Quick Revision Module (UPSC Prelims 2022)

Art & Culture

LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE

Classification of Indian Languages

Languages in India are classified into the following major

subgroups:

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 Indo-Aryan Dravidian Sino-Tibetan Austric Others
Group Group Group

A branch of the Comprises mainly of Belong to Mongoloid Languages under This group includes
larger Indo- the languages family. this group belong to several Dravidian
European family spoken in the south- Austro-asiatic adivasi languages
which came to India ern part of India. Spread across the sub-family which are like Gondi, Oraon,
with the advent of Himalayas, North represented by the Praji, etc. which are
the Aryans. Around 25% of the Bihar, North Bengal, languages of Munda very distinct and
Indian population is Assam and up to the or Kol group and cannot be classified
It is the largest covered under this North-Eastern spoken in Central, in the groups
language group of group. frontiers of the Eastern and mentioned above.
India and around nation. North-Eastern India.
74% of the Indians Broadly classified Some of them also
speak languages into three groups: Considered to be belong to
which belong to this older than the Mon-Khmer group,
group. Northern group: Indo-Aryan languag- vig. Khasi and
Consist of three es; referred to in the Nicobarese.
Sub-divided into 3 languages, i.e., oldest Sanskrit
groups: Brahui, Malto literature as Kiratas. The existence of
and Kurukh. Brahui these languages
Old Indo-Aryan is spoken in 0.6% of the Indian have been much
Group: Baluchistan, Malto population speaks before the advent of
Developed around in the tribal areas languages belonging the Aryans and were
1500 B.C.; Sanskrit of Bengal and to this group. referred to in ancient
was born out of this Odisha while Sanskrit literature as
group. Kurukh in Bengal, Sino-Tibetan group Nisadas.
Odisha, Bihar and is further divided
Middle Indo-Aryan into:
Madhya Pradesh. Santhali is the most
Group: important language
Developed from Tibeto-Burman:
Central group: under this group
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600 B.C. to 1000 Important languages

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Consist of 11 spoken under the which is spoken

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A.D.; started with the languages i.e., among by Santhal

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development of sub-group are

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Gondi, Khond, Kui, Sikkimese, Bhutia, tribals of Jharkhand,

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Prakrit language Manda, Parji, Bihar and Bengal.

Balti, Sherpa, Lahuli,
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(Prakrit is a broader Gadaba, Kolami,

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Ladakhi, Abor, Miri,

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term under which all Pengo, Naiki,

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Aka, Dafla and

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the Middle Indo- Kuvi and Telugu.

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Aryan group Mishmi, Manipuri

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Only Telugu became (or Meithi) etc.

languages are a civilised language
gene-rally clubbed whereas others
together such as Pali Siamese-Chinese:
are tribal languag- Ahom is one of the
and es.
Apabhramsha). languages belonging
to this group.
Southern group: However this
Modern Indo- 7 languages belong
Aryan Group: language has
to this group. They already been extinct
Developed gradually are Kannada, Tamil,
after 1000 A.D.; from the Indian
Malayalam, Tulu, sub continent.
includes Hindi, Kodagu, Toda and
Assamese, Bengali, Kota.Tamil is the
Gujrati, Marathi, oldest among
Punjabi, Rajasthani, all these. Indo-Aryan Group
Sindhi, Odia,
Urdu etc. Dravidian Group
Sino-Tibetan Group
Austric

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Note:
Prakrit was associated with the common people. On the other hand, Sanskrit was orthodox, had fixed
rules and was used by learned people or the elites, especially Brahmins. Prakrit was used in the Jain
‘Agamas’.

Pali was widely spoken in Magadha. It was popular during 5th- 1st century BC. It is closely related to
Sanskrit, and the texts in Pali were written generally in Brahmi script. The Tripitaka of Buddhism were
also written in Pali.

By 6th- 7th century, the development of ‘Apabhramsa’ (corrupt or non-grammatical) took place. It is an
umbrella term which means dialects other than Sanskrit or even Prakrit. It represents a transition from
Middle to Modern Indo-Aryan Group of languages.

