spatial scale was categorized as
Articles from estate irrigation schemes Excluded national, regional, district, basin, watershed or scheme, based on the
spatial coverage of the research done. The irrigation typology was
categorized as large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale based on the
Ethiopian irrigation typology classification. Surface water sources such
as river, lake, reservoir and flash flood and ground water sources of wells
and springs were mentioned as the water sources for irrigation. The
sources of energy for water abstraction were categorized as gravity,

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G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

pump or a combination of both. Year of irrigation scheme commence­ 3.2. Irrigation potential and classification systems in Ethiopia
ment, available irrigation scheme infrastructure, number of benefi­
ciaries, and stakeholders in scheme management were also extracted Ethiopia has twelve river basins with an annual flow of 124.5 billion
when available in the literature. m3, estimated groundwater potential of 6.5 billion m3 (Awulachew and
Ayana, 2011), and an estimated irrigation potential that varies from 3.5
3. Results and discussion to 11 million hectares. The national irrigation potential area is not
precisely known or documented in scientific research reports. Most au­
3.1. General characteristics of selected articles thors mentioned that the irrigation potential of Ethiopia is in the range
of 3.7–5.3 million hectares (e.g., Bacha et al., 2011; Belay and Bewket,
The 83 articles which were identified and included were published 2013; Derib et al., 2011; Hagos et al., 2016; Makombe et al., 2007;
between 2004 and 2020. More than 60% of these articles were published Sakketa, 2018; Tesfaye and Bogale, 2008; Teshome et al., 2018). But,
in the last five years, 2015–2020. This could indicate the level of according to Schmitter et al. (2018), the Ethiopian Agricultural Trans­
attention given to small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia in recent formation Agency (ATA) estimated that about 11 Million hectares of
studies. More than 100 community irrigation schemes are described in land would be suitable for irrigation, of which 48% could be irrigated
the selected articles. These schemes are distributed at different parts of using groundwater resources. Irrigation potential does not only involve
Ethiopia (Fig. 2). According to scale-based irrigation classification in the available land area and water, but also includes other biophysical,
Ethiopia (Nakawuka et al., 2018), all identified and analyzed studies socio-economic factors and people’s interest to engage in irrigation ac­
were about small-scale irrigation development and management. Sur­ tivities (Beekman et al., 2014). Biophysical and socioeconomic factors
face water resources from embankment-based reservoirs (30%) are the such as topographic, hydrologic, agronomic and economic issues should
main water sources for the selected irrigation schemes, followed by be considered during the irrigation potential assessment (You et al.,
flowing rivers, streams, lakes, and springs (20%), ground water sources 2011). Hence, this variation of the estimated national irrigation poten­
from shallow wells (12%) and flash floods (11%). The water sources for tial could be related to the recent governments’ commitment to invest in
the remaining 27% of selected irrigation schemes is either from different the irrigation sector (financial factor), the introduction of pressurized
sources or was not mentioned. Flash flood is commonly utilized as a irrigation systems (topographic factor), development of multi-purpose
source of irrigation water supply for spate irrigation systems in semi-arid large reservoirs (water resource availability) (Annys et al., 2020b) and
low lands of Ethiopia (Castelli et al., 2018; Chukalla et al., 2013; Embaye groundwater resource development for irrigation utilization.
et al., 2012; Tola and Haile, 2020; van Steenbergen et al., 2011). Gravity Classification of irrigation schemes under different categories such as
flow irrigation is dominant (about 57%) within the irrigation schemes traditional or modern and small or large-scale is not clearly defined and
described in the selected literature. Pumping systems ranging from remains debatable in many countries. In Tanzania, irrigation classifi­
manually operated treadle pumps to diesel pump (12%) were the energy cation as modern or traditional is a contentious policy issue related to
sources for groundwater and lake-based irrigation schemes. In about 8% the involvement of external agencies in project initiation and operation
of research reports both gravity flow and pumping system were (de Bont et al., 2019). Schemes that are referred to as traditional are
mentioned. initiated and operated by farmers without the involvement of external

Fig. 2. Distribution of community irrigation schemes in Ethiopia.

