Third Punic War

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Third Punic War

Part of the Punic Wars

The defences of the city of Carthage

Date 149–146 BC
Location Carthaginian territory in what is now Tunisia
Result Roman victory

 Destruction of Carthage

Belligerents

Rome Carthage

Commanders and leaders

Scipio Aemilianus Hasdrubal

Manius Manilius Diogenes

Lucius Marcius Censorinus

Lucius Calpurnius Piso

Strength

36,000–46,000 infantry 20,000 or more soldiers

4,000 cavalry Armed civilians

Casualties and losses

Unknown Up to 750,000 killed, including civilians

 50,000 survivors enslaved

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Third Punic War

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Punic Wars

The Third Punic War (149–146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought
between the cities of Carthage and Rome. The war was fought entirely within
Carthaginian territory, in what is now northern Tunisia. When the Second Punic
War ended in 201 BC, one of the terms of the peace treaty prohibited Carthage from
waging war without Rome's permission. Rome's ally, King Masinissa of Numidia,
exploited this to repeatedly raid and seize Carthaginian territory with impunity. In
149 BC Carthage sent an army, under Hasdrubal, against Masinissa, the treaty
notwithstanding. The campaign ended in disaster as the Battle of Oroscopa ended
with a Carthaginian defeat, and the surrender of the Carthaginian army. Anti-
Carthaginian factions in Rome used the illicit military action as a pretext to prepare a
punitive expedition.
Later in 149 BC, a large Roman army landed at Utica in North Africa. The
Carthaginians hoped to appease the Romans, but despite the Carthaginians
surrendering all of their weapons, the Romans pressed on to besiege the city of
Carthage. The Roman campaign suffered repeated setbacks through 149 BC, only
alleviated by Scipio Aemilianus, a middle-ranking officer, distinguishing himself
several times. A new Roman commander took over in 148 BC and fared equally
badly. At the annual election of Roman magistrates in early 147 BC, the public
support for Scipio was so great that the usual age restrictions were lifted to allow him
to be appointed consul and commander in Africa.
Scipio's term commenced with two Carthaginian successes, but he tightened the
siege and started to build a large mole to prevent supplies from getting into Carthage
via blockade runners. The Carthaginians had partially rebuilt their fleet, and it sortied,
to the Romans' surprise. After an indecisive engagement, the Carthaginians
mismanaged their withdrawal and lost many ships. The Romans then built a large
brick structure in the harbour area that dominated the city wall. Once this was
complete, Scipio led a strong force that stormed the camp of Carthage's field army
and forced most of the towns and cities still supporting Carthage to surrender. In the
spring of 146 BC, the Romans launched their final assault and, over six days,
systematically destroyed the city and killed its inhabitants; only on the last day did
they take prisoners, 50,000 of them, who were sold into slavery. The conquered
Carthaginian territories became the Roman province of Africa, with Utica as its
capital. It was a century before the site of Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city.

Contents

 1Primary sources
 2Background
 3Opposing forces
 4Course of the war
o 4.1149 BC
o 4.2148 BC
o 4.3147 BC
o 4.4146 BC
 5Aftermath
 6Notes, citations and sources
o 6.1Notes
o 6.2Citations
o 6.3Sources

Primary sources[edit]
The main source for most aspects of the Punic Wars[note 1] is the historian Polybius (c. 
200 – c. 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage.[2] His works include
a now-lost manual on military tactics,[3] but he is best known for The Histories, written
sometime after 146 BC.[4][5] He accompanied his patron and friend,[6] the Roman
general Scipio Aemilianus, in North Africa during the Third Punic War;[7] this causes
the normally reliable Polybius to recount Scipio's actions in a favourable light. [8][9][10] In
addition, significant portions of The Histories' account of the Third Punic War have
been lost.[8][11]
The account of the Roman annalist Livy, who relied heavily on Polybius, is much
used by modern historians of the Punic Wars,[12] but all that survives of his account of
events after 167 BC is a list of contents.[13][14] Other ancient accounts of the Third Punic
War or its participants which have also been largely lost include those
of Plutarch, Dio Cassius[15] and the Greek Diodorus Siculus.[16] Modern historians also
use the account of the 2nd-century AD Greek Appian.[17][18] The modern historian
Bernard Mineo states that it "is the only complete and continuous account of this
war".[15] It is thought to have been largely based on Polybius's account, but several
problems with it have been identified. [10][19] These issues mean that of the three Punic
wars, the third is the one about which the least is reliably known. [20] Other sources
include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from
reconstructions.[21]

Background[edit]
In the mid-2nd-century BC, Rome was the dominant power in the Mediterranean
region,[22] while Carthage was a large city-state in the north east of what is now
Tunisia.[23][24] The Carthaginians were referred to by the Romans by
the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus) and is a reference to
Carthage's Phoenician origin. "Punic" derives from this usage.[1] Carthage and Rome
had fought the 23-year-long First Punic War from 264 to 241 BC and the 17-year-
long Second Punic War between 218 and 201 BC. Both wars ended with Roman
victories; the Second when the Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal,
the premier Carthaginian general of the war, at the Battle of Zama, 160 kilometres
(100 mi) south west of Carthage.[25] Africanus imposed a peace treaty on the
Carthaginians which stripped them of their overseas territories, and some of their
African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents[note 2] was to be paid over 50 years.
[26]
 Hostages were taken, and Carthage was prohibited from waging war outside Africa
and in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians
wanted to reject it, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour, and it was accepted in
spring 201 BC.[28][29] Henceforth, it was clear that Carthage was politically subordinate
to Rome.[30]

Map of approximate extent of Numidian, Carthaginian and Roman territory in 150 BC

At the end of the war, Masinissa, an ally of Rome, emerged as by far the most
powerful ruler among the Numidians, the indigenous population which controlled
much of what is now Algeria and Tunisia.[31] Over the following 50 years, he
repeatedly took advantage of Carthage's inability to protect its possessions.
Whenever Carthage petitioned Rome for redress or permission to take military
action, Rome backed Masinissa and refused. [32] Masinissa's seizures of and raids into
Carthaginian territory became increasingly flagrant. In 151 BC Carthage raised a
large army commanded by the previously unrecorded [33] Carthaginian
general Hasdrubal and, the treaty notwithstanding, counter-attacked the Numidians.
The campaign ended in disaster at the Battle of Oroscopa, and the army
surrendered;[34][35] many Carthaginians were subsequently massacred by the
Numidians.[33] Hasdrubal escaped to Carthage, where, in an attempt to placate Rome,
he was condemned to death.[36]
Carthage paid off its indemnity in 151 BC[37] and was prospering economically[38] but
was no military threat to Rome.[39] Nevertheless, there had long been a faction within
the Roman Senate that had wished to take military action against Carthage. [40] For
example, the dislike of Carthage by the senior senator Cato was so well known that
since the 18th century, he has been credited with ending all of his speeches
with Carthago delenda est ("Carthage must be destroyed").[41][42] The opposing faction
included Scipio Nasica, who argued that fear of a strong enemy such as Carthage
would keep the common people in check and avoid social division. [33][43] Cato was a
member of an embassy to Carthage, probably in 153 BC, and noted her growing
economy and strength;[43] Nasica was likely a member of the same embassy.[44] Using
the illicit Carthaginian military action as a pretext, [40] Rome began preparing a punitive
expedition.[45]
 A silver double shekel from Carthage's last mint of coins before its destruction.[46]