Among the 21 languages of the Dravidian Group, the 4 major languages of the Dravidian group are:
Telugu (numerically the largest of all Dravidian languages), Tamil (oldest and purest form of language),
Kannada and Malayalam (smallest and the youngest of the Dravidian group).

Classical Language

Languages so far
Criteria declared to be Benefits
Classical language
High antiquity of its early
texts/recorded history over Tamil (2004) Two major international
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a period of 1500–2000 Telugu (2008) awards for scholars of

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years. eminence in Classical

ai

Malayalam (2013)
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Sanskrit (2005) Indian Languages to be

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A body of ancient literature/- Kannada (2008) awarded annually.

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texts, which is considered a Odia (2014)

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A ‘Centre of Excellence for

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valuable heritage by genera-

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tions of speakers. Studies in Classical

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Languages’ will be set up.

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The literary tradition be

original and not borrowed The University Grants
from another speech Commission will be
community. requested to create and to
start with at least in the
The classical language and Central Universities,
literature being distinct from a certain number of Profes-
modern, there may also sional Chairs for Classical
be a discontinuity bet- Languages for scholars of
ween the classical eminence in Classical
language and its Indian Languages.
later forms or its
offshoots.

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 Ancient Scripts of India

Indus script Brahmi script Gupta script

A corpus of symbols Oldest writing systems Belongs to Gupta

produced by the Indus used in the Indian Empire and was used
Valley Civilization. subcontinent and in to write Sanskrit.
Central Asia during
Most inscriptions are the final centuries Descended from
extremely short. BCE and the early Brahmi and gave rise to
centuries CE. the Nagari, Sharada
Not clear if these sym- and Siddham scripts.
bols constitute a script Usually written from These scripts in turn
used to record a left to right. gave rise to many of the
language. most important scripts
The best-known of India, including
Brahmi inscriptions Devanagari, Gurmukhi
are the rock-cut edicts script for Punjabi
of Ashoka in north- Language, Assamese
central India, dated to script, Bengali script
250–232 BCE. and the Tibetan script.

Kharosthi script
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3rd Century BC to 3rd

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Century AD.
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Used in ancient Gandha-

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ra (present Afghanistan Vatteluttu script Kadamba script

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and Pakistan) to write

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the Gandhari Prakrit Developed from Marks the birth of a

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Tamil-Brahmi, dedicated script for

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and Sanskrit.
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Vatteluttu is one of the writing Kannada.

It is a sister script of three main alphabet
Brahmi. systems developed by It is also a descendant
Tamil people to write of the Brahmi script and
Mostly written right to the Granthi or Pallava developed during the
left but some inscrip- alphabet and the Tamil reign of the Kadamba
tions also show the left script. dynasty in the 4th-6th
to right direction of centuries.
Kharosthi. Note: It was
deciphered by James This script later became
Princep. Kannada-Telegu script.

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 Grantha script Sarada script Gurmukhi script

Widely-used between A writing system of the Developed from the

the 6th century and the Brahmic family of Sarada script and was
20th century by Tamil scripts, developed standardised during the
speakers to write around the 8th 16th century by Guru
Sanskrit and the century. Angad.
classical language
Manipravalam. It was used for writing The whole of the Guru
Sanskrit and Kashmiri. Granth Sahib is written
It is a Brahmic script, in this script, and it is
having evolved from the script most common-
the Brahmi script in ly used by Sikhs and
Tamil Nadu. Hindus for writing the
Punjabi language.
The Malayalam script is
a direct descendant of
Grantha as are the Modi script
Tigalari and Sinhala
alphabets.
Used to write the
Marathi language.

Other languages such

Urdu script
as Urdu, Kannada,
Right-to-left alphabet
Gujarati, Hindi and
used for the Urdu
Tamil are also known
language.
to have been written in
Devanagari script Modi.
It is a modification of the
Persian alphabet, which
Written from left to
is itself a derivative of
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right.
the Arabic alphabet and
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has its origins in 13th

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Used for over 120

century.
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languages, including
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Hindi, Marathi, Nepali,

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Urdu script in its extend-

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Pali, Konkani, Bodo,

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ed form is known as
Sindhi and Maithili
kj

Shahmukhi script and is

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among other languages

used for writing other
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and dialects, making it

Indo-Aryan languages
one of the most used
of North Indian subconti-
and adopted writing
nent like Punjabi and
systems in the world.
Saraiki as well.
The Devanagari script
is also used for
classical Sanskrit texts.