4
G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

authority, while formally planned and designed schemes by the gov­ Ethiopia, irrigation development is a key option to achieve rapid, in­
ernment are referred to as modern (Beekman et al., 2014; de Bont and clusive and sustainable rural development (Annys et al., 2020a).
Veldwisch, 2020). Classifying irrigation schemes as small or large-scale, Currently, significant focus is given to the development of small-scale
considering the area coverage is not enough (Nakawuka et al., 2018). It irrigation schemes to overcome food insecurity and rural poverty
needs considering the land-holding size of individual farmers and its (Abera et al., 2019; Oates et al., 2020; Sakketa, 2018; Yami, 2013). In
management system. Irrigation schemes are classified as small-scale, the 2005/06 agricultural season about 625,000 ha of land in Ethiopia
when both technology and water sources are self-supplied by in­ was equipped with irrigation systems (Amede, 2015). MoWIE (2020)
dividuals or small groups of farmers and individuals are the decision reported that the national irrigation coverage in Ethiopia increased from
makers on technology used, crops cultivated and sale of the products 160,000 ha in 2010 to 490,000 ha in 2015. Reports on current status of
(Xie et al., 2021). Accordingly, an irrigation scheme with a large com­ irrigation development are different and conflicting to each other. This
mand area might be classified as small-scale when it is composed of discrepancy in estimations shows that the national irrigation potential,
farmers who manage individual plots of less than 2 ha and is then also coverage and status of the currently promoted small-scale irrigation
referred to as smallholder irrigation scheme. schemes development is not well assessed, updated and documented by
In Ethiopia, irrigation schemes are classified based on their size of formal research studies in Ethiopia.
command area, technology used and the management system in the
irrigation scheme (Awulachew and Ayana, 2011). Table 3 shows the 3.3.1. Policy issues on irrigation development and management in Ethiopia
classification of irrigation systems in Ethiopia based on different clas­ Irrigation development and management aspects are described in the
sification criteria. Ethiopian water sector policy (FDRE, 2001a) and the Ethiopian water
sector strategy (FDRE, 2001b) supported with proclamations, regula­
tions and development programs. Irrigation development and adoption
3.3. Irrigation development and challenges in Ethiopia of water harvesting technologies are considered as a priority policy
points to overcome agricultural productivity risks and thus for the
Irrigation development is considered as an important cornerstone to overall economic development of the country. The main objective of
improve agricultural productivity in many African countries (You et al., irrigation development is to expand irrigated agriculture to its possible
2011). The same is expected from irrigation development in Ethiopia. In potential for the production of food crops and raw materials for
agro-industries without degrading the fertility of irrigated fields and
Table 3 water resources bases (FDRE, 2001a). In the water sector policy,
Irrigation schemes classification in Ethiopia. participation of all stakeholders and gender mainstreaming is stated as a
Classification Category Description References mandatory approach during all water resources projects’ study, imple­
Criteria mentation and operation phases.
Size of irrigated Small-scale Command area less Awulachew and Both national water sector policy and water sector strategy try to
area Medium than 200 ha Ayana (2011); address technical, environmental, socio-economic and management as­
scale Command area Eguavoen et al. pects of irrigation projects (Appendix B). Development of multipurpose
Large scale between 200 and (2012);Makombe
and efficient irrigation projects with appropriate technologies supported
3000 ha et al., (2017, 2007);
Command area Sakketa (2018)
by research and extension services is the main target of the irrigation
greater than 3000 ha sub-sector policy. In the policy, implementation of stepwise cost re­
History of Traditional Communal Awulachew and covery systems to cover operation and maintenance costs of small-scale
establishment management system, Ayana (2011);Habtu irrigation schemes is considered as a solution to ensure scheme financial
and diversion weirs are and Yoshinobu
self-reliance. The water sector policy promotes user-based decentral­
management not permanent and (2006);Makombe
system constructed with et al. (2017);Yami ization of irrigation management practices.
local material, (2016)
initiated and 3.3.2. Irrigation development challenges in Ethiopia
operated by irrigators
In spite of the governments’ commitment and effort in investing for
Modern Communal
communal management system,
irrigation development, farmer-managed irrigation schemes have per­
robust concrete formed below their design expectations in Ethiopia (Amede, 2015;
diversion structures Awulachew and Ayana, 2011; Oates et al., 2020). The failure and
or dams, lined main under-performance of irrigation schemes in Ethiopia is mostly related to
canals, constructed
either problems during design and implementation and/or operation
by government or
development and maintenance. Low level of community participation during project
partners, managed study and design phases (Aberra, 2004; Amede, 2015; Wegerich et al.,
and operated by 2008; Yami, 2013), lack of site specific reliable hydrological data
community elected (Embaye et al., 2020; Hagos and Mamo, 2014; Negash et al., 2020),
members and/or
water users
poorly designed infrastructures (Aberra, 2004; Amede, 2015; Chukalla
association (WUA) or et al., 2013; Embaye et al., 2020; Gebremeskel et al., 2018b; Gurmu
cooperatives with the et al., 2019), high construction costs (Butterworth et al., 2013; Yigzaw
support from et al., 2019a) and delayed project completion (Annys et al., 2020a;
government agencies
Mulugeta, 2019) are among the major problems during the design and
Modern Permanent diversion
private structures, privately implementation phases of irrigation projects. A top-down approach that
owned excludes local experiences and community needs is commonly practiced
Modern Constructed, during irrigation development. Due to this approach, community
public operated and participation is highly limited during project initiation and imple­
maintained by
government
mentation phases (Aberra, 2004; Annys et al., 2020a; Bekele and Tila­
enterprises, mostly hun, 2006; Wegerich et al., 2008). In practicing irrigation development,
large-scale schemes gender mainstreaming and participation is often ignored (Imburgia,
for sugarcane 2019; Lefore et al., 2019; Theis et al., 2018; Yami, 2013).
cultivation