Modern scholars have advanced several theories as to why Rome was eager for war.
[47]
 These include: a Roman fear of Carthaginian commercial competition; [48][49][50] a desire
to forestall a wider war which might have broken out with the death of Masinissa, who
was aged 89 at the time;[51] the factional use of Carthage as a political "bogeyman",
irrespective of her true power;[52][53] a greed for glory and loot;[48][54] and a desire to quash
a political system which Rome considered anathema.[52] No consensus has been
reached regarding these and other hypotheses. [55] Carthaginian embassies attempted
to negotiate with Rome, which responded evasively. [36][56] The large North African port
city of Utica, some 55 km (34 mi) north of Carthage,[57] went over to Rome in 149 BC.
Aware that its harbour would greatly facilitate any assault on Carthage, the Senate
and the People's Assembly of Rome declared war on Carthage.[34][58]
The Romans elected two men each year, known as consuls, as senior magistrates,
who at time of war would each lead an army; on occasion, their term was extended. [59]
[60][61]
 A large Roman army landed at Utica in 149 BC under both consuls for the
year, Manius Manilius commanding the army and Lucius Marcius Censorinus the
fleet. The Carthaginians continued to attempt to appease Rome and sent an
embassy to Utica. The consuls demanded that they hand over all weaponry, and
reluctantly the Carthaginians did so. Large convoys took enormous stocks of
equipment from Carthage to Utica. Surviving records state that these included
200,000 sets of armour and 2,000 catapults. Their warships all sailed to Utica and
were burnt in the harbour.[62] Once Carthage was disarmed, Censorinus made the
further demand that the Carthaginians abandon their city and relocate 16 km (10 mi)
away from the sea; Carthage would then be destroyed. [62][63] The Carthaginians
abandoned negotiations and prepared to defend their city. [64]

Opposing forces[edit]
The city of Carthage itself was unusually large for the time: modern scholars give
population estimates ranging from 90,000 to 800,000. Any of these would make
Carthage one of the most populous cities in the Mediterranean area at the time. [65][66] It
was strongly fortified with walls of more than 35 km (20 mi) circumference.
[67]
 Defending the main approach from the land were three lines of defences, of which
the strongest was a brick-built wall 9 metres (30 ft) wide and 15–20 metres (50–70 ft)
high with a 20-metre-wide (70 ft) ditch in front of it. Built into this wall was a barracks
capable of holding over 24,000 soldiers. [63][68] The city had few reliable sources of
ground water but possessed a complex system to catch and channel rainwater and
many cisterns to store it.[69]
The Carthaginians raised a strong and enthusiastic force to garrison the city from
their citizenry and by freeing all slaves willing to fight. [64][70][71] They also formed a field
army at least 20,000 strong,[72] which was placed under Hasdrubal, freshly released
from his condemned cell. This army was based at Nepheris, 25 km (16 mi) south of
Carthage.[73] Appian gives the strength of the Roman army which landed in Africa as
84,000 soldiers; modern historians estimate it at 40,000–50,000 men, of whom 4,000
were cavalry.[68][74]

Course of the war[edit]

Further information: Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)
149 BC[edit]
Further information: Battle of Lake Tunis and Battle of Nepheris (149  BC)
The Roman army moved to Carthage and settled down for a siege after an
unsuccessful attempt to scale the city walls. They set up two camps under command
of legates: Censorinus's had the primary role of protecting the beached Roman ships,
and Manilius's housed the Roman legions. Hasdrubal moved up his army to harass
the Roman supply lines and foraging parties.[75] The Romans launched another
assault on the city but were repulsed again by the defending Carthaginians. Scipio
Aemilianus, the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus, who was serving as
a tribune – a middle-ranking military position – held back his men, and was able to
deploy them to beat off the pursuing Carthaginians, preventing heavy losses. [76][77]

Catapulta by Edward Poynter, 1868; modern depiction of a Roman siege engine during the siege of
Carthage

The camp established by Censorinus was badly situated and, by early summer, was
so pestiferous that the Romans were forced to move it to a healthier location. The
new location was not as defensible, and the Carthaginians inflicted significant losses
on the Roman fleet with fireships.[76] The Romans made these attacks more difficult
for the Carthaginians by building additional fortifications. [78] Nevertheless, the
Carthaginians repeatedly attacked the camps. In the midst of often confused and
chaotic fighting, Scipio distinguished himself by his role in thwarting these assaults;
the discipline which he imposed on his troops was in contrast with the behaviour of
most of the rest of the Roman army.[79]
Manilius decided to strike against the Carthaginians' main camp near Nepheris,
despite its strong position and fortifications. Arriving there, Manilius ordered an
immediate assault, against Scipio's advice. This initially went well, but the Romans
advanced into an untenable position. When they attempted to withdraw, they were
attacked by the Carthaginians, who inflicted heavy casualties. Scipio led 300 cavalry
in a series of limited and well-disciplined charges and threats which caused the
Carthaginians to pause for long enough for most of the infantry to complete their
retreat. That night Scipio led his cavalry back to rescue a trapped group of Romans.
  The Roman column retreated to its camp near Carthage, where a committee from
[80]

the Senate had arrived to evaluate Scipio and Manilius' progress. Scipio's
performance was prominent in their subsequent report. [81] Scipio made contact with
several of the leaders of Carthage's Numidian cavalry, then joined a second, better-
planned expedition led by Manilius against Hasdrubal at Nepheris. Despite the
greater forethought, the Romans made no progress, although one of the Numidians
contacted by Scipio did defect to the Romans with 2,200 men. Manilius withdrew
after the Romans ran out of food, and Scipio led the Romans' new allies on a
successful foraging expedition.[82][83]
148 BC[edit]
The Romans elected two new consuls in 148 BC, but only one of them was sent to
Africa: Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus; Lucius Hostilius Mancinus commanded
the navy as his subordinate. He pulled back the close siege of Carthage to a
looser blockade and attempted to mop up the other Carthaginian-supporting cities in
the area. He failed: Neapolis surrendered and was subsequently sacked,
but Aspis withstood assaults from both the Roman army and navy, while Hippo was
fruitlessly besieged. A Carthaginian sortie from Hippo destroyed the Roman siege
engines causing them to break off the campaign and go into winter quarters.
Hasdrubal, already in charge of the Carthaginian field army, overthrew the civilian
leadership of Carthage and took command himself. Carthage allied with Andriscus, a
pretender to the Macedonian throne. Andriscus had invaded Roman Macedonia,
defeated a Roman army, had himself crowned King Philip VI, and sparked the Fourth
Macedonian War.[84][85]
147 BC[edit]
Further information: Battle of the Port of Carthage and Battle of Nepheris (147  BC)