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 Indian Literature

Sanskrit
Literature

Classical
Hindu
Sanskrit
Literature
Literature

Samhitas Bramhanas Aranyakas Upanishads Puranas

Sanskrit Sanskrit Vedas
Books of Part of the Latter Mark the Mythological
Poetry Drama Mantras and Hindu sruti portions of culmination of works which
Benedictions; (revealed the Indian propagate
all the four knowledge) Bramhans; thought and religious and
vedas has Literature; deal with are the final spiritual
their own each Veda soul, birth, parts of the messages
Samhitas. has a Brahma- death and life vedas (Vedan- through
na attached beyond it; ta); deal with parables and
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to it; essential- studied and questions like fables;

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ly a collection taught by the original of earliest

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of men in the universe, Puranas were

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texts with vanprastha. life and compiled in

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the Gupta
24

commentaries death, materi-

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on the al and spiritu- period.

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kj

particular al world,
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Veda. nature of
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knowledge
etc.

Rig Veda Yajur Veda Sama Veda Atharva Veda

Oldest existing ‘Yajus’ signifies Named after Also known as
Veda; compiled ‘sacrifice’ and ‘Saman’ (melo- Brahma Veda'
around this Veda dy); concen- attributed to two
1200-900 BC; concentrates on trates on melody rishis -Atharvah
focus on worldly rites and or songs; and Angira;
prosperity and mantras of consists of focuses on
natural beauty; different types of hymns, treatment of
hymns dedicat- sacrifices that detached verses several ailments;
ed to several were prevalent and 16,000 raga two major
deities, in in the Vedic (musical notes) recensions
particular to times. and raginis; also (sakhas) of the
their chief deity, called the ‘book text -
Indra. of chants’ Paippalada and
Saunakiya

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 Major Major Other
Sanskrit Written by Sanskrit Written Sanskrit Written by
by
Dramas Poetry Texts
Malavikagnimitra, Kalidasa Kumara Kalidasa Arthashastra Kautilya
Vikramorvasiya, Sambhava,
Abhigyana Raghuvamsa,
Shakuntala Meghaduta,
Ritusamhara

Mricchakatika Sudraka PrayagPrashasti Harisena Buddhacharita Ashvagosha

Mudra Rakshasa, Vishakhdutta Gita Jayadeva Charak Charak/Sushruta

Devi Samhita/Sushruta
Govinda
Chandraguptam Samhita

Uttara Bhavabhuti Kiratarjuniyam Bharavi Siddhanta Bhaskara

Ramacharitam Shiromani

Ratnavali, Harshavardha Sishupalavadha Magha Pancha- Varamihira

Nagananda, na Siddhantika,
Priyadarsika Brihat Samhita

Swapnavasavadatt Bhasa Aryabhatiya Aryabhatta

a, Urubhanga
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Rajatarangani Kalhan
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Kathasarit- Somadeva
24
hi
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Sagar
kj
hi
us
ka

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 Literature in Pali
and Prakrit

Jain
Prakrit formed the basis of the Jain canonical
literature; most important Jain texts written in Buddhist
Prakrit are the Angas, the Upangas and the
Parikramas; Chhedab Sutra and the Malasutra
are also considered to be sacred by the Jains