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G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

3.4. Irrigation management practices in Ethiopia van Halsema et al., 2011). Water user associations (WUAs) are consid­
ered as important links between external actors and the local community
3.4.1. Institutions for irrigation management in Ethiopia in small-scale irrigation schemes (Yami, 2013). WUAs are registered as
Irrigation water management is a complex process with heteroge­ cooperatives in most schemes (Amede, 2015; Mulugeta, 2019; Oates
neous interests of multiple stakeholders with shared water resources et al., 2020; Tola and Haile, 2020; Yami, 2013) with expectations to
that can lead to conflicts among irrigators at different locations with abide by the rules and regulations of cooperatives agency (Table 4).
different needs (e.g., upstream versus downstream, users of different Community cooperatives assist their members in accessing farm inputs
crops, pump users’ versus canal users) (Amede, 2015). Appropriate or­ and markets for their farm products much more than in irrigation
ganizations are needed to manage, operate and maintain the irrigation management related tasks.
system and closely address the issues of equitable water distribution and Experiences in managing traditional small-scale irrigation schemes
efficient water use (Haileslassie et al., 2016). Institutional setups are with community by-laws enforced by locally elected water distributors
either unavailable or weak in operation in most community small-scale contribute to the existence of centuries-old traditional irrigation
irrigation schemes in Ethiopia (Eguavoen et al., 2012; Mulugeta, 2019; schemes (Adela et al., 2019; Habtu and Yoshinobu, 2006); while many

Table 4
Summary of water users’ associations status in small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia.
Irrigation Establishment and users’ participation WUA leadership WUA governing Existing problems References
scheme rule

Wotera Established in 1993, members do not pay WUA committee Users’ by-law Alignment of committee members with local Adela et al. (2019)
Kechema membership fee, contribute free labor for with 11 members authorities eroding users trust, unfair water
and Wosha canal cleaning, pay money for main canal distribution among users, absence of local
repair when damaged, pay 0.4–1.0 USD for water use policy
operators and guard
Chelekot and Management of water allocation and Community Users’ by-law Ignored existing water masters, Role Amede (2015)
Zatta rotation, water conflict resolution, elected water confusion between WUA and cooperatives
organization for canal clearance, punishment master
for water theft
Guanta Established in 2001 with the help of local No data Users’ by-laws Interference of local authorities to WUAs day Derib et al. (2011);
government for canal maintenance, water to day activities, poor canals maintenance, Eguavoen et al.
allocation, collection of water price and by- dimensional and geometric change of canals, (2012)
laws prepared by regional cooperatives, poor water allocation, by-laws not
customized to local conditions
Shina Established in 2008 for management of WUA elect six Users’ by-laws WUA focus on cooperative works, users lack Abera et al. (2019);
irrigation structures, regulations set in top- committees of trust, lowest level of collective action for Deneke et al.
down approach, users entrance fee of 0.6 USD maintenance, water over abstraction, canal (2011);Eguavoen
and capital contribution of minimum 2.4 breaching et al. (2012)
USD, dispute resolution, sanctions to rule
breakers, registered as cooperatives, conflict
resolution
Ketar Collect operation and maintenance fee, users Elected committee Users’ by-law Poor operation and maintenance practices Gurmu et al. (2019)
fined with 2.0 USD if missed the canal
cleaning schedule and increased to 3.0 USD if
repeated for the second time, by-law rules are
hardly applied for canal cleaning
Arata Chufa Established in 1986 by external actors, collect Elected committee Users’ by-law Poor operation and maintenance practices, Gurmu et al. (2019)
annual operation and maintenance fee of 2.0 WUA functions introduced by external actors
USD for 0.25 ha of land, users free labor (audit, loan, marketing) are inactive
participation in maintenance activity, users
sanctioned with 0.8 USD if missed the
maintenance, WUA non-members charged
6.0 USD for water access
Betmera Established as cooperatives to administer Nominated water Community by- Structures are temporary and maintained Habtu and
water distribution on a rotational basis, father (Abo may) law and every year, Yoshinobu (2006);
mobilize necessary resources for building and communal Oates et al. (2020)
maintenance of structures, resolve conflict decision
among users, identify users’ violating the
rules. Users who missed the maintenance
fined an amount equivalent to the local daily
labor price
Koga Established in 2011 as water cooperatives Community Users’ by-law Committee members occupy multiple Mulugeta (2019)
across nine Kebeles (lowest local elected committee initiated by position and are affiliated with local
administration) and federated to one regional administration
cooperative, by-law presented by the regional cooperative
cooperative, Responsible for operation and
maintenance of tertiary and quaternary
canals, access roads and farm structures and
water allocation
Gumselasa Established with government support and Community Users’ by-law Water allocation and distribution problems, Oates et al. (2020);
registered as cooperatives, water allocation, elected committee lack of technical knowledge for operation Yohannes et al.,
maintenance and operation of irrigation and water father and maintenance, weak WUA enforcement (2019, 2017)
structures, dispute resolution, district level capability
experts play an advisory role,
Haleku and In charge of schemes infrastructures No data No data WUA ineffectiveness and favoritism van Halsema et al.
Dodicha management, water allocation, input (2011)
purchase and product marketing