Arrowheads, remains of a dagger and stones for slingshots exhibited at the National Museum of Carthage

Scipio intended to stand in the 147 BC elections for the post of aedile, which was a
natural progression for him. Aged 36 or 37, he was too young to stand as consul, for
which by the Lex Villia the minimum age was 41. There was considerable political
manoeuvring behind the scenes. Scipio and his partisans played on his successes
over the previous two years and the fact that it was his adoptive grandfather, Scipio
Africanus, who had sealed Roman victory in Africa in the Second Punic War. Public
demand to appoint him as consul, and so allow him to take charge of the African war,
was so strong that the Senate put aside the age requirements for all posts for the
year. Scipio was elected consul and appointed to sole command in Africa; usually
theatres were allocated to the two consuls by lot. He was granted the usual right
to conscript enough men to make up the numbers of the forces there and the unusual
entitlement to enroll volunteers.[86][87]
Scipio moved the Romans' main camp back to near Carthage, closely observed by a
Carthaginian detachment of 8,000. He made a speech demanding tighter discipline
and dismissed those soldiers he considered ill-disciplined or poorly motivated. He
then led a successful night attack and broke into the city with 4,000 men. Panicked in
the dark, the Carthaginian defenders, after an initial fierce resistance, fled. Scipio
decided that his position would be indefensible once the Carthaginians reorganised
themselves in daylight, and so withdrew. [88] Hasdrubal, horrified at the way the
Carthaginian defences had collapsed, had Roman prisoners tortured to death on the
walls, in sight of the Roman army. He was reinforcing the will to resist in the
Carthaginian citizens; from this point, there could be no possibility of negotiation or
even surrender. Some members of the city council denounced his actions and
Hasdrubal had them too put to death and took full control of the city. [89][90]

A World War II USAAF aerial reconnaissance photograph of the remains of the naval base of the city of
Carthage. The remains of the mercantile harbour are in the centre and those of the military harbour are
bottom right.

The renewed close siege cut off landward entry to the city, but a tight
seaward interdiction was all but impossible with the naval technology of the time.
Frustrated at the amount of food being shipped into the city, Scipio built an
immense mole to cut off access to the harbour via blockade runners. The
Carthaginians responded by cutting a new channel from their harbour to the sea.
They had built a new fleet, and once the channel was complete, the Carthaginians
sailed out, taking the Romans by surprise. In the ensuing Battle of the Port of
Carthage the Carthaginians held their own, but when withdrawing at the end of the
day, many of their ships were trapped against the city's sea wall and sunk or
captured.[91][92] The Romans now attempted to advance against the Carthaginian
defences in the harbour area, eventually gaining control of the quay. Here, over
several months, they constructed a brick structure as high as the city wall, which
enabled up to 4,000 Romans to fire onto the Carthaginian ramparts from short range.
[93][94][95]

Once this feature was complete, Scipio detached a large force and led it against the
Carthaginian field army at Nepheris. The Carthaginians, commanded by a Greek
named Diogenes, had established a fortified camp for their winter quarters. Late in
147 BC, Scipio directed an assault on the camp from several directions and overran
it. Fleeing Carthaginians were pursued by Rome's mounted Numidian allies, and few
escaped. The town of Nepheris was then besieged and surrendered after three
weeks. Most of the fortified positions still holding out in Carthage's hinterland now
opened their gates.[95][96]
146 BC[edit]
Scipio's position as the Roman commander in Africa was extended for a year in
146 BC.[97] In the spring he launched a full-scale assault from the harbour area, which
successfully breached the walls.[98] Over six days,[99] the Romans systematically
worked their way through the residential part of the city, killing everyone they
encountered and setting the buildings behind them on fire. [93] On the last day Scipio
agreed to accept prisoners, except for 900 Roman deserters in Carthaginian service,
who fought on from the Temple of Eshmoun and burnt it down around themselves
when all hope was gone.[100] At this point, Hasdrubal surrendered to Scipio on the
promise of his life and freedom. Hasdrubal's wife, watching from a rampart, then
blessed Scipio, cursed her husband, and walked into the temple with her children to
burn to death.[101]
50,000 Carthaginian prisoners were sold into slavery. [102] The notion that Roman
forces then sowed the city with salt is likely[103][note 3] a 19th-century invention.[104][105]
[106]
 Many of the religious items and cult-statues which Carthage had pillaged from
Sicilian cities and temples over the centuries were returned with great ceremony. [107]

Aftermath[edit]

Ruins of the Punic Quarter, Carthage, in 2005

Rome was determined that the city of Carthage remain in ruins. The Senate
despatched a ten-man commission, and Scipio was ordered to carry out further
demolitions. A curse was placed on anyone who might attempt to resettle the site in
the future.[108] The former site of the city was confiscated as ager publicus, public land.
[109]
 Scipio celebrated a triumph and took the agnomen "Africanus", as had his
adoptive grandfather.[101][102] Hasdrubal's fate is not known, although he had
surrendered on the promise of a retirement to an Italian estate. [101] The formerly
Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become
the Roman province of Africa, with Utica as its capital.[109][110] The province became a
major source of grain and other food.[111]
The Punic cities which had stood by Carthage to the end were forfeit to Rome
as ager publicus, or, as in the case of Bizerte, were destroyed.[109][108] Surviving cities
were permitted to retain at least elements of their traditional system of government
and culture.[112][113] The Romans did not interfere in the locals' private lives, and Punic
culture, language and religion survived, and is known to modern scholars as "Neo-
Punic civilization".[114][115] The Punic language continued to be spoken in north Africa
until the 7th century AD.[116][117]
In 123 BC, a reformist faction in Rome led by Gaius Gracchus was eager
to redistribute land, including publicly held land. This included the site of Carthage,
and a controversial law was passed ordering the establishment of a new settlement
there, called Junonia. Conservatives argued against the law and, after its passage,
spread rumours that markers delimitating the new settlement had been dug up by
wolves – a very poor omen. These rumours, and other political machinations, caused
the plan to be scrapped.[note 4][120] In 111 BC, legislation repeated the injunction against
any resettlement.[121] A century after the war, Julius Caesar planned to rebuild
Carthage as a Roman city, but little work was done. Augustus revived the concept in
29 BC and brought the plan to completion. Roman Carthage had become one of the
main cities of Roman Africa by the time of the Empire.[122][123]
Rome still exists as the capital of Italy; the ruins of Carthage lie 16 km (10 mi) east of
modern Tunis on the North African coast.[24] A symbolic peace treaty was signed
by Ugo Vetere and Chedli Klibi, the mayors of Rome and modern Carthage,
respectively, on 5 February 1985; 2,131 years after the war ended. [124] As of 2020 the
modern settlement of Carthage was a district of the city of Tunis. [24]

Notes, citations and sources[edit]