Canonical or Non-canonical
Canonical or Non-canonical religious texts literary works
religious texts literary works Consists of Jatakas -
Jain Agamas: Includes texts like ‘Triptikas’ or compilation of the
compiled by the Uvasaggaharam baskets- Vinaya stories from the
Gandharas who were Stotra, Kalpa Sutra Pitaka (covers the previous births of
immediate disciples by Bhadrabahu, rules and regula- Buddha and the
of Mahaviras; Acharya Kundkund’s tions to be stories of the
Important for Samayasara and followed by the Bodhisattva;
svetambaras. Niyamasara, Saman- Buddhist monks), Other Buddhist
Digamabara sect ta Bhadra’s Ratna Sutta Pitaka literary texts
believes that original Karanda Sravakacha- (contains include Dipavam-
teachings were lost ra (Life of a Jaina dialogues and sa, Milinda
long ago; do not householder) and speeches of the Panha, Mahavam-
accept the authority Aptamimansa. Buddha that deal sa, Mahavastu,
of Agamas; The three gems of with morality and Lalitavistara
give sacred status to Kannada literature righteous Sutra, Udana,
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two works: the Pampa, Ponna and dharma), Bodhi Vamsa,

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Abhidhamma Udanavarga,
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Karmaprabhrita and Ranna are the

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the famous writers Pitaka (concen- Mahavibhasa

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trates on the Shastra, Abhidhar-

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Kashayaprabhrita. related to Jainism.

philosophy and mamoksha,
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metaphysics). Visuddhimagga.
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kj
hi
us
ka

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 Dravidian
Literature

Tamil Malayalam Telugu Kannada

Sangam Tamil texts other Originated around Linguists have Jain scholars
Literature than Sangam litera- the 11th century; argued the made the first foray
Composed and ture Two of the major Nannaya (11th into the Kannada
compiled between 300 Tolkappiyam was Malayalam works of century) was the literature. Dharman-
BC and 300 AD written to elaborate on the medieval period first poet in Telugu. athapurana written
(Sangam period) 2 the nuances of Tamil are Kokasandisan Vijayanagara by Madhava on the
major schools of grammar and poetry. and Bhasa Kautilya, period is known as life of the fifteenth
Sangam literature: The 5 epics of the which is a the golden age of Tirthankara. Uritta
(a) Aham/agam - Tamil literature commentary on Telugu literature. Vilasa wrote
concentrates on the include: Arthashastra. Uttaraharivamsam Dharma Parikshe
abstract discussion of » Silappatikaram by Another major which was on the Jain teach-
human aspects like Ilango Adigal, literary work in composed by ings of this period.
love, sexual relations, » Manimegalai by Malayalam is Nachana Kavirajamarga
etc. Seethalai Sathanar, Ramacharitam, an Somanatha is an written by Nripatun-
(b) Puram - discusses » Civaka Cintamani epic poem written important work. ga Amoghavarsha I
the human by Tirutakkatevar, by Cheeraman in Krishnadevaraya ( a powerful
experiences like social » Kundalakesi by 13th century. (1509-1529) Rashtrakuta king).
life, ethics, valour, Nagakuthanar or Ezhuthachan, a composed poetry The ratnatraya (3
customs, etc. Nagasena, strong proponent of titled Amuktamalya- gems) consisted of
In the extant of » Valayapathi by an Bhakti movement, is da; Eight learned - Pampa (Adipura-
Sangam literature, anonymous Jain known as the father literary persons na and Vïkramarju-
around 30,000 lines of ascetic. of Malayalam were attached to na Vijaya), Ponna
poetry, has been literature. his court - ashtadig- (Shanti Purana)
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arranged in 8 antholo- gajas, the most and Ranna

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gies called Ettuttokoi. important one (Ajitanatha Purano).

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These were further being Allasani

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divided into 2 groups; Peddana

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the older and the more (Manucharitam).

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historically relevant
hi
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group is called the

kj

Patinenkil Kanakku
hi
us

(18 lower collections)

ka

and the second is

Pattupattu (10
songs).

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 Place of
Sangam Kingdom Chairman Books
Organisation

First or Pandya Madurai Agastya or No book has

Head Shiva survived. Used
Agattiyam as
grammar.

Second Pandya Kapatapuram Initially it Around 2,000

or Middle was poems were
Sangam Agastya collected and
and then his compiled into
disciple Tolkappiyam
Tolkappiyar took (a textbook on
over Tamil
Grammar)

Third Pandya Madurai Nakkirar Most of the

existing corpus
of Sangam
literature was
written

Medieval
Literature

Persian Urdu
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Came to India with the

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language mostly
ai

coming of Turks and follows the grammar

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Mongols in the 12th century; of Hindi and the form

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became the mode of and script of Persian.