6
G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

newly developed small-scale irrigation schemes in the same area failed management and operation of community irrigation schemes in
due to low community participation, non-transparent communication Ethiopia (Table 5). In some irrigation schemes, operation and mainte­
and the top-down approach in setting by-laws for WUAs (Annys et al., nance decisions are made by more than one of the decision-making ac­
2020a; Yami, 2013). Weak functioning of the WUA leads to ineffective tors without clear boundary and management roles (Amede, 2015;
irrigation system control, inadequate monitoring and poor community Mulugeta, 2019). Interference of local political leaders and experts
by-law enforcement (Amede, 2015; Nakawuka et al., 2018). In most during the decision-making process also make farmers reluctant to share
small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia, community by-laws set rules their opinion freely (Abera et al., 2019). Table 5 shows the management
for water distribution and allocation, infrastructure maintenance, canals decision making process and experienced problems of seven small-scale
cleaning, fee collection, settling disputes among beneficiaries and irrigation schemes taking their water from different sources.
monetary sanctions for by-law violating members (Sakketa, 2018; Yami, In summary, more funds and attention are devoted to the develop­
2013). In some irrigation schemes, the water use right of individuals is ment of physical infrastructures than social and institutional aspects
dependent on owning irrigation land near to the irrigation scheme with an assumption that farmers will operate and manage the infra­
(Sakketa, 2018) and membership of cooperatives is restricted to land­ structure (Amede, 2015; Deneke et al., 2011; Tilahun et al., 2011). The
holders. In such small-scale irrigation schemes, landless sharecroppers’ low attention given to the institutional and social infrastructure in irri­
participation in WUA committee positions is highly restricted (Oates gation development results in collapse of irrigation schemes and waste
et al., 2020). of financial resources invested for irrigation infrastructural development
In Ethiopia, irrigation users financial capacity is weak to cover the (Aberra, 2004) and the built-neglect-rebuild paradigm (Suhardiman and
operation and maintenance costs of irrigation infrastructure (Amede, Giordano, 2014) is common in many community-managed irrigation
2015). In some irrigation schemes, establishment of WUAs, setting schemes.
by-laws and members responsibilities are done by external actors
neglecting members participation and need (Gurmu et al., 2019; 3.4.2. Problems and challenges in small-scale irrigation management in
Mulugeta, 2019; Yami, 2016). External actors transferred the manage­ Ethiopia
ment of irrigation schemes to WUAs committees without insuring the Community managed small-scale irrigation systems are facing mul­
managerial and financial capabilities of those committees to operate, tiple problems and are poorly performing in terms of livelihood
manage and maintain irrigation schemes (Yami, 2013). Local in­ improvement, cost recovery and scheme sustainability (Abera et al.,
stitutions not initiated and formed by irrigation users follow a top-down 2019; Amede, 2015; Awulachew and Ayana, 2011). Table 6 shows the
approach (Amede, 2015; Habtu and Yoshinobu, 2006; Yami, 2013) and summary of common problems on small-scale irrigation schemes across
lack legitimacy, community acceptance and their by-laws are not well their development and management phases. Poor scheme management
customized to fit local conditions (Eguavoen et al., 2012). In such irri­ practices (Abera et al., 2019; Aberra, 2004; Adela et al., 2019; Asres,
gation schemes, the WUA leadership lacks basic knowledge, skills and 2016; Awulachew and Ayana, 2011; Derib et al., 2011; Jovanovic et al.,
experiences in operating and managing irrigation schemes, resulting in 2018; Tewabe and Dessie, 2020), deterioration of infrastructures
poor operation and maintenance strategies. (Aberra, 2004; Berhane et al., 2016a; Castelli and Bresci, 2017; Froe­
Though decisions about crops and irrigation technology at farm level brich et al., 2020; Nakawuka et al., 2018; Tola and Haile, 2020),
are made by individual users, decisions on scheme irrigation water exclusiveness in development and management decision making (Annys
management vary across irrigation schemes in Ethiopia. Individual users et al., 2020a; Imburgia, 2019; Lefore et al., 2019; Oates et al., 2020;
(Butterworth et al., 2013; Dessalegn and Merrey, 2015; Gowing et al., Sisay, 2018; Theis et al., 2018; Yami, 2013) and limited capacity of
2020), community elected water fathers (Abera et al., 2019; Castelli governing institutions are the major problems of small-scale irrigation
et al., 2018; Habtu and Yoshinobu, 2006), WUAs (Adela et al., 2019; schemes in Ethiopia. Due to these problems many community managed
Derib et al., 2011; Froebrich et al., 2020; Habtu and Yoshinobu, 2006), small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia are irrigating below half of
and POUs (Mulugeta, 2019) are the decision making actors on their design potential leaving more than half of the expected users out of