Notes[edit]
1. ^ The term Punic comes from
the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning
"Carthaginian" and is a reference to the
Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.[1]
2. ^ Several different "talents" are known from antiquity. The
ones referred to in this article are all Euboic (or Euboeic)
talents.[26] At the time of the Second Punic War 10,000
talents was approximately 269,000 kg (265 long tons) of
silver.[27]
3. ^ While this idea was not widely known amongst historians
prior to the nineteenth century, it remains unclear if it
originated with a modern contributor. References were
made juxtaposing the sack of Carthage with sowing of the
fields long before the 19th century, though whether these
were referencing history or simply using hyperbole is
unclear.
4. ^ Gracchus, who had fought under Scipio during the war
in Africa,[118] continued to push his land reform agenda, and
in 121 BC was murdered, along with 3,000 of his
partisans.[119]

Citations[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b Sidwell & Jones 1998, p. 16.
2. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 20–21.
3. ^ Shutt 1938, p. 53.
4. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 20.
5. ^ Walbank 1990, pp. 11–12.
6. ^ Astin 2006, p. 5.
7. ^ Champion 2015, pp. 96, 108.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 21.
9. ^ Astin 2006, pp. 5–6.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b Walbank 1979, p. 662.
11. ^ Hoyos 2015, p. 2.
12. ^ Champion 2015, p. 95.
13. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 22.
14. ^ Mineo 2015, p. 123.
15. ^ Jump up to:a b Mineo 2015, p. 126.
16. ^ Mineo 2015, p. 119.
17. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 430.
18. ^ Mineo 2015, p. 125.
19. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 22–23.
20. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 24.
21. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 23, 98.
22. ^ Holland 2004, p. 10.
23. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 324–325.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b c UNESCO 2020.
25. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 289, 295–298.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Lazenby 1998, p. 228.
27. ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 158.
28. ^ Miles 2011, p. 317.
29. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 308–309.
30. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 303, 305–306.
31. ^ Kunze 2015, p. 398.
32. ^ Kunze 2015, pp. 398, 407.
33. ^ Jump up to:a b c Bagnall 1999, p. 307.
34. ^ Jump up to:a b Kunze 2015, p. 407.
35. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 336–337.
36. ^ Jump up to:a b Bagnall 1999, p. 308.
37. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 332.
38. ^ Kunze 2015, pp. 405, 408.
39. ^ Kunze 2015, p. 408.
40. ^ Jump up to:a b Kunze 2015, p. 399.
41. ^ Miles 2011, p. 336.
42. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, p. 79.
43. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 333.
44. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, p. 80.
45. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 337.
46. ^ Jenkins & Lewis 1963, p. 53.
47. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, p. 81.
48. ^ Jump up to:a b Le Bohec 2015, p. 432.
49. ^ Harris 2006, p. 156.
50. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, pp. 81–82.
51. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, pp. 82, 85.
52. ^ Jump up to:a b Le Bohec 2015, pp. 431–432.
53. ^ Harris 2006, p. 154.
54. ^ Harris 2006, p. 155.
55. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, pp. 81, 87–88.
56. ^ Harris 2006, p. 151.
57. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 437.
58. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 337–338.
59. ^ Beard 2016, p. 127.
60. ^ Holland 2004, pp. 154–155.
61. ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 24.
62. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 338–339.
63. ^ Jump up to:a b Purcell 1995, p. 134.
64. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 339.
65. ^ Hoyos 2005, p. 225.
66. ^ Miles 2011, p. 342.
67. ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 313.
68. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 340.
69. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 342–343.
70. ^ Le Bohec 2015, pp. 438–439.
71. ^ Miles 2011, p. 341.
72. ^ Harris 2006, p. 159.
73. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 439.
74. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 436.
75. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 341.
76. ^ Jump up to:a b Bagnall 1999, p. 314.
77. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 342–343.
78. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 343.
79. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 343–344.
80. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 314–315.
81. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 344–345.
82. ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 315.
83. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 345–346.
84. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 346.
85. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 315–316.
86. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 346–347.
87. ^ Astin 1967, pp. 61–69.
88. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 348–349.
89. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 440.
90. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 349.
91. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 349–350.
92. ^ Miles 2011, p. 2.
93. ^ Jump up to:a b Le Bohec 2015, p. 441.
94. ^ Miles 2011, p. 346.
95. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 351.
96. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 317–318.
97. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 347.
98. ^ Miles 2011, p. 3.
99. ^ Miles 2011, p. 4.
100. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 3–4.
101. ^ Jump up to:a b c Le Bohec 2015, p. 442.
102. ^ Jump up to:a b Scullard 2002, p. 316.
103. ^ Sedgwick, Henry Dwight (2005). Italy In The Thirteenth
Century, Part Two. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p.
324. ISBN 978-1-4179-6638-7.
104. ^ Ridley 1986, pp. 144–145.
105. ^ Ripley & Dana 1858–1863, p. 497.
106. ^ Purcell 1995, p. 140.
107. ^ Purcell 1995, pp. 141–142.
108. ^ Jump up to:a b Miles 2011, p. 353.
109. ^ Jump up to:a b c Le Bohec 2015, p. 443.
110. ^ Scullard 2002, pp. 310, 316.
111. ^ Mitchell 2007, p. 345.
112. ^ Fantar 2015, pp. 455–456.
113. ^ Pollard 2015, p. 249.
114. ^ Le Bohec 2015, pp. 443–445.
115. ^ Fantar 2015, p. 454.
116. ^ Jouhaud 1968, p. 22.
117. ^ Scullard 1955, p. 105.
118. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 361.
119. ^ Miles 2011, p. 355.
120. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 354–355.
121. ^ Miles 2011, p. 448.
122. ^ Richardson 2015, pp. 480–481.
123. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 363–364.
124. ^ Fakhri 1985.
Sources[edit]
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History: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C., Volume 8, 2nd
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of Carthage (148–146 BC)". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.). A Companion
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1190-2550-4.
 Fakhri, Habib (1985).  "Rome and Carthage Sign Peace Treaty
Ending Punic Wars After 2,131 Years". AP News.  Associated
Press. Retrieved  13 August 2020.
 Fantar, M’hamed-Hassine (2015) [2011]. "Death and
Transfiguration: Punic Culture after 146". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).  A
Companion to the Punic Wars. Chichester, West Sussex: John
Wiley. pp. 449–466. ISBN 978-1-1190-2550-4.
 Goldsworthy, Adrian  (2006). The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars
265–146 BC. London: Phoenix.  ISBN  978-0-304-36642-2.
 Harris, W. V.  (2006) [1989]. "Roman Expansion in the West". In
Astin, A. E.;  Walbank, F. W.; Frederiksen, M. W. & Ogilvie, R. M.
(eds.).  Cambridge Ancient History: Rome and the Mediterranean to
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Nord (in French). Paris: Éditions des Deux Cogs
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Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp.  395–411.  ISBN  978-1-
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85668-080-9.
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Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).  A
Companion to the Punic Wars. Chichester, West Sussex: John
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(eds.).  Ethics and Rhetoric: Classical Essays for Donald Russell on
his Seventy Fifth Birthday. Oxford: Clarendon. pp.  133–
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 Scullard, Howard (1955). "Carthage". Greece & Rome. 2  (3): 98–
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48519024.
 Scullard, Howard H. (2002).  A History of the Roman World, 753 to
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 Shutt, Rowland (1938). "Polybius: A Sketch". Greece &
Rome. 8  (22): 50–
57. doi:10.1017/S001738350000588X.  JSTOR  642112.  S2CID 16
2905667.
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Introduction to Roman Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.  ISBN  978-0-521-38600-5.
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Retrieved  26 July 2020.
 Vogel-Weidemann, Ursula (1989). "Carthago delenda est: Aitia and
Prophasis".  Acta Classica. 2  (32): 79–95.  JSTOR  2459-1872.
 Walbank, F.W. (1979).  A Historical Commentary on Polybius.
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 Walbank, F.W. (1990).  Polybius. Vol.  1. Berkeley: University of
California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06981-7.