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communication of the court.

hi
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kj
hi
us

One of the finest Persian poets is Amir The language mostly follows the
ka

Khusrau; wrote Diwan (collection of poetry in grammar of Hindi and the form and
Persian) Zia-ud din Barani wrote Tarikh-e-Firuz script of Persian. In the twentieth
Shahi Babar'sTuzuk-I-Babari in Turkish, century, a major figure in Urdu literary
Jahangir's Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri, Akbarnama by writing was Iqbal who wrote Bang-i-
Abul Fazl are examples of literature of this Dara. He is famous for writing ‘Saare
period Malik Muhammad Jayasi also jahan se achcha’, which has become a
composed his Padmavat in this period. celebrated nationalistic song.

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 Modern
Literature

Punjabi Kashmiri
Literature Literature
Composed in two Earliest texts from In Western In Eastern Hindi
major scripts: Persian Kashmir was Kalhan’s India India With the coming of
and Gurmukhi. One of Rajatarangani written the British, the
the greatest texts of in Sanskrit. In the focus of literature
the world is the early medieval period changed -
religious book of the when the Bhakti nationalistic
Sikhs: the Adi Granth movement was at its fervour.
and a majority of it is peak, Kashmiri
in Gurmukhi.The local language saw its first
literature took heavily female poetess called
to love stories and Lal Ded, who was a
epics like Sohni- Shaivite mystic. The
Mahiwal, Sassi-Punnu local people used
and the very famous Kashmiri and it had
Heer-Ranjha, which influences from
was composed by Persian and Hindi
Waris Shah. The Sufi dialects.
poetry of Baba Farid
and Bulley Shah
became popular.

Marathi Rajasthani Gujarati Assamese Bengali Bharatendu

Oldest known Two main forms of Bhakti movement In the medieval With the nationalist Harishchandra
om

work in Marathi is fictional writing affected the period, Assamese fervour reaching wrote his most
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from the 13th called Dingal and literature; Narsinh literature was Bengal that the famous drama
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century by Saint Pingal. The most Mehta composed dominated by literature took a Andher Nagari
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Gyaneshwar; famous text in this devotional songs buranjis (court definite turn; Raja (City of M
25

Most famous saint context is Dhola for Lord Krishna; chronicles). Apart Ram Mohan Roy Darkness) in
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from Maharashtra Maru. The writings pinnacle of from these official was amongst the 1850s
hi
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from the sixteenth of Mirabai in Braj success in works, Shankar- first to write in movement to
kj
hi

century was have been very Gujarati literature dev composed Bengali and make Hindi the
us

Eknath who wrote famous. was achieved by devotional poetry English; Ishwar national language
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commentaries on Dr K.M Munshi in Assamese. In Chandra spearheaded by

Bhagwata Purana who has written context of the Vidyasagar and Swami Dayanand
and Ramayana fiction and non- modern Akshay Kumar (wrote Satyartha
and as he also fiction (historical) Assamese Dutta were his Prakash in Hindi)
composed works work too. One of literature, two contemporary Important Hindi
in the vernacular his finest novels is major scholars writers ; zenith of authors include
language; Prithvi Vallabha. namely nationalist Bengali Munshi Prem
Tukaram and Padmanaba literature was Chand, Surya
Ramdas are the Gohain Barua and achieved by the Kant Tripathi
other notable Lakshmi Nath writing of Bankim ‘Nirala’, Maithili
Bhakti poets; Bal Bezbarua, have Chandra Sharan Gupt,
Gangadhar Tilak, made their mark. Chatterjee (Anand Ramdhari Singh
published his Math); ‘Dinkar’ and
regional news Rabindranath Harivansha Rai
paper Kesari in Tagore got the Bachchan etc.
Marathi. Nobel Prize for his
Bengali master-
piece Geetanjali in
1913

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