Table 5
Summary of small-scale irrigation management decision making processes in Ethiopia.
Irrigation scheme Management Roles Experienced problems References
(Water source) decision maker (s)

Bekes (Diversion) Water father Water distribution among Poor water management, Abera et al. (2019)
users and taking legal Physical water scarcity
actions against water theft
Worka WUA Water distribution among Absence of water use Adela et al. (2019)
(Diversion) users based on plot size policy to guide decisions
of WUA
Burka Woldya (-) WUA, Not defined Unclear managerial role Amede (2015)
Cooperatives and and boundary among
Water father decision makers
Harosha (Spate) Water father System operation and Not defined Castelli et al. (2018)
maintenance, water
distribution, apply and
collect penalties
Guanta WUA Water allocation, canal WUA is not functioning Derib et al. (2011)
(Diversion) maintenance and water
pricing rules
Gumselasa WUA Water allocation, Scheme Poor scheme water Froebrich et al. (2020);Habtu et al. (2020)
(Reservoir) operation and management, Weak WUA
maintenance, conflict rule enforcement
management capability
Fogera and Individual When and how much to Conflict over water Dessalegn and Merrey (2015);Eguavoen et al. (2012);Gowing et al. (2020)
Dangila Plains irrigation users irrigate, type of pump during dry season, over
(Shallow technology to be adopted exploitation
aquifer)

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G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

Table 6
Problems and challenges of small-scale irrigation schemes across different implementation and management phases. WUA: Water users association.
Development Problems Problem description Effects of the problem References
phase

Feasibility study Low level of Limited users’ participation during Missing appropriate location of headwork Berhane et al. (2016a);Embaye et al. (2020);
community the feasibility study structures Wegerich et al. (2008)
participation Low community ownership and Yami (2016, 2013)
understanding on WUA’s by-law
Design Data limitation Lack of reliable site-specific Over or under estimation of inflow to Castelli et al. (2018);Chukalla et al. (2013);
hydrological data (Runoff and reservoirs, sedimentation of reservoirs and Embaye et al. (2020);Haregeweyn et al.
sediment) diversion weirs, unreliable water supply (2006);Teka et al. (2013);Tola and Haile
during dry season, structural damage due to (2020)
flooding
Structural design Inadequate engineering studies and Structural failure, canal sedimentation, Berhane et al. (2016b), (2013);Castelli et al.,
problems unsound design practices excessive leakage, spillway erosion, river (2018, 2017);Gurmu et al. (2019);Teka et al.
bank collapse, (2013)
Construction of too deep upstream Leaving up stream located users out of Amede (2015);Wegerich et al. (2008)
canals irrigation
Construction Delayed project Project delay beyond its construction Extra construction cost, livelihood Annys et al. (2020a);Mulugeta (2019);Yigzaw
completion period deterioration et al. (2019a)
Operation, and Poor management Over irrigation, unequitable water Low scheme efficiency, salinity, Adela et al. (2019);Eguavoen et al. (2012);
maintenance practices distribution among users, waterlogging, conflict among users, excess Mintesinot et al. (2007);Tewabe and Dessie
water loss, water scarcity, reduction of (2020);Yohannes et al. (2017);Zeweld et al.
irrigated area (2015)
Structural failure Damaged and failed headwork and Seepage from reservoirs and canals, Abera et al. (2019);Asres (2016);Berhane
distribution infrastructures reservoir outlet blockage, Change on et al. (2013);Beyene et al. (2018);Derib et al.
dimension and geometry, well collapse (2011);van Halsema et al. (2011)
Limited extension Limited extension services, lack of Low level of technology and input adoptions Bacha et al. (2011);Ejigu (2020);
and credit services access to credit services and that would improve irrigation management Gebregziabher et al. (2013);Gebremeskel
technological support to modernize low land and water productivity et al. (2018a);Hanjra et al. (2009);Kassahun
irrigation systems et al. (2016);Tesfaye and Bogale (2008);
Wakeyo and Gardebroek (2015);Zewdie et al.
(2020)
Exclusiveness Excluding FHH, sharecroppers, Unequitable resources share, negligence to Ahmed and Haji (2014);Gebregziabher et al.
landless youth and non-WUA WUAs by-law regulations (2009);Hagos et al. (2012);Imburgia (2019)
members from management decision
making, externally induced WUA by-
laws
Missed social Only technical aspects are considered Over exploitation water from lake and wells Ayenew (2007);Dessalegn and Merrey
aspects in pump irrigation systems (2015);Gowing et al. (2020)
Low institutional Absence and/ or low institutional and Unequitable water distribution, conflict Habtu et al. (2020);Lefore et al. (2019);Tola
and organizational organizational performance of WUAs among users and Haile (2020);Yohannes et al. (2019)
capacity to manage irrigation schemes
Limited financial Limited financial capacity of WUA to Lack of sustainable funding for operation Awulachew and Ayana (2011);Gebregziabher
capacity operate and maintain irrigation and maintenance, challenges in et al. (2013)
schemes institutionalize of cost recovery principle