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Third Punic War

Part of the Punic Wars

 The defences of the city of Carthage

Date 149–146 BC
Location Carthaginian territory in what is now Tunisia
Result Roman victory

 Destruction of Carthage

Belligerents

Rome Carthage

Commanders and leaders

Scipio Aemilianus Hasdrubal

Manius Manilius Diogenes

Lucius Marcius Censorinus

Lucius Calpurnius Piso

Strength

36,000–46,000 infantry 20,000 or more soldiers

4,000 cavalry Armed civilians

Casualties and losses

Unknown Up to 750,000 killed, including civilians

50,000 survivors enslaved

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Third Punic War
 show
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 e
Punic Wars

The Third Punic War (149–146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought
between the cities of Carthage and Rome. The war was fought entirely within
Carthaginian territory, in what is now northern Tunisia. When the Second Punic
War ended in 201 BC, one of the terms of the peace treaty prohibited Carthage from
waging war without Rome's permission. Rome's ally, King Masinissa of Numidia,
exploited this to repeatedly raid and seize Carthaginian territory with impunity. In
149 BC Carthage sent an army, under Hasdrubal, against Masinissa, the treaty
notwithstanding. The campaign ended in disaster as the Battle of Oroscopa ended
with a Carthaginian defeat, and the surrender of the Carthaginian army. Anti-
Carthaginian factions in Rome used the illicit military action as a pretext to prepare a
punitive expedition.
Later in 149 BC, a large Roman army landed at Utica in North Africa. The
Carthaginians hoped to appease the Romans, but despite the Carthaginians
surrendering all of their weapons, the Romans pressed on to besiege the city of
Carthage. The Roman campaign suffered repeated setbacks through 149 BC, only
alleviated by Scipio Aemilianus, a middle-ranking officer, distinguishing himself
several times. A new Roman commander took over in 148 BC and fared equally
badly. At the annual election of Roman magistrates in early 147 BC, the public
support for Scipio was so great that the usual age restrictions were lifted to allow him
to be appointed consul and commander in Africa.
Scipio's term commenced with two Carthaginian successes, but he tightened the
siege and started to build a large mole to prevent supplies from getting into Carthage
via blockade runners. The Carthaginians had partially rebuilt their fleet, and it sortied,
to the Romans' surprise. After an indecisive engagement, the Carthaginians
mismanaged their withdrawal and lost many ships. The Romans then built a large
brick structure in the harbour area that dominated the city wall. Once this was
complete, Scipio led a strong force that stormed the camp of Carthage's field army
and forced most of the towns and cities still supporting Carthage to surrender. In the
spring of 146 BC, the Romans launched their final assault and, over six days,
systematically destroyed the city and killed its inhabitants; only on the last day did
they take prisoners, 50,000 of them, who were sold into slavery. The conquered
Carthaginian territories became the Roman province of Africa, with Utica as its
capital. It was a century before the site of Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city.

Contents

 1Primary sources
 2Background
 3Opposing forces
 4Course of the war
o 4.1149 BC
 o 4.2148 BC
o 4.3147 BC
o 4.4146 BC
 5Aftermath
 6Notes, citations and sources
o 6.1Notes
o 6.2Citations
o 6.3Sources

Primary sources[edit]
The main source for most aspects of the Punic Wars[note 1] is the historian Polybius (c. 
200 – c. 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage.[2] His works include
a now-lost manual on military tactics,[3] but he is best known for The Histories, written
sometime after 146 BC.[4][5] He accompanied his patron and friend,[6] the Roman
general Scipio Aemilianus, in North Africa during the Third Punic War;[7] this causes
the normally reliable Polybius to recount Scipio's actions in a favourable light. [8][9][10] In
addition, significant portions of The Histories' account of the Third Punic War have
been lost.[8][11]
The account of the Roman annalist Livy, who relied heavily on Polybius, is much
used by modern historians of the Punic Wars,[12] but all that survives of his account of
events after 167 BC is a list of contents.[13][14] Other ancient accounts of the Third Punic
War or its participants which have also been largely lost include those
of Plutarch, Dio Cassius[15] and the Greek Diodorus Siculus.[16] Modern historians also
use the account of the 2nd-century AD Greek Appian.[17][18] The modern historian
Bernard Mineo states that it "is the only complete and continuous account of this
war".[15] It is thought to have been largely based on Polybius's account, but several
problems with it have been identified. [10][19] These issues mean that of the three Punic
wars, the third is the one about which the least is reliably known. [20] Other sources
include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from
reconstructions.[21]

Background[edit]
In the mid-2nd-century BC, Rome was the dominant power in the Mediterranean
region,[22] while Carthage was a large city-state in the north east of what is now
Tunisia.[23][24] The Carthaginians were referred to by the Romans by
the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus) and is a reference to
Carthage's Phoenician origin. "Punic" derives from this usage.[1] Carthage and Rome
had fought the 23-year-long First Punic War from 264 to 241 BC and the 17-year-
long Second Punic War between 218 and 201 BC. Both wars ended with Roman
victories; the Second when the Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal,
the premier Carthaginian general of the war, at the Battle of Zama, 160 kilometres
(100 mi) south west of Carthage.[25] Africanus imposed a peace treaty on the
Carthaginians which stripped them of their overseas territories, and some of their
African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents[note 2] was to be paid over 50 years.
[26]
 Hostages were taken, and Carthage was prohibited from waging war outside Africa
and in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians
wanted to reject it, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour, and it was accepted in
spring 201 BC.[28][29] Henceforth, it was clear that Carthage was politically subordinate
to Rome.[30]

Map of approximate extent of Numidian, Carthaginian and Roman territory in 150 BC