irrigation (Amede, 2015; Awulachew and Ayana, 2011). 3.5. Towards sustainable irrigation management in Ethiopia
Small-scale irrigation schemes also face common problems with
regards to their different water sources, which affects their performance Sustainable irrigation development is increasingly acknowledged to
and sustainability. Over-application of irrigation water beyond crop promote the conservation of land and water resources towards satisfying
demands is a common problem in irrigation schemes whose source of human needs of the present generations without compromising the
water is from reservoirs, diversion headworks, lakes and groundwater needs of future generations (Cai et al., 2003; Tiewtoy et al., 2011).
(Adela et al., 2019; Afessa and Yosef, 2019; Asres, 2016; Woldearegay Addressing the sustainability issues in irrigated farming is regarded as a
and Van, 2015). Unequitable irrigation water distribution among users prerequisite for long term profitability of farming systems (Dantsis et al.,
is a problem of irrigation schemes from reservoirs, diversion headworks 2010). The sustainability of irrigation development depends on its
and spate irrigation systems. Upstream catchment erosion, reservoir extent on addressing the institutional, economic, social and environ­
sedimentation and salinization are common problems of irrigation mental aspects integrated with appropriate technologies (Antunes et al.,
schemes from natural lakes and built dam reservoirs. Over-irrigation 2017; Dantsis et al., 2010; Mutyasira et al., 2018; Pires et al., 2017;
beyond crop demands is common even for pump irrigated schemes Shady, 1991). According to Harmancioglu et al. (2013) the economic,
that requires extra cost for fuel and /or electricity. In some irrigation social, institutional and environmental issues are considered as the pil­
schemes, water distribution among beneficiaries is under pressure by lars of sustainable water resources management. The sustainability of
illegal water pumping from water sources and distribution systems community managed small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia is
(Amede, 2015; Dessalegn and Merrey, 2015). Though there are technical reviewed considering the institutional, economic, social and environ­
supports and extension services from governmental and mental issues.
non-governmental organizations during irrigation operation and main­
tenance, their interventions are not tailored to local contexts (Abera 3.5.1. Institutional sustainability
et al., 2019; Eguavoen et al., 2012; Embaye et al., 2020; Froebrich et al., Most irrigation managing institutions in Ethiopia are challenged by
2020; Oates et al., 2020). multiple problems such as inferior institutional set-ups, limited financial
capacity, low managerial skill, unclear physical boundary and mana­
gerial roles. Such problems remain unsolved even after modernization of
traditional small-scale irrigation schemes. Muchara and Mbatha (2016)

8
G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

categorized institutional problems of smallholder irrigation schemes Regardless of the national water sector policy, partial investment
into two: Firstly, the top-down approach that ignores those institutions cost recovery and irrigation water pricing systems had not been imple­
from participating during project design and implementation phases. mented yet in Ethiopia. The implementation of investment cost recovery
Secondly, institutions with limited internal capacity and that failed to system is beyond the financial capacity of smallholder farmers due to the
cope with the dynamic nature of challenges and opportunities in irri­ high investment cost (Butterworth et al., 2013; Hagos and Mamo, 2014;
gation schemes. Both institutional problems are common in community Lefore et al., 2019; Yigzaw et al., 2019a) and additional costs resulting
managed irrigation schemes in Ethiopia. If such local institutions are to from over delay of project construction (Annys et al., 2020a). Imple­
be sustained and dynamic in their management, they must evolve from mentation of operation and maintenance cost recovery supported with
the community and not to be imposed externally (Vincent, 1994). research and extension services is expected to be a possible solution to
Indigenous irrigation management systems and traditional local in­ financial problems of local institutions and/or WUAs. Allowing such
stitutions made smallholder irrigation schemes sustainable and func­ institutions to operate business entities related to irrigated farming is
tional for centuries in Asia (Mutambara et al., 2016). Indigenous also an alternative option to solve their financial limitations.
irrigation schemes were also sustained for a longer time in east Africa
(Adams and Watson, 2003). Hence, to address the institutional sus­ 3.5.3. Social sustainability
tainability concerns of community managed small-scale irrigation Women are underrepresented in irrigation managing institutions,
schemes in Ethiopia, there is a need to revisit the challenges related to irrigation development and management decisions in Ethiopia (Imbur­
members participation, establishment of WUA, their structural set-up, gia, 2019; Yami, 2013). Their participation is highly constrained by
skills and capacity, accountability and transparency. Inclusion of multiple technical, social and cultural problems and they are forced to
indigenous community knowledge and limited experience with irriga­ provide their farm land to sharecroppers to get less than half of the
tion project development and management phases are also remarkable harvested product (Eguavoen et al., 2012; Sisay, 2018; Yohannes et al.,
issues in Ethiopia. Implementation of irrigation management transfer 2017). This is mainly due to cultural issues, time consuming household
and participatory irrigation management practices to manage irrigation tasks and deteriorated irrigation infrastructure that need more time to
infrastructure by local communities or WUA is becoming a popular trend operate and maintain (Imburgia, 2019; Lefore et al., 2019; Sisay, 2018;
for community irrigation management in many developing countries Theis et al., 2018). Because of these and other economic related prob­
(Cambaza et al., 2020). Technical support and extension services pro­ lems, women are less likely to adopt appropriate technologies as
vided from government and non-government organizations should be compared to men (Gebremariam et al., 2019; Theis et al., 2018). Low
tailored to the local contexts of scheme managing local institutions. community participation during development and operation of irriga­
tion schemes has resulted in a low sense of project ownership, a low
3.5.2. Economic sustainability knowledge base for design and site selection and community knowledge
In Ethiopia, small-scale irrigation schemes are benefiting the poor in being ignored (Aberra, 2004; Castelli et al., 2018; Dolinska et al., 2020;
ensuring food security through diversified cropping patterns switching Embaye et al., 2020). Without farmer participation during the early
to high value crop production and lowering the risk of crop failure stages of irrigation project modernization, the site selection for head­
(Ahmed and Haji, 2014; Bacha et al., 2011). Development of community work structures may go wrong and result in exclusion of former tradi­
managed small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia is capable of tional irrigation scheme users (Wegerich et al., 2008). Inequitable water
improving water and land productivity and thereby enhancing food distribution among users at different locations (e.g., upstream versus
security and poverty reduction of smallholder households (Hagos et al., downstream, upstream versus midlevel) is common in many small-scale
2017; Mengistie and Kidane, 2016; Tesfaye and Bogale, 2008; Zewdie irrigation schemes in Ethiopia (Teshome et al., 2018; Tola and Haile,
et al., 2019). The average annual income of irrigation user households is 2020; van Steenbergen et al., 2011; Yami, 2016). Promoting users’
more than 50% higher as compared to non-irrigation user households participation in all phases of irrigation development and providing
(Gebregziabher et al., 2009; Makombe et al., 2007). Irrigation user enabling conditions and environment for individual irrigation users to
households have improved their farm income (about 5500 US$ per ha) realize their capacity and needs are among the possible options for
which is more than 40% higher compared to non-irrigation users (Adela solving sustainability issues in irrigation management. Users’ partici­
et al., 2019). In some irrigation schemes, users’ annual average income pation during development, operation and maintenance of irrigation
is three to eight folds higher as compared to non-irrigation users when schemes helps to develop a sense of ownership and responsibility needed
irrigation is combined with innovative water management practices for sustainability of schemes.
(Jovanovic et al., 2020; Zewdie et al., 2019). In addition to its direct
effects, small-scale irrigation improves the crop revenue of rainfed 3.5.4. Environmental sustainability
season through the receptivity of farmers to use yield enhancing modern In Ethiopia, severe problems related to waterlogging and salinization
farm inputs (Zewdie et al., 2019). leads to substantial yield reduction and loss of cultivable land (Gebre­
In spite of small-scale irrigation contribution in ensuring food secu­ hiwot, 2018; Habtu et al., 2020). Salinization of irrigation schemes is an
rity, technology adoption of many smallholder farmers is seen to be ever-increasing problem in the Ethiopian rift valley (Awulachew and
hampered by lack of access to credit and financial services (Bacha et al., Ayana, 2011; Ayenew, 2007; Zeweld et al., 2015). This is due to the
2011; Nakawuka et al., 2018; Wakeyo and Gardebroek, 2015). The utilization of saline lakes for irrigation (Ayenew, 2007), poor irrigation
adoption of appropriate water management technologies is constrained management practices (Abera et al., 2019; Awulachew and Ayana,
by higher investment costs, lack of financial services and poor market 2011), lack of proper drainage facilities (Gebremeskel et al., 2018b) and
integrations (Lefore et al., 2019). The investment cost of irrigation groundwater rise due to over-irrigation (Beyene et al., 2019). According
schemes in Ethiopia varies based on the type of irrigation water source. to Oates et al. (2020), Yohannes et al. (2017) and Abera et al. (2019),
The investment cost of irrigation schemes from groundwater boreholes salinization is also among the main problems that constrain the yield
ranges from 3900 to 6250 US$ per ha (Embaye et al., 2020; Gebreg­ production of community managed irrigation schemes located outside of
ziabher et al., 2009). For irrigation schemes from river diversions, the the rift valley basin. After assessing the salinity level of nine irrigation
investment cost ranges from 3000 to 3150 US$ per ha (Embaye et al., schemes in Tigray region, Gebremeskel et al. (2018b) reported that more
2020; Gebregziabher et al., 2013). In the 2010 s, the construction cost of than 60% of community managed small-scale irrigation schemes are
dam-based reservoir irrigation was about 6750 US$ per ha (Gebreg­ affected by salinity problems. Combined effects of salinity and water­
ziabher et al., 2013), but recent reports (Embaye et al., 2020; Yigzaw logging problems are becoming the main reasons for large potential
et al., 2019b) indicate that construction cost has increased to a range of areas to be left out of irrigation in Ethiopia. Over-exploitation of irri­
12500–18100 US$ per ha. gation water from natural lakes also adversely affects the ecological

9
G.T. Berhe et al. Agricultural Water Management 274 (2022) 107959

stability of these lakes by changing the lake level (Ayenew, 2007),

degrading wetland areas (Mequanent and Mingist, 2019) and polluting
the lakes (Afessa and Yosef, 2019). Implementation of proper irrigation
water management, operation and maintenance and proper manage­
ment of drainage infrastructures could lower the environmental prob­
lems of small-scale irrigation schemes.
Fig. 3 summarizes the multi-dimensional challenges of small-scale
irrigation systems in Ethiopia. Generally, poor operation and mainte­
nance practices are common problems in many irrigation schemes. This
is a combined result of problems that arise from institutional, technical,
and socio-economic aspects. These poor operation and maintenance
practices result in environmental effects of salinization and water­
logging. This in turn risks the sustainability of community-managed
irrigation schemes.
In addition to the above mentioned sustainability and operational
challenges, irrigation shemes in Tigray regional state are facing multi­
dimensional problems due to the current war. Many irrigation schemes
in the region are severely affected by infrastructural damage, lack of
man-power, stolen pumps, stolen and annihilated farm tools, abandon­
ment of farm lands due to farmers insecurity, lack of required farm in­
puts (such as improved seeds, fertilizers and pesticides), freezing of
farmers money in banks and micro-finances as a result of the ongoing
war (Demissie et al., 2022; Nyssen et al., 2022). After comparing the
areal coverage of 14 irrigation schemes before the war (average of 2019
and 2020) and after the war (2021) using remote sensing data, Nyssen Fig. 3. Sustainability challenges of community irrigation schemes in Ethiopia.
et al. (2022), reported that the irrigated area of surveyed schemes was
reduced by 31% as a result of the war in Tigray. Excluding large scale Declaration of Competing Interest
plantation farms and Tekeze river side irrigation schemes, smallscale
irrigation schemes are more resilient to the extent of the extreme shock The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in this
of the Tigray war by shifting from planting cash crops to cereals with research.
minimum land management practices (Demissie et al., 2022; Nyssen
et al., 2022). Data Availability

4. Conclusion No data was used for the research described in the article.

In Ethiopia, small-scale irrigation schemes development is expected Acknowledgements

to improve agricultural productivity and ensure food security of small­
holder households. Water harvesting development for small-scale irri­ The first author (GT Berhe) was funded by Wageningen Graduate
gation schemes is among the priority aspects of the national water sector Schools, grant number 8444151004. Moreover, we are also thankful for
policy. Irrigation users’ annual average income could be improved up to Mekelle University for making necessary arrangements during the re­
eight folds as compared to non-irrigation users’ income, when proper view process.
water management practices are implemented. Irrigation user house­
holds also have a financial capacity to adopt yield enhancing farm inputs Appendix A. Supporting information
and improve their crop production of the rainfed season. Regardless of
their benefits, many of the developed small-scale irrigation schemes in Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
Ethiopia are performing below their expectations leaving considerable online version at doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107959.
users and land areas out of irrigation. Multiple problems related to
technical, institutional, economic, social and environmental aspects References
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