At the end of the war, Masinissa, an ally of Rome, emerged as by far the most
powerful ruler among the Numidians, the indigenous population which controlled
much of what is now Algeria and Tunisia.[31] Over the following 50 years, he
repeatedly took advantage of Carthage's inability to protect its possessions.
Whenever Carthage petitioned Rome for redress or permission to take military
action, Rome backed Masinissa and refused. [32] Masinissa's seizures of and raids into
Carthaginian territory became increasingly flagrant. In 151 BC Carthage raised a
large army commanded by the previously unrecorded [33] Carthaginian
general Hasdrubal and, the treaty notwithstanding, counter-attacked the Numidians.
The campaign ended in disaster at the Battle of Oroscopa, and the army
surrendered;[34][35] many Carthaginians were subsequently massacred by the
Numidians.[33] Hasdrubal escaped to Carthage, where, in an attempt to placate Rome,
he was condemned to death.[36]
Carthage paid off its indemnity in 151 BC[37] and was prospering economically[38] but
was no military threat to Rome.[39] Nevertheless, there had long been a faction within
the Roman Senate that had wished to take military action against Carthage. [40] For
example, the dislike of Carthage by the senior senator Cato was so well known that
since the 18th century, he has been credited with ending all of his speeches
with Carthago delenda est ("Carthage must be destroyed").[41][42] The opposing faction
included Scipio Nasica, who argued that fear of a strong enemy such as Carthage
would keep the common people in check and avoid social division. [33][43] Cato was a
member of an embassy to Carthage, probably in 153 BC, and noted her growing
economy and strength;[43] Nasica was likely a member of the same embassy.[44] Using
the illicit Carthaginian military action as a pretext, [40] Rome began preparing a punitive
expedition.[45]

A silver double shekel from Carthage's last mint of coins before its destruction.[46]

Modern scholars have advanced several theories as to why Rome was eager for war.
[47]
 These include: a Roman fear of Carthaginian commercial competition; [48][49][50] a desire
to forestall a wider war which might have broken out with the death of Masinissa, who
was aged 89 at the time;[51] the factional use of Carthage as a political "bogeyman",
irrespective of her true power;[52][53] a greed for glory and loot;[48][54] and a desire to quash
a political system which Rome considered anathema.[52] No consensus has been
reached regarding these and other hypotheses. [55] Carthaginian embassies attempted
to negotiate with Rome, which responded evasively. [36][56] The large North African port
city of Utica, some 55 km (34 mi) north of Carthage,[57] went over to Rome in 149 BC.
Aware that its harbour would greatly facilitate any assault on Carthage, the Senate
and the People's Assembly of Rome declared war on Carthage.[34][58]
The Romans elected two men each year, known as consuls, as senior magistrates,
who at time of war would each lead an army; on occasion, their term was extended. [59]
[60][61]
 A large Roman army landed at Utica in 149 BC under both consuls for the
year, Manius Manilius commanding the army and Lucius Marcius Censorinus the
fleet. The Carthaginians continued to attempt to appease Rome and sent an
embassy to Utica. The consuls demanded that they hand over all weaponry, and
reluctantly the Carthaginians did so. Large convoys took enormous stocks of
equipment from Carthage to Utica. Surviving records state that these included
200,000 sets of armour and 2,000 catapults. Their warships all sailed to Utica and
were burnt in the harbour.[62] Once Carthage was disarmed, Censorinus made the
further demand that the Carthaginians abandon their city and relocate 16 km (10 mi)
away from the sea; Carthage would then be destroyed. [62][63] The Carthaginians
abandoned negotiations and prepared to defend their city. [64]

Opposing forces[edit]
The city of Carthage itself was unusually large for the time: modern scholars give
population estimates ranging from 90,000 to 800,000. Any of these would make
Carthage one of the most populous cities in the Mediterranean area at the time. [65][66] It
was strongly fortified with walls of more than 35 km (20 mi) circumference.
[67]
 Defending the main approach from the land were three lines of defences, of which
the strongest was a brick-built wall 9 metres (30 ft) wide and 15–20 metres (50–70 ft)
high with a 20-metre-wide (70 ft) ditch in front of it. Built into this wall was a barracks
capable of holding over 24,000 soldiers. [63][68] The city had few reliable sources of
ground water but possessed a complex system to catch and channel rainwater and
many cisterns to store it.[69]
The Carthaginians raised a strong and enthusiastic force to garrison the city from
their citizenry and by freeing all slaves willing to fight. [64][70][71] They also formed a field
army at least 20,000 strong,[72] which was placed under Hasdrubal, freshly released
from his condemned cell. This army was based at Nepheris, 25 km (16 mi) south of
Carthage.[73] Appian gives the strength of the Roman army which landed in Africa as
84,000 soldiers; modern historians estimate it at 40,000–50,000 men, of whom 4,000
were cavalry.[68][74]

Course of the war[edit]

Further information: Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)
149 BC[edit]
Further information: Battle of Lake Tunis and Battle of Nepheris (149  BC)
The Roman army moved to Carthage and settled down for a siege after an
unsuccessful attempt to scale the city walls. They set up two camps under command
of legates: Censorinus's had the primary role of protecting the beached Roman ships,
and Manilius's housed the Roman legions. Hasdrubal moved up his army to harass
the Roman supply lines and foraging parties.[75] The Romans launched another
assault on the city but were repulsed again by the defending Carthaginians. Scipio
Aemilianus, the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus, who was serving as
a tribune – a middle-ranking military position – held back his men, and was able to
deploy them to beat off the pursuing Carthaginians, preventing heavy losses. [76][77]

Catapulta by Edward Poynter, 1868; modern depiction of a Roman siege engine during the siege of
Carthage

The camp established by Censorinus was badly situated and, by early summer, was
so pestiferous that the Romans were forced to move it to a healthier location. The
new location was not as defensible, and the Carthaginians inflicted significant losses
on the Roman fleet with fireships.[76] The Romans made these attacks more difficult
for the Carthaginians by building additional fortifications. [78] Nevertheless, the
Carthaginians repeatedly attacked the camps. In the midst of often confused and
chaotic fighting, Scipio distinguished himself by his role in thwarting these assaults;
the discipline which he imposed on his troops was in contrast with the behaviour of
most of the rest of the Roman army.[79]
Manilius decided to strike against the Carthaginians' main camp near Nepheris,
despite its strong position and fortifications. Arriving there, Manilius ordered an
immediate assault, against Scipio's advice. This initially went well, but the Romans
advanced into an untenable position. When they attempted to withdraw, they were
attacked by the Carthaginians, who inflicted heavy casualties. Scipio led 300 cavalry
in a series of limited and well-disciplined charges and threats which caused the
Carthaginians to pause for long enough for most of the infantry to complete their
retreat. That night Scipio led his cavalry back to rescue a trapped group of Romans.
[80]
 The Roman column retreated to its camp near Carthage, where a committee from
the Senate had arrived to evaluate Scipio and Manilius' progress. Scipio's
performance was prominent in their subsequent report. [81] Scipio made contact with
several of the leaders of Carthage's Numidian cavalry, then joined a second, better-
planned expedition led by Manilius against Hasdrubal at Nepheris. Despite the
greater forethought, the Romans made no progress, although one of the Numidians
contacted by Scipio did defect to the Romans with 2,200 men. Manilius withdrew
after the Romans ran out of food, and Scipio led the Romans' new allies on a
successful foraging expedition.[82][83]
148 BC[edit]
The Romans elected two new consuls in 148 BC, but only one of them was sent to
Africa: Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus; Lucius Hostilius Mancinus commanded
the navy as his subordinate. He pulled back the close siege of Carthage to a
looser blockade and attempted to mop up the other Carthaginian-supporting cities in
the area. He failed: Neapolis surrendered and was subsequently sacked,
but Aspis withstood assaults from both the Roman army and navy, while Hippo was
fruitlessly besieged. A Carthaginian sortie from Hippo destroyed the Roman siege
engines causing them to break off the campaign and go into winter quarters.
Hasdrubal, already in charge of the Carthaginian field army, overthrew the civilian
leadership of Carthage and took command himself. Carthage allied with Andriscus, a
pretender to the Macedonian throne. Andriscus had invaded Roman Macedonia,
defeated a Roman army, had himself crowned King Philip VI, and sparked the Fourth
Macedonian War.[84][85]
147 BC[edit]
Further information: Battle of the Port of Carthage and Battle of Nepheris (147  BC)

Arrowheads, remains of a dagger and stones for slingshots exhibited at the National Museum of Carthage

Scipio intended to stand in the 147 BC elections for the post of aedile, which was a
natural progression for him. Aged 36 or 37, he was too young to stand as consul, for
which by the Lex Villia the minimum age was 41. There was considerable political
manoeuvring behind the scenes. Scipio and his partisans played on his successes
over the previous two years and the fact that it was his adoptive grandfather, Scipio
Africanus, who had sealed Roman victory in Africa in the Second Punic War. Public
demand to appoint him as consul, and so allow him to take charge of the African war,
was so strong that the Senate put aside the age requirements for all posts for the
year. Scipio was elected consul and appointed to sole command in Africa; usually
theatres were allocated to the two consuls by lot. He was granted the usual right
to conscript enough men to make up the numbers of the forces there and the unusual
entitlement to enroll volunteers.[86][87]
Scipio moved the Romans' main camp back to near Carthage, closely observed by a
Carthaginian detachment of 8,000. He made a speech demanding tighter discipline
and dismissed those soldiers he considered ill-disciplined or poorly motivated. He
then led a successful night attack and broke into the city with 4,000 men. Panicked in
the dark, the Carthaginian defenders, after an initial fierce resistance, fled. Scipio
decided that his position would be indefensible once the Carthaginians reorganised
themselves in daylight, and so withdrew. [88] Hasdrubal, horrified at the way the
Carthaginian defences had collapsed, had Roman prisoners tortured to death on the
walls, in sight of the Roman army. He was reinforcing the will to resist in the
Carthaginian citizens; from this point, there could be no possibility of negotiation or
even surrender. Some members of the city council denounced his actions and
Hasdrubal had them too put to death and took full control of the city. [89][90]
 A World War II USAAF aerial reconnaissance photograph of the remains of the naval base of the city of
Carthage. The remains of the mercantile harbour are in the centre and those of the military harbour are
bottom right.

The renewed close siege cut off landward entry to the city, but a tight
seaward interdiction was all but impossible with the naval technology of the time.
Frustrated at the amount of food being shipped into the city, Scipio built an
immense mole to cut off access to the harbour via blockade runners. The
Carthaginians responded by cutting a new channel from their harbour to the sea.
They had built a new fleet, and once the channel was complete, the Carthaginians
sailed out, taking the Romans by surprise. In the ensuing Battle of the Port of
Carthage the Carthaginians held their own, but when withdrawing at the end of the
day, many of their ships were trapped against the city's sea wall and sunk or
captured.[91][92] The Romans now attempted to advance against the Carthaginian
defences in the harbour area, eventually gaining control of the quay. Here, over
several months, they constructed a brick structure as high as the city wall, which
enabled up to 4,000 Romans to fire onto the Carthaginian ramparts from short range.
[93][94][95]

Once this feature was complete, Scipio detached a large force and led it against the
Carthaginian field army at Nepheris. The Carthaginians, commanded by a Greek
named Diogenes, had established a fortified camp for their winter quarters. Late in
147 BC, Scipio directed an assault on the camp from several directions and overran
it. Fleeing Carthaginians were pursued by Rome's mounted Numidian allies, and few
escaped. The town of Nepheris was then besieged and surrendered after three
weeks. Most of the fortified positions still holding out in Carthage's hinterland now
opened their gates.[95][96]
146 BC[edit]
Scipio's position as the Roman commander in Africa was extended for a year in
146 BC.[97] In the spring he launched a full-scale assault from the harbour area, which
successfully breached the walls.[98] Over six days,[99] the Romans systematically
worked their way through the residential part of the city, killing everyone they
encountered and setting the buildings behind them on fire. [93] On the last day Scipio
agreed to accept prisoners, except for 900 Roman deserters in Carthaginian service,
who fought on from the Temple of Eshmoun and burnt it down around themselves
when all hope was gone.[100] At this point, Hasdrubal surrendered to Scipio on the
promise of his life and freedom. Hasdrubal's wife, watching from a rampart, then
blessed Scipio, cursed her husband, and walked into the temple with her children to
burn to death.[101]
50,000 Carthaginian prisoners were sold into slavery. [102] The notion that Roman
forces then sowed the city with salt is likely[103][note 3] a 19th-century invention.[104][105]
[106]
 Many of the religious items and cult-statues which Carthage had pillaged from
Sicilian cities and temples over the centuries were returned with great ceremony. [107]

Aftermath[edit]

Ruins of the Punic Quarter, Carthage, in 2005

Rome was determined that the city of Carthage remain in ruins. The Senate
despatched a ten-man commission, and Scipio was ordered to carry out further
demolitions. A curse was placed on anyone who might attempt to resettle the site in
the future.[108] The former site of the city was confiscated as ager publicus, public land.
[109]
 Scipio celebrated a triumph and took the agnomen "Africanus", as had his
adoptive grandfather.[101][102] Hasdrubal's fate is not known, although he had
surrendered on the promise of a retirement to an Italian estate. [101] The formerly
Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become
the Roman province of Africa, with Utica as its capital.[109][110] The province became a
major source of grain and other food.[111]
The Punic cities which had stood by Carthage to the end were forfeit to Rome
as ager publicus, or, as in the case of Bizerte, were destroyed.[109][108] Surviving cities
were permitted to retain at least elements of their traditional system of government
and culture.[112][113] The Romans did not interfere in the locals' private lives, and Punic
culture, language and religion survived, and is known to modern scholars as "Neo-
Punic civilization".[114][115] The Punic language continued to be spoken in north Africa
until the 7th century AD.[116][117]
In 123 BC, a reformist faction in Rome led by Gaius Gracchus was eager
to redistribute land, including publicly held land. This included the site of Carthage,
and a controversial law was passed ordering the establishment of a new settlement
there, called Junonia. Conservatives argued against the law and, after its passage,
spread rumours that markers delimitating the new settlement had been dug up by
wolves – a very poor omen. These rumours, and other political machinations, caused
the plan to be scrapped.[note 4][120] In 111 BC, legislation repeated the injunction against
any resettlement.[121] A century after the war, Julius Caesar planned to rebuild
Carthage as a Roman city, but little work was done. Augustus revived the concept in
29 BC and brought the plan to completion. Roman Carthage had become one of the
main cities of Roman Africa by the time of the Empire.[122][123]
Rome still exists as the capital of Italy; the ruins of Carthage lie 16 km (10 mi) east of
modern Tunis on the North African coast.[24] A symbolic peace treaty was signed
by Ugo Vetere and Chedli Klibi, the mayors of Rome and modern Carthage,
respectively, on 5 February 1985; 2,131 years after the war ended. [124] As of 2020 the
modern settlement of Carthage was a district of the city of Tunis. [24]

Notes, citations and sources[edit]

Notes[edit]
1. ^ The term Punic comes from
the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning
"Carthaginian" and is a reference to the
Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.[1]
2. ^ Several different "talents" are known from antiquity. The
ones referred to in this article are all Euboic (or Euboeic)
talents.[26] At the time of the Second Punic War 10,000
talents was approximately 269,000 kg (265 long tons) of
silver.[27]
3. ^ While this idea was not widely known amongst historians
prior to the nineteenth century, it remains unclear if it
originated with a modern contributor. References were
made juxtaposing the sack of Carthage with sowing of the
fields long before the 19th century, though whether these
were referencing history or simply using hyperbole is
unclear.
4. ^ Gracchus, who had fought under Scipio during the war
in Africa,[118] continued to push his land reform agenda, and
in 121 BC was murdered, along with 3,000 of his
partisans.[119]

Citations[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b Sidwell & Jones 1998, p. 16.
2. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 20–21.
3. ^ Shutt 1938, p. 53.
4. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 20.
5. ^ Walbank 1990, pp. 11–12.
6. ^ Astin 2006, p. 5.
7. ^ Champion 2015, pp. 96, 108.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 21.
9. ^ Astin 2006, pp. 5–6.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b Walbank 1979, p. 662.
11. ^ Hoyos 2015, p. 2.
12. ^ Champion 2015, p. 95.
13. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 22.
14. ^ Mineo 2015, p. 123.
15. ^ Jump up to:a b Mineo 2015, p. 126.
16. ^ Mineo 2015, p. 119.
17. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 430.
18. ^ Mineo 2015, p. 125.
19. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 22–23.
20. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 24.
21. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 23, 98.
22. ^ Holland 2004, p. 10.
23. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 324–325.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b c UNESCO 2020.
25. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 289, 295–298.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Lazenby 1998, p. 228.
27. ^ Lazenby 1996, p. 158.
28. ^ Miles 2011, p. 317.
29. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 308–309.
30. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 303, 305–306.
31. ^ Kunze 2015, p. 398.
32. ^ Kunze 2015, pp. 398, 407.
33. ^ Jump up to:a b c Bagnall 1999, p. 307.
34. ^ Jump up to:a b Kunze 2015, p. 407.
35. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 336–337.
36. ^ Jump up to:a b Bagnall 1999, p. 308.
37. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 332.
38. ^ Kunze 2015, pp. 405, 408.
39. ^ Kunze 2015, p. 408.
40. ^ Jump up to:a b Kunze 2015, p. 399.
41. ^ Miles 2011, p. 336.
42. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, p. 79.
43. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 333.
44. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, p. 80.
45. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 337.
46. ^ Jenkins & Lewis 1963, p. 53.
47. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, p. 81.
48. ^ Jump up to:a b Le Bohec 2015, p. 432.
49. ^ Harris 2006, p. 156.
50. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, pp. 81–82.
51. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, pp. 82, 85.
52. ^ Jump up to:a b Le Bohec 2015, pp. 431–432.
53. ^ Harris 2006, p. 154.
54. ^ Harris 2006, p. 155.
55. ^ Vogel-Weidemann 1989, pp. 81, 87–88.
56. ^ Harris 2006, p. 151.
57. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 437.
58. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 337–338.
59. ^ Beard 2016, p. 127.
60. ^ Holland 2004, pp. 154–155.
61. ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 24.
62. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 338–339.
63. ^ Jump up to:a b Purcell 1995, p. 134.
64. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 339.
65. ^ Hoyos 2005, p. 225.
66. ^ Miles 2011, p. 342.
67. ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 313.
68. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 340.
69. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 342–343.
70. ^ Le Bohec 2015, pp. 438–439.
71. ^ Miles 2011, p. 341.
72. ^ Harris 2006, p. 159.
73. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 439.
74. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 436.
75. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 341.
76. ^ Jump up to:a b Bagnall 1999, p. 314.
77. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 342–343.
78. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 343.
79. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 343–344.
80. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 314–315.
81. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 344–345.
82. ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 315.
 83. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 345–346.
84. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 346.
85. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 315–316.
86. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 346–347.
87. ^ Astin 1967, pp. 61–69.
88. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 348–349.
89. ^ Le Bohec 2015, p. 440.
90. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 349.
91. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 349–350.
92. ^ Miles 2011, p. 2.
93. ^ Jump up to:a b Le Bohec 2015, p. 441.
94. ^ Miles 2011, p. 346.
95. ^ Jump up to:a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 351.
96. ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 317–318.
97. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 347.
98. ^ Miles 2011, p. 3.
99. ^ Miles 2011, p. 4.
100. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 3–4.
101. ^ Jump up to:a b c Le Bohec 2015, p. 442.
102. ^ Jump up to:a b Scullard 2002, p. 316.
103. ^ Sedgwick, Henry Dwight (2005). Italy In The Thirteenth
Century, Part Two. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p.
324. ISBN 978-1-4179-6638-7.
104. ^ Ridley 1986, pp. 144–145.
105. ^ Ripley & Dana 1858–1863, p. 497.
106. ^ Purcell 1995, p. 140.
107. ^ Purcell 1995, pp. 141–142.
108. ^ Jump up to:a b Miles 2011, p. 353.
109. ^ Jump up to:a b c Le Bohec 2015, p. 443.
110. ^ Scullard 2002, pp. 310, 316.
111. ^ Mitchell 2007, p. 345.
112. ^ Fantar 2015, pp. 455–456.
113. ^ Pollard 2015, p. 249.
114. ^ Le Bohec 2015, pp. 443–445.
115. ^ Fantar 2015, p. 454.
116. ^ Jouhaud 1968, p. 22.
117. ^ Scullard 1955, p. 105.
118. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 361.
119. ^ Miles 2011, p. 355.
120. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 354–355.
121. ^ Miles 2011, p. 448.
122. ^ Richardson 2015, pp. 480–481.
123. ^ Miles 2011, pp. 363–364.
124. ^ Fakhri 1985.

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 This page was last edited on 9 January 2023, at 09:45 (UTC).
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
 Deutsch
 Español
 Français
 Italiano
 Nederlands
  Occitan
 Português
48 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 9 January 2023, at 09:45 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademar