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CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
Cultural Developments

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 Languages and Literature
UNIT 14 LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE*

Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Oral and Written in Ancient India
14.3 Languages
14.3.1 Sanskrit
14.3.2 Prakrits and Pali
14.3.3 Dravidian Languages
14.4 Literature
14.4.1 Significance of Indian Literature
14.4.2 Vedic Literature
14.4.3 The Epics and the Puranas
14.4.4 The Tantra Literature (Samhitas, Agamas, Tantras)
14.4.5 Classical Sanskrit Poetry
14.4.6 Narrative Poetry
14.4.7 The Drama
14.4.8 Sanskrit Prose Literature
14.4.9 Pali Literature
14.4.10 Prakrit Literature
14.4.11 Tamil Literature
14.4.12 Folk Poetry
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
14.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
14.8 Suggested Readings

14.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn about:
the meaning of language and literature;
the significance of oral and written in early India;
the various languages current in early India; and
the kinds of literature that were written down in early India.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Language is commonly considered as a means of communication. But, it is also
a reflection of the society it has evolved in. There are various factors that contribute
to the evolution of a language. These factors, in turn, help us in understanding
ideals, norms, practices and ways of thinking of the society. In this Unit, we will
be focusing on various languages that evolved in the ancient period — ‘elite’
and ‘popular’ languages — their importance, nature and various factors that

* Dr. Oly Roy, Assistant Professor in History, Amity University, Noida

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Cultural Developments influenced their rise. Literature of the ancient Indian historical period is vast. An
attempt has also been made to include as many texts as possible that will help in
understanding the literature of this phase and its contributions.

14.2 THE ORAL AND WRITTEN IN ANCIENT

INDIA1
Oral tradition or oral culture refers to those traditions or cultures where human
knowledge is handed down and practiced by the words of mouth, from one
generation to the next. The written culture on the other hand is a literary tradition
based on language that has script. Which of these traditions was dominant in
India? Scholars believe that one cannot talk of rigid divisions between literary
and oral traditions. They were not mutually exclusive categories. Let us take the
example of the Vedas which are regarded as one of the earliest specimens of
Indian written literature. One term that was used to describe these sacred texts
was sruti which means ‘hearing’ or ‘listening’. The reason is that the texts of the
Vedas were circulated in oral traditions, recounted in oral-aural interactions, before
they were written on manuscripts. In such contexts one needs to “distinguish
between mode of origin (or composition) and the mode of transmission. For
instance, many texts of medieval Indian Bhakti saints (such as Basavanna), were
most probably composed orally, written down later by disciples and then
disseminated orally again. Obviously there was also a transmission through
writing. Thus the written form is only a part of the history of the texts, one phase
in the cycle of transmission” (Blackburn and Ramanujan 1986: 4). Thus, the
demarcation between oral and written tradition in the real cultural manifestations
is highly fragile which makes it complicated to label a particular phenomenon
as oral or written in absolute terms. Instead of a rigid line of segregation, there
exists a continuum between both the traditions. The oral-written continuum is
very much a part of Indian culture. In fact, the continued interaction between
oral and written lore and the striking cultural productions thereof, is a distinctive
feature of Indian culture. The well - known anthologies of stories, such as
Brihatkatha, Pancatantra, Vetalapanchavimsati, and the great Epics like the
Ramayana and Mahabharata etc. demonstrate how the narratives in oral
circulation later became written texts. The remarkable diffusion of these stories
within and outside the Indian territory was in fact the result of the many phased
transmissions from oral to written and written to oral discourses that took place
at different points of time.

14.3 LANGUAGES
India has a rich heritage of languages and literature. Through the centuries many
languages were born. Some of them might not be spoken today but have left a
rich literature and a lasting influence over almost all languages of India. Many
of the religious texts of the Hindus, the Buddhists and the Jainas are available in
these languages which include Sanskrit and Pali.

The languages of India are divided broadly into two families i.e. Indo-Aryan and
Dravidian. Most of the languages spoken in northern India belong to the former
and the languages of southern India to the latter.

1
This section has been taken from MFC-003, Block I, Unit 2
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One should remember that these languages did not grow in isolation. Both families Languages and Literature
have influenced each other. Sanskrit was the language of the Indo-Aryans. It
was gradually standardized and given a highly scientific grammar by Panini in
the 4th century BCE. It was a language of the upper classes and castes. It was the
court language for centuries and was used extensively for literary purposes. The
common people used not only Sanskrit but also different dialects. They were
called Prakrits. Buddhist literature is in Pali, one of the Prakrits. In the course of
time many spoken forms called “apabhramsas” developed in different part of
the country. These apabhramsas developed into regional languages. Among the
Dravidian languages Tamil is the oldest. Other languages developed during the
first millennium of the Common Era.

14.3.1 Sanskrit
The oral sources in India were preserved meticulously; they were so carefully
memorized that the text almost came to be frozen, as was the case with Vedic
ritual compositions. The language of the Vedas was a more archaic form of Sanskrit
that is now called Old Indo-Aryan. This differentiated it from the later forms of
Sanskrit referred to as Classical Sanskrit. The Indo-Aryan is of the Indo-European
family of languages.

Old Sanskrit is known to us, strangely enough, from somewhat later documents.
The original composition of the oldest part of the Vedic collections of hymns,
our oldest texts, is placed conservatively at 1200 BCE. These hymns form the
basic part of the scriptures of the Brahamanical religion. A second, slightly
divergent type of Old Sanskrit is known to us from the Brahmanas, the prose
texts of the Brahmanical religion, and from the grammar of Panini and its ancillary
works. Sanskrit, was spoken round the fourth century BCE by the upper class
somewhere in north-western India. As a standard dialect and later as a literary
and scholastic language, it gradually came into official use all over Brahamanical
India; in the inscriptions it appears first round 150 BCE and a few centuries later
entirely supersedes the dialects of the Prakrit type; from that time to the present,
written according to the rules of Panini’s grammar, it has served as the medium
of an enormous body of artistic and scholarly literature.

Through a process of acculturation many‘non-Aryan’ words entered the Sanskrit

language. These texts were related to rituals and thus, wrong pronunciation would
have been catastrophic. This was considered impure and sinful. In order to
maintain the purity of language, there was a need to develop grammar and science
of phonetics. The oldest Indian linguistic text, Yaska’s Nirukta, explaining obsolete
Vedic words, dates from the 5th century BCE and Panini’s grammar, the
Ashtadhyayi (“Eight Chapters”), was probably composed towards the end of the
4th century BCE. According to many scholars, Panini’s work helped the language
to gain a ‘classic’ status except in its vocabulary.The great grammar of Panini,
which effectively stabilized the Sanskrit language, incorporated the work of many
earlier grammarians.

Panini’s grammar consists of over 4,000 grammatical rules. Later Indian grammars
are mostly commentaries on Panini, the chief being the “Great Commentary”
(Mahabhasya) of Patanjali (2nd century BCE) and the “Banaras Commentary”
(Kasika Vrtti) of Jayaditya and Vamana (7th century CE).

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Cultural Developments Panini’s grammar was widely accepted. With Panini the language was fixed, and
could only develop within the framework of his rules. It was from the time of
Panini onwards that the language began to be called Samskrita, “perfected” or
“refined”, as opposed to the Prakrtas (“natural”), the popular dialects which had
developed naturally. Panini’s work was most probably based on the language as
it was spoken in the north-west.

Sheldon Pollockin his book The Language of the Gods in the World of Men:
Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Pre-modern India has divided the transformations
in culture and power in pre-modern India into two phases. The first occurred
around the beginning of the Common Era, when Sanskrit, a sacred language,
was restricted to religious practice, was reinvented for literary and political
expression. This development according to him marked the beginning of an
‘amazing career’ which made Sanskrit literary culture to spread across most of
southern Asia from Afghanistan to Java.The second phase occurred around the
beginning of the second millennium, when local speech forms were recognized
as literary languages and began to challenge Sanskrit for both poetry and polity,
and in the end replaced it.

While Sanskrit was the language of the upper class, the masses used Prakrit or
Pali.Popular languages which were recognized as ‘literary’ languages are
mentioned below:
1) The most important was the ecclesiastical language of the Buddhists of
Ceylon, Burma and Siam, the language in which the oldest preserved
collection of sacred writings of Buddhism was written.
2) Buddhist Sanskrit literature.
3) The Jainas did not use Sanskrit for their sacred writings; Middle Indian
dialects were divided into two different Prakrits :
a) The Jaina Prakrit (also called Ardhamagadhi or Arsa), the language of
the older works of the Jaina Canon.
b) The Jaina-Maharastri, the language in which the commentaries of the
Jaina Canon and the non-religious poetical works of the Jainas are
written. This was closely related to Prakrit, which has been used most
frequently as a literary language for secular writing.
4) The Maharastri, the language of Maharastra, the land of the Marathas.
5) The Sauraseni. Its foundation is the dialect of Surasena, the capital of which
is Mathura.
6) People of the lower classes spoke Magadhi in the dramas, the dialect of
Magadha.
7) Paisaci was spoken in the drama by the members of the lowest sections of
society. The word probably originally designated the dialect of a branch of
Pisacas, although the Indians declared it to be the language of the demons
called Pisacas. A famous book of narrative literature, Gunadhya’s Brhatkatha
was also composed in Paisaci dialect.
8) Lastly, the Apabhramsa which is used in popular poetry, in Jaina romances
and occasionally in drama, stands midway between the Prakrit and the
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 modern Indian vernaculars: for “Apabhramsa” is a general term for literary Languages and Literature
idioms which, though based on the Prakrit, were more closely adapted to
certain popular dialects.

14.3.2 Prakrits and Pali

By the time of the Buddha the masses were speaking languages which were
much simpler than Sanskrit. These were the Prakrits.

Prakrit
Prakrit was the linguafranca of the masses. It was used in the production of
various literary texts across the subcontinent from about the second or third
century. It has been used in various inscriptions of ruling dynasties across South
Asia over the first four or five centuries.

Prakrit reflects regional subtypes. The scholarly developments in Sanskrit had

put Prakrit under pressure and grammars, dictionaries and various treatises came
to be written in Prakrit. Both Sanskrit and Prakrit coexisted, but they occupied
diverse spaces. Inscriptions of pre-Gupta times especially the Ashokan edicts
are in Prakrit. Various secular literatures were composed in Prakrit. Prakrits were
much simpler than Sanskrit both in sound and grammar.

One very important early popular dialect was Pali, which became the language
of the Sthaviravadin Buddhists. The Buddha probably taught in Magadhi, but
with time his doctrines were adapted to local dialects. The language chosen by
the Sthaviravadins was a Western one, probably spoken in the region of Sanchi
and Ujjayini.

Pali
This language contains within itself local variants and subscribing it to a particular
region is difficult. Jainas, like the Buddhists rejected Sanskrit and adopted
Ardhamagadhi for their texts. However, around the second century, Buddhist
treatises in north India and in much of South Asia excluding the peninsula were
written in Sanskrit. But it is not clear as to what made the Buddhists adopt Sanskrit
after half a millennium. Some scholars believe that the Buddhists realized that
they will not be able to influence the brahmanas unless they opted for a language
that the brahmanas favoured. It has also been argued that adoption of Sanskrit
language was the result of penetration of Buddhism westwards into Mathura and
the core region of Aryavarta which was the main region of vaidika culture.

Other important Prakrits were Saurasena, spoken originally in the western part
of modem Uttar Pradesh; and Maharastri, spoken in the north-western Deccan.
Saurasena was particularly used in drama, by women and respectable people of
the lower orders. Maharastri was a literary language, especially popular for lyric
songs. There were several other Prakrits of lesser importance. By the time of the
Guptas, the Prakrits were standardized and had lost their local character.

Apabhramsha
We also find literary productions in Apabhramsha. Dandin defines Apabhramsha
as, “What is called ‘Apabhramsha’ is the language of the Abhiras and others
when used in literary works; whereas in scholarly discourse anything that deviates
from correct Sanskrit is so named.” The word, ‘Apabhramsha’ implies deviation
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Cultural Developments from standard Sanskrit. By the middle of the second millennium, Apabhramsha
and to a lesser degree Prakrit had come to be used almost exclusively by the
Jainas, where as brahmanas monopolized Sanskrit. Literary texts in Apabhramsha
were produced increasingly according to Dandin in its birthplace i.e. in western
India.

Sinhalese
The development of Sinhalese can be traced in inscriptions and literature from
the 2nd century BCE down to the present day. It was influenced by the local
variants, and also by Tamil; Sinhalese developed rapidly and independently. By
the beginning of the Common Era, Sinhalese was no longer a Prakrit, but a distinct
language.

Bhutabhasha
Dandin refers to another language which was used for literature, Bhutabhasha,
elsewhere known as Paishachi (the speech of the Bhutas/Pisacas).

The question that arises here is that what made the above languages
(Apabhramsha, Sinhalese and Bhutabhasha/Paishachi) a tool for literary
expression? The one distinctive feature shared by them was their availability
across region, ethnicity, sect, and time. They were not rooted to any particular
place, people, creed, or era and social limitations. Some regions did continue,
historically, to show preference for one or the other language.

Neither language ever enjoyed the vast diffusion that Sanskrit received. Second,
neither Prakrit after the fourth century nor Apabhramsha at any time was used
for articulating political discourse of any kind.

14.3.3 Dravidian Languages

Dravidian is virtually an independent group of languages with a distinctive
character. Earlier Tamil literature had adopted Sanskrit words. This was mainly
due to the growing influence of ‘Aryan’ culture. Telegu and Canarese, which
were spoken further north, were naturally even more strongly influenced by
Sanskrit. Canarese first appears in inscriptions at the end of the 6th century, and
its earliest surviving literature goes back to the 9th century. Telegu did not become
a literary language until the 12th century and only became really important under
the Vijayanagara empire, and was the court language. Malayalam though closely
related to Tamil, was a separate language by the 11th century.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) What is the significance of oral and written traditions in Early India?
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2) Discuss the main features of the of any two languages of ancient India. Languages and Literature

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14.4 LITERATURE
One of the noteworthy features of Indian literature is its vastness. It has embraced
within itself various cultural, socio-political traits and changes. According to
many, ancient Indian literature lacked historicity. This is not true. If one goes
through this vast ocean of knowledge, one can have a good understanding of
various transformations that took place in ancient Indian history. To understand
history, it is very important to be cognizant of the thinking of the period, which
the texts of the period reflect clearly.

14.4.1 Significance of Indian Literature

Maurice Winternitz rightly points out, “Indian literature embraces everything
which the word ‘literature’ comprises in its widest sense: religious and secular,
epic, lyric, dramatic and didactic poetry, as well as narrative and scientific prose.
The Indian collections of fairy-tales, fables and prose narratives have played no
insignificant part in the history of world literature.” Literature was instrumental
in the development of a culture.

In ancient India we not only find narrative and canonical literature, dramas, prose
and poetry, but in addition to that there was a strong inclination for scientific
subjects as well. Therefore we find in India not only an abundant literature on
politics, economics, medicine, astrology and astronomy, arithmetic and geometry;
but also music, singing, dancing and dramatic art, magic and divination; even
erotic are arranged in scientific systems and treated in special manuals of
instruction.

The literature of the period is not only unique for its vastness, but also how it
portrays the process of transculturation and acculturation thus making it important
for the study of society and civilization for historians. The literature in the ancient
Indian period had its own distinct features based on its content and structure. In
the section below we will be discussing various literatures of the period based
on content and structure.

14.4.2 Vedic Literature

The Rigveda covers a long period and has been composed following a strict
metrical pattern and convention.The collection is divided into ten “circles”
(mandalas) or books.The hymns contain many repetitions. Vedic literature consists
of three different classes of literary works; and to each of these three classes
belong a greater or a smaller number of separate works some of which have been
preserved, but also many have been lost. They are:
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Cultural Developments i) Samhitas, i.e. “Collections,” namely collections of hymns, prayers,
incantations, benedictions, sacrificial formulas and litanies.
ii) Brahmanas – voluminous prose texts, which contain theological matter,
especially observations on sacrifice and the practical or mystical significance
of the separate sacrificial rites and ceremonies.
iii) Aranyakas (“forest texts”) and Upanishads (“secret doctrines”) – which
are partly included in the Brahmanas themselves, or attached to them, but
partly are also counted as an independent work. They contain the meditations
of forest hermits and ascetics on God, the world, and mankind, and there is
contained in them a good deal of the oldest Indian philosophy.

14.4.3 The Epics and the Puranas

There existed one or several collections of Itihasas and Puranas, made up of
myths and legends, legends of gods and tales of demons, snake deities, old sages
(Rsis) and kings of ancient times. They might not have existed in the form of
written literature from the beginning. There are references to story-tellers in
various literary works of the period. The authors, reciters and preservers of this
heroic poetry were the bards, usually called the Sutas, who lived at the courts of
kings and recited or sang their songs at great feasts glorifying the princes. They
also went to battlefields which would enable them to sing praises of the warriors.
Apart from them, there were also travelling singers, called Kusilavas, who
memorized the songs and publicly sang them.

Puranas
The Puranas were recited in popular gatherings and were generally considered
as the scripture of the masses. What is really intriguing is the fact that they
represent how brahmanas were compelled to give up their elitist style and take
cognizance of the lower stratum of the society. One of the major problems
regarding the Puranas is that they were not necessarily composed by a single
author or at any particular point of time. Dating the Puranas is a problematic
task. According to many scholars the Puranas received their final form during
the Gupta period. Ludo Rocher implies the same. R.C.Hazra’s work on Puranas
provides a close understanding of the Puranas. He traces the effect of changes
and developments on the Puranas. The various factors that influenced the literary
production were early religious movements, foreign invasions and emergence of
new occupations. There were eighteen major Puranas: the Markandeya, Vayu,
Brahmanda, Vishnu, Matsya, Bhagvata, Kurma, Vamana, Linga, Varaha, Padma,
Narada, Agni, Garuda, Brahma, Skanda, Brahmavaivarta and the Bhavisya
Purana.

Various narratives found in the Puranas are found in the Epics as well. The
Epics are an encyclopedia of historic accounts that makes them an undeniably
major primary source for historians.

Mahabharata
Truly, the Mahabharata is in itself a ‘whole literature’ which contains legends of
gods, mythological narratives of brahmanical origin, and to a great extent even
didactic sections for the propagation of brahmanical philosophy and doctrines
‘for the strengthening and consolidation of their influence.’ The Mahabharata
206 had a huge influence on South Asian culture. The Mahabharata embraced within
itself numerous local myths in ‘true Purana style’, Visnu and Siva myths, and Languages and Literature
Purana-like cosmologies, geographical lists and genealogies. The Mahabharata
also incorporated ‘ascetic poetry’ which implies the attempt of the Brahmanic
priestly class to influence the masses. This included the ascetics, forest hermits
and mendicants, the founders of sects and monastic orders.Thus, the Mahabharata
apart from being an epic, is also a work of poetic art (kavya), a manual (Sastra)
of morality, law and philosophy with reference to the oldest tradition (smrti) for
the purpose of legitimation.

Ramayana
The Ramayana is not as lengthy as the Mahabharata and is more uniform in
nature. The authorship is attributed to a sage named Valmiki. The original
Ramayana was most probably composed in the third century BCE by Valmiki on
the basis of ancient ballads. The Ramayana is said to be the ‘first ornate poetry’
of India. Till now the story of Rama, the protagonist of the text and Sita, his wife
(the ideal woman) and Hanuman, Rama’s most trusted ally, is still celebrated in
India. Like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana also suffers from interpolations.
Rama was later made an incarnation of Vishnu.

There has been a Tamil translation of the text dated to about 11th century. The
famous ‘Ramcaritmanas’ was based on Ramayana which was composed around
1571 CE by Tulsi Das. Popular scenes from the Ramayana are still performed in
northern India. This shows the great popularity of this Epic in the sub-continent.

14.4.4 The Tantra Literature (Samhitas, Agamas, Tantras)

Tantric influences have been noticed in several later Puranas, with respect to the
cult of Shakti, the female deities etc. The “Samhitas” are the sacred books of the
Vaishnavas, the “Agamas” those of the Saivas and the “Tantras” those of the
Shaktas. Though tantra literature was not against what the Vedas propounded,
they were of the view that what was mentioned in the Vedas was too difficult to
follow and for that reason it was necessary to introduce an easier cult and doctrine.
These texts were not only accessible to the people of higher caste, but also to
women and the lower stratum of the society. A complete Tantra (Samhita, Agama)
should consist of four parts:
i) Jnana, “knowledge”;
ii) Yoga, i.e. “meditation, concentration,” with a view to acquiring magic
powers, hence also “magic” (mayayoga);
iii) Kriya, “action,” i.e. instructions for the making of idols and the construction
and consecration of temples;
iv) Carya, “conduct,” i.e. rules regarding rites and festivals, and social duties.

According to Winternitz, “the Tantras and the curious excrescences and

degenerations of religion described in them, are not drawn from popular belief
or from popular traditions either of the aboriginal inhabitants or of the Aryan
immigrants, but they are the pseudo-scientific productions of theologians, in
which the practice and theory of Yoga and doctrines of the monist (advaita)
philosophy are seen mingled with the most extravagant symbolism and
occultism.”
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Cultural Developments 14.4.5 Classical Sanskrit Poetry
The earliest surviving Sanskrit poetry is that of the Buddhist writer Ashvaghosa,
who is believed to have lived around the end of the 1st century CE, and who
composed Buddhacarita in simple classical style. The Girnar Inscription of
Rudradaman, dated CE 150, is the earliest surviving example of courtly Sanskrit
prose.

The poetry in Sanskrit was written mainly for recitation or performance at court,
or for small circles of intellectuals.

The subjects covered by the Indian poets were love, nature, panegyric, moralizing
and storytelling. Though religious subjects were also included with regard to the
legends of gods but profound religious thoughts were comparatively rare in courtly
literature.

14.4.6 Narrative Poetry

There are various collections, popular stories, the Brhatkatha (“Great Story”).The
most famous one being Somadeva’s “Ocean of Story” (Katha-sarit-asagara),
written in the 11thcentury in ‘easy’ and‘polished’ verse. The stories are narrated
with simplicity including humour and tragedy. Other works include Kalhana’s
great chronicle of Kashmir “The River of Kings”, “The Deeds of Harsha”, by
Bana, written in ornate poetic prose; “The Deeds of Vikramanka”
(Vikramankadevacarita) of Bilhana, dealing with the life and adventures of the
great Chalukya emperor Vikramaditya VI (c. 1075-1125); Ramacarita, and the
work of a Jaina monk, Nayacandra Suri, the Hammira-mahakavya, which is
among the latest important works of Sanskrit literature.

14.4.7 The Drama

The origin of Indian theatre is still not clear. But dramatics was not new to ancient
India. There are references to dramatic performances during the Vedic period.
We find instances which point to the enactment at festivals. Some writers have
found elements in common between the Indian and the classical Greek theatre.

Sanskrit dramas are numerous. They range from one-act plays to very long plays
in ten acts. Dramas might have been performed privately or semi-privately in
palaces or the homes of the rich, or were given public showing in temple courts
on days of festival.

Kalidasa’s plays are celebrated even now. The three plays of Kalidasa which has
survived are:
i) Malavikagnimitram: that narrates the love of king Agnimitra for Malavika.
The play was set in the Sunga period;
ii) Vikramorvasiyam: the play tells the story of the love of Pururavas and Urvasi;
iii) Abhijnanasakuntalam: this is considered to be the ‘masterpiece’ of Kalidasa.
The earliest known dramas to have survived are fragments of plays by
Ashvaghosa. The oldest complete plays are attributed to Bhasa, which seem to
be earlier than those of Kalidasa. Bhasa’s thirteen surviving plays include several
works, notably “The Dream of Vasavadatta” (Svapnavasavadatta) and
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“Yaugandharayana’s Vows” (Pratijnayavgandharayana). Bhasa also wrote a Languages and Literature
number of short dramas based on epic stories.

There were many other dramatists of whom we can only mention a few. They
are:
i) Sudraka’s” The Little Clay Cart” (Mrcchakatika) – This narrates the love of
a poor brahmana Carudatta for the virtuous courtesan Vasantasena. It is said
to be rich in humour and pathos and action.
ii) Visakhadatta (6th century) who was a political dramatist. He has only one
complete surviving play, “The Minister’s Signet Ring” ( Mudraraksasa),
which deals with the schemes of Chanakya.
iii) Bhavabhuti who lived at Kanyakubja in the early 8th century has three
surviving plays — “Malati and Madhava”, “The Deeds of the Great Hero’’
(Mahaviracarita), and “The Later Deeds of Rama” (Uttarardmacarita).

After Bhavabhuti the quality of Sanskrit drama declined. Playwrights of some

merit, such as Bhattanarayana (? 8th century), Murari (early 9th century),
Rajasekhara (9th-10th centuries), and Krsnamisra (11th century), continued to write
dramas but their works were mostly composed more for reading rather than for
performance.

14.4.8 Sanskrit Prose Literature

The earliest surviving prose stories are a few references in the Brahmanas,
followed by the Pali Jatakas. Dandin’s “Tales of the Ten Princes” (Dasakumaracarita)
is a collectionof narrations, simple in style.

Subandhu, one of the great prose writers, is known only from one work, called
after its heroine Vasavadatta, which tells of her love for the prince Kandarpaketu.
Subandhu’s “merits lie in his ornate descriptions and his mastery of language,
and his work consists of a series of descriptive tableaux, linked by a thin thread
of narrative, each long description told in a single sentence which covers two or
more pages of type.”

Bana’s style is said to be similar to that of Subandhu. His works “Deeds of Harsha”
(Harshacharita) and Kadambari hold more importance. In the former work there
is a piece of autobiography that is considered ‘unparalleled’ in Sanskrit literature.
Bana is considered to be an unconventional man. His opinions and his attack on
the theory of royal divinity made him unpopular with his royal patron. What
made him an exclusive personality in ancient India was his empathy for the
‘poor and humble’ and he is considered to be ‘the master of exact observation’.

Prose romances and stories in mixed prose and verse (campu) were often written
after Bana, but none of them were of much literary importance.

Another celebrated literary work of the period is the Pancatantra (“Five

Treatises”) which is a book of instruction in niti, or the conduct of one’s affairs
intended for kings and statesmen. The stories are in the form of narrative and
exist in several versions with varying length and merit, mostly in prose, but
containing many verses of a gnomic type.

209
Cultural Developments 14.4.9 Pali Literature
The Pali language was mostly the speech of the ordinary man as compared to
Sanskrit and its style was prosaic.

One of the noted works under Pali has been the Tripitika which is a part of the
Buddhist Canonical literature. The oldest literature of the Buddhists consists of
collections — of speeches or conversations, sayings, songs, narratives and rules
of the order. The Tripitaka is nothing but a great compendium of such collections.
The Tripitaka — the word means “three baskets” — consists of three so-called
pitakas or “baskets”. They are:

i) Vinayapitaka, “basket of the discipline of the order” — This section contains

all that refers to the monastic community (sangha), the rules of the discipline
of the order, precepts for the daily life of monks and nuns and so on.

ii) Suttapitaka, “basket of the Suttas” – The Pali word ‘sutta’ corresponds to
the Sanskrit sutra, but for the Buddhists it means “discourse,” or “sermon.”
Every long or short explanation, frequently in the form of a dialogue, on
one or more points of religion (dhamma) is called a sutta and often also
suttanta (Sanskrit sutranta). The Suttapitaka consists of five nikayas, i. e.
great collections of these suttas or suttantas.

iii) Abhidhammapitaka, “basket of the higher subtleties of the doctrine” — The

texts contained in this section deal with religion but more in the form of
instructions and enumerations.

The Jatakas have been one of the illustrious literary productions under Pali
literature. They were originally in a form different from that of the Pali Canon.
The stories were written down in the present form around fifth century CE. The
Jatakas or Buddhist stories are a collection of folklore that were composed for
the propagation of Buddhist ideas amongst the masses. The Jatakas are considered
to be as one of the ‘classified’ texts of Buddhism. The Jatakas had both a rural
and urban background. Regarding the authorship of the Jatakas, it is not the
work of a single author.

In Pali poetry we get a few verses from the “Songs of the Elder Monks and
Nuns” (Theragatha and Therigatha); a collection of poems ascribed to the great
disciples of the Buddha in the early days of the Order. The style of these poems
is simpler than that of courtly Sanskrit literature and suggests the impact of
‘popular’ songs. The first is attributed to Ambapali, the beautiful courtesan of
Vaishali who became a Buddhist nun.

In case of Pali descriptive poetry we have passages from the Ceylon chronicle,
the Mahavamsa, describing the capture of Vijayanagara, the capital of the Tamil
invader Elara, by the Sinhalese national hero, King Dutthagamani (161-137 BCE).

14.4.10 Prakrit Literature

Prakrit was a language that the Jainas opted for propagating their ideals, like the
Buddhist chose Pali. The Jainas kept in mind the fact that their propaganda should
reach out to the laymen, hence the canonical writings and the earliest
commentaries are written in Prakrit dialects (Magadhi and Maharastri). It was in
210 a later period that the Jainas — the Svetambaras from the 8th century, and the
Digambaras somewhat earlier — used Sanskrit for commentaries and learned Languages and Literature
works as well as for poetry. The term given to the sacred books of Janism, both
by Svetambaras and Digambaras is Siddhanta or Agama. They are unanimously
called the twelve Angas or limbs. There exists detailed knowledge of the Siddhanta
of the Svetambaras.The authority of the sacred texts does not go beyond fifth
century CE. The Jaina canon in Prakrit has similar ‘archaic’ features as the Pali
canon in Buddhism.

The language of this Canon is a Prakrit which is known as Arsa (i.e. “the language
of the Rsis”) or Ardha-Magadhi. Mahavira is said to have preached in this
language. But there is a difference between the language of prose and that of
verses.
There have been lengthy descriptions of the Tirthankaras, of pious monks, mighty
kings, wealthy merchants, prosperous cities etc. over and over again. The style
is more ornate than that of the Pali scriptures, and closer to courtly Sanskrit. The
poetry of the Jainas is better than their prose.
The most important literary work in Prakrit is the Gathasattasai compiled by
Hala. It is a collection of short poems. According to Jan Gonda they are examples
of ‘exceedingly sophisticated verbal art; they follow set patterns, obey strict
literary rules which are product of a long period of development, and show a
sure sense of taste.’ They were meant for an audience who were not the masses
but educated urban and aristocratic public. Assigning an exact date for the text is
difficult. Hala was a king of the south Indian Satavahana dynasty whose reign
can be placed around first century CE. This date is considered to be too early for
the text. It was most probably compiled between third and seventh century CE.

14.4.11 Tamil Literature

Tamil tradition tells of three literary schools (sangam) which met at Madurai.
The first of these was attended by gods and legendary sages, but all its works
have perished. Of the second, there survives only the early Tamil grammar,
Tolkappiyam. The poets of the third Sangam, on the other hand, wrote the “Eight
Anthologies” (Ettutogai), which are the greatest testament of ancient Tamil
literature. But again dating them is problematic as it is almost certain that the
grammar Tolkappiyam, attributed to the second Sangam, is later than many of
the poems of the Third. The poetry of the “Eight Anthologies” is little known
outside the land of its origin.

Poetry in Tamil literature was divided into two main groups: “internal” (agam),
that dealt with love, and “external” (puram), which dealt with the praise of
kings.

Traditionally there were five regions (tinai): the hills (kurinji), the dry lands
(palai), the jungle and woodland (mullai), the cultivated plains (marudam), and
the coast (neytal). Each was concomitant with some aspect of love or war; the
hills were the scene of poems on pre-nuptial love and on cattle-raiding; the dry
lands, of those on the long separation of lovers and on the laying waste of the
countryside; the jungle, on the brief parting of lovers and on raiding expeditions;
the valleys, on post-nuptial love or the deceits of courtesans and on siege; and
the sea coast, on the parting of fishermen’s wives from their partners and on
battle. Every poem of the “Eight Anthologies” was classified in one of the five
sections, but much of the poetry did not follow this formal classification. 211
Cultural Developments “The Eighteen Minor Works” (Padinenkilkanakku) are largely aphorisms and
moralizing in character, the two most famous being Tirukkural, and Naladiyar.
The latter is formal and literary in nature, and contains verses of merit and high
ethical content.

The indigenous style of poetry was getting modified under the influence of
Sanskrit, and Tamil poets took to writing long poems which they called by the
Sanskrit name kavya. The earliest and greatest of these is “The Jewelled Anklet”
(Silappadikaram), which is very different from Sanskrit poetry. Though written
for an educated audience it is near to the life of the people which also makes it
realistic in nature.The traditional author of the poem was Ilangovadigal, the
grandson of the great Chola king Karikalan, who lived around 1st or 2nd century
CE but the poem belongs to several centuries later. It throws light on political
ideas as well. The author though was a great poet, is not considered a great
storyteller who is said to have drawn together the themes of earlier Tamil poets.
But his work contains interesting descriptions which make this literary text and
Kamban’s Ramayanam ‘national epics’ of the Tamil people.

A little later than “The Jewelled Anklet”, its sequel Manimegalai was composed.
It is attributed to the poet Sattan of Madurai. “The Jewelled Anklet”, though
containing many religious and moral lessons was primarily written to tell a story,
while in Manimegalai the story is a mere framework for philosophical
analysis.The heroine, Manimegalai, is the daughter of Kovalan, the hero of “The
Jewelled Anklet”, who became a Buddhist nun on hearing of her former lover’s
death. The story tells of the love of prince Udayakumaran for Manimegalai, and
the miraculous preservation of her chastity. In the end she becomes a Buddhist
nun like her mother. The interesting section is where she holds discussions with
members of various sects, both Hindu and heterodox, and her successful refutation
of their doctrines. Thus this text is important for critically analyzing various
religious traditions and the position of women.

A third Tamil “epic” is the Sivaga-Sindamani which enumerates the exploits of

the hero Sivaga or Jivaka, who excelled in every art from archery to the curing of
snake-bite, and who wins a new bride only to become a Jaina monk after his
many victories. The author was a Jaina named Tiruttakkadevar. His work is
‘fantastic’ and lacks any contact with real life and is said to be influenced by
courtly Sanskrit.

14.4.12 Folk Poetry

One that can be mentioned here is that section of the Buddhist canon called
Samyvtta Nikaya which was first translated into Chinese about CE 440, from a
manuscript acquired in Ceylon by Fa-hsien in 411. Probably the verses here
quoted were sung in India between the time of the codification of the Pali canon
in the 1st century BCE and the beginning of the 5th century CE.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Discuss the significance of Ancient Indian literature.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
212
 ....................................................................................................................... Languages and Literature

.......................................................................................................................
2) Discuss any two types of literature of ancient India.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

14.5 SUMMARY
Indian civilization is unique and distinct in nature. This uniqueness is reflected
in every facet of Indian history. Language and literature is one of them. Language
and literature is a form of expression. It is a way of expressing an idea with a
purpose which might be transmitted from generation to generation. The study of
literature, language and expressions helps in forming perception and
understanding. Till present times, historians used to critically analyze the
expressions of literature of a particular period and put forward their perceptions
supported by various arguments. These perceptions help to form an in-depth
understanding of history. Indian literature has covered subjects including social,
economic and scientific advancements as well. Thus the critical study of language
and literature not only helps in forming an idea of the cultural history, but also
social, political and economic aspects as well.

14.6 KEY WORDS

Astadhyayi: means literally eight chapters. A text by Panini (end of the 4th century
BCE).
Samskrita: perfected or refined.
Prakrtas: natural; dialect which developed naturally.
Samhita: collection. There are four Samhitas apart from samhitas which are part
of Tantra Literature: Rig, Sam, Yajur and Atharva Veda.

14.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Section 14.2
2) See Section 14.3 and its relevant Sub-sections
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Sub-section 14.4.1
2) See Section 14.4 and its relevant Sub-sections
213
Cultural Developments
14.8 SUGGESTED READINGS
Blackburn, Stuart and Ramanujan, A.K. (1986) (Ed.). Another Harmony: New
Essays on the Folklore of India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Ollett, Andrew (2017). Language of the Snakes. California: University Of

California Press.

Pollock, Sheldon (2006). The Language Of The Gods In The World Of Men.
California: University Of California Press.

Saloman, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Winternitz, Maurice (1993). A History of Indian Literature. Volume Two. Delhi:

Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

214
 Languages and Literature
UNIT 15 SCULPTURE AND
ARCHITECTURE*

Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Post-Mauryan Phase (c.200 BCE-200 CE)
15.2.1 Architecture
15.2.2 Sculpture
15.3 Gupta Phase (c. 300-600 CE)
15.3.1 Architecture
15.3.2 Sculpture
15.4 Post-Gupta Phase
15.4.1 Pallava Architecture
15.4.2 Pallava Relief Sculpture
15.4.3 Architecture under the Chalukyas
15.5 Summary
15.6 Key Words
15.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
15.8 Suggested Readings

15.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn about:
stupa architecture in post-Mauryan period;
evolution of Buddhist rock-cut architecture;
temple architecture of the period under study in the context of both cave
temples and free-standing temples; and
various sculptural schools and their chief features.

15.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit is a survey of art and architecture between the period c.200 BCE-
c. 750 CE. It is a vast period that can be divided into three phases: post-Mauryan,
Gupta and post-Gupta. Each period was marked by significant contributions to
art and architecture. We shall start with the post-Mauryan period: a time of great
prosperity. It was marked by refinement of Mauryan architecture whether it is
the stupa or cave-buildings. Accompanying this was the emergence of three
schools of sculpture: Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati. Gupta epoch set new
standards in rock cut architecture and sculpture. There was also the first emergence
of Hindu cave and structural temples. In post-Gupta era major contributions were
made by Pallava and Chalukya dynasties to temple architecture.

* Dr. Avantika Sharma, Assistant Professor, Indraprastha College for Women, University of
Delhi.
215
Cultural Developments
15.2 POST-MAURYAN PHASE (c. 200 BCE-200 CE)
The Mauryan period witnessed production of splendid specimens of art by the
state. With the emergence of social groups who could extend substantial patronage
for production of specimens of art, new trends in art activities came about. In the
post-Mauryan period, patronage by different social groups was the main reason
behind the fact that art activities became so widespread all over India and beyond;
it was no longer high art exclusively patronized by the state. There was also,
from the Mauryan period onwards, a shift toward using non-perishable material
i.e. stone as a medium of creative expression. There was also constant interaction
in this period with those art forms that flourished beyond the frontiers of the
Indian sub-continent. There emerged various schools of art. Let us discuss the
main features of post-Mauryan art.

15.2.1 Architecture
Architecture of the post-Mauryan period is mainly in the form of religious
buildings. We can divide them into four categories:
1) Stupas
2) Cave architecture for monks of different religions
3) Royal Shrines of Kushanas
4) Free-standing Sunga pillars.
Stupa
The word stupa is derived from the root stu which means to worship and praise.
In Buddhism it denotes a mound where the relics of the Buddha, his disciples
and famous monks are encased.

The Mauryan emperor Ashoka redistributed the Buddha’s relics and built several
stupas enshrining them. Initially, their building plan was very simple. It consisted
of a hemispherical mound made of bricks enshrining the relics. Its top had a
chhatri within a small railing known as harmika. The stupa was surrounded by a
railing known as vedica. The space enclosed by it was meant for
circumambulation.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Frontal View of South Torana. Credit: Photo Dharma. Source:
Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:001_Front_View_of_
South_Gate_(32969983444).jpg).
216
During this period several stupas were also enlarged and modified under the Sculpture and Architecture
patronage of different royal dynasties, traders and artisans. The hemi-spherical
dome was enlarged. On this dome an additional terrace medhi was built for an
additional round of circumambulation. It was provided with a lintel gateway
(torana/toranadvara) that was beautifully decorated with reliefs of Buddhist
motifs and iconography placed at cardinal positions of the vedica.The best
preserved examples are located at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi and Amravati.

LEFT: Stupa no. 2, Sanchi. Credit: Kevin RIGHT: Sanchi Stupa no. 3, Front View. Credit:
Standage. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Photo Dharma. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ ( ht t p s : / / c o mmo n s .w i ki me di a .o rg / w i ki /
File:Sanchi_Stupa_No2.jpg). File:003_Front_View_ (33709016166). jpg).

Rock Cut Architecture

It involved converting a cave into a building. Artisans were often inspired by
contemporary buildings which meant adding elements like pillars (not required
in a cave). The oldest cave buildings were excavated under the Mauryas at Barabar
and Nagarjuni hills, mainly for the Ajivika mendicants. In this period, many
caves were excavated in the Western and Eastern Ghats for religious mendicants.
Those in the Western Deccan are mainly located in Maharashtra.These were
built for Buddhist monks and consisted of two kinds of buildings –
caityas (prayer halls), and
viharas (living quarters).
The caitya was generally designed as a large apse-shaped pillared hall. At its
centre, a stupa (in case of Hinayana sect) or an image of the Buddha (in case of
Mahayana sect) was placed. Its entrance was designed as pillared veranda/
porch.The general design of a vihara is quite simple. It consisted of a main hall
surrounded by small rooms/cells for monks. Its entrance may or may not have a
veranda.

The important cave buildings are at Bhaja, Kondane, Pitalhora, Ajanta caves 9
and 10, Bedsa, Nasik, Karli and Kanheri. Some of these contain inscriptions
which can be paleographically dated. Others can be dated on the similarity of the
architectural styles. Susan Huntington divides these caves into following three
sub-phases:
i) c.100-70 BCE – Bhaja, Kondave, Pitalkhora and Ajanta cave no. 10
ii) c. 100-200 CE– Bedsa
iii) c. 200-300 CE– Karli and Kanheri
217
Cultural Developments Royal Shrines of Kushanas
The Kushanas adopted certain peculiar customs to consolidate their rule. One
such custom was the cult involving the worship of dead rulers; the implication
being that any dissent and revolt against the emperor would mean revolt against
god. For this purpose special shrines were set up. Two of these have been
discovered in Mathura and Surukh Kotal in Afghanistan. The surviving figure in
the former is seated and wearing clothes associated with Scythians, high boots
and tunic. The throne has lions supporting it, possibly derived from the Mauryan
idea of royalty. Its inscription tells us that it was the statue of Vima Kadphises.
Another statue discovered is that of Kanishka. This figure is standing. It wears a
tunic and boots. He is carrying a sword in right hand and a mace in left. The idea
is to give the viewer an impression of his military prowess. Unfortunately, the
head of both the statues has not survived.

Headless Statue of Kanishka, Mathura Musuem. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly. Source:

Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kanishka_enhanced.jpg).

Sunga Pillars
Best specimen of a Sunga pillar is the Heliodorus pillar at Besnagar near Vidisha,
Madhya Pradesh. It was commissioned by Heliodorus, Greek ambassador to the
Sungas, around 113 BCE. He is one of the earliest recorded Greek converts
to Hinduism. The 7-line Brahmi inscription identifies the pillar as Garuda-dhvaja
installed to showcase his devotion to Bhagavata cult. This cult is considered a
predecessor of Vishnu cult. The inscription is the first known inscription in India
related to Vaishnavism.
218
In many ways the pillar is different from Mauryan lion-capitals. It is half their Sculpture and Architecture
size. The shaft does not have a smooth appearance and there is slight decoration
in the form of garland and geese motifs. The capital consists of a reverse lotus
with its leaves visible. Atop was perhaps a garuda sculpture as the name Garuda-
dhvaja suggests. The pillar was located near a Vasudeva shrine.

Heliodorus Pillar. Credit: Public. Resource.Org. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg).

A banyan tree-shaped capital has also been found. This indicates that many more
pillars may have been erected in and around the region of Vidisha but they have
not survived.

15.2.2 Sculpture
Sculptural art in this period developed on a large scale. It was largely associated
with the decoration of religious buildings. Initial samples belong to the Sungas
and their contemporaries. Later on, under the patronage of foreign and Indian
rulers there was emergence of three distinct schools:
1) Gandhara,
2) Mathura, and
3) Amravati.
These schools for the first time produced images of the Buddha, Jaina tirthankaras
and Brahmanical gods which, according to Ananda Coomarswamy, were inspired
from Yaksha images of the Mauryan period.

Sculpture under the Sungas

The samples dated from 2nd century BCE to 1st century BCE are credited to the
Sungas and their contemporaries. They consist of stone sculptures, small terracotta
figurines and bas-relief sculptures. Stone sculptures have been recovered from
Vidisha, Mathura, Ahichchhatra, Kausambi, Ayodhya, and Pataliputra. They
219
Cultural Developments mainly depict Yakshas and Yakshis/Yakshinis. Most famous among them is Kubera
Yaksha from Vidisha wearing a dhoti, belt, turban and heavy jewellery.

From the Sunga period onwards relief sculptures became an integral part of stupa
decoration. Such images are recovered from Sanchi stupa 2, Bharhut, Amaravati,
and Jaggayyapeta. At Sanchi stupa 2 they were carved on the vedica. These are
mainly floral motifs, elephants, people riding horses etc. Northern entrance of
the stupa has more significant elements like the Ashokan pillar, pipal tree
garlanded by vidyadharas and kalpavriksha. On vedica of the Bharhut stupa we
find carved the serpent king, yaksha, yakshini, lotus motif, dwarves, people riding
horses and even a Greek warrior. Some roundels also have depiction of Jatakas.
However, the Buddha during this time was never directly depicted. He was
represented through symbols like sacred ladder, sacred tree or sacred altar.
Amaravati also has reliefs depicting devotees worshiping the Bodhi tree. A relief
at Jaggayyapeta in Andhra Pradesh depicts a chakravartin (ideal king).

Terracotta images have also

been recovered from
Chandraketugarh, Mathura,
Kaushambi, Ahichchhatra and in
Deccan from Kondapur,
Nagarjunakonda, Yeleshwaram,
Sannati, Ter, Paithan and
Nevasa. They are mainly female
figurines. There are also few
animal figurines which could be
toys for children.

Gandhara School of Art

The Gandhara school of art
developed in the north-west
region of the subcontinent.
Various trade routes connecting
the subcontinent with the
Mediterranean and China passed
through this region.Also, in this
period it came under the control
of various foreign dynasties like
Indo-Greeks, Scythians,
Parthians and Kushanas. Thus,
this school represents an
amalgamation of Indian, Greek
and West Asian idioms.

The main theme is Buddhism.

Several sculptures of the
Buddha and Bodhisattvas have
been found. The Buddha is
Representation of tha Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist
depicted in both standing and art of Gandhara, 1st-2nd Century CE. Piece Preserved
seated pose. His iconography in Tokyo National Museum, Japan. Credit:World
has both Greek and Indian Imaging, 2004. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
elements. In the standing pose (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Gandhara_
220 he wears Greek drapery and Buddha_(tnm).jpeg).
stands barefoot. One leg is slightly bent, known as contrapposto. He has curly Sculpture and Architecture
hair and facial features based on the Mediterranean model. Indian element is
visible in the poses of hands (mudras) such as abhayamudra, dana mudra etc.
He has mahapurusha-lakshanas (signs of a great man) like ushnisha (three-
dimensional oval over the top of the Buddha’s head), circular symbol on forehead
and plain halo in the background. He does not wear any jewellery. He has
elongated ears indicating royal life in previous birth. The sculpture often stands
on a pedestal which at times is carved with a scene or auspicious symbol.

An Early Buddhist Triad. From Left to Right: a Kushana Devotee, Bodhisattva Maitreya,
the Buddha, Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara and a Buddhist Monk. 2nd-3rd Century, Gandhara.
Credit: No machine-readable uploader provided. World Imaging assumed (based on
copyright claims). Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:BuddhistTriad.JPG).

Bodhisattvas (future Buddhas) are also depicted in seated and standing variety.
Most of them weara dhoti with shawl covering shoulders. They have elaborate
hairstyles and wear heavy jewellery. Different bodhisattvas are identified by
their mudra, head gear or objects they carry.The school also produced several
relief sculptures depicting the Buddha’s life.This emphasis in in sharp contrast
to other Indic schools in which there is emphasis on Jatakas (stories of previous
birth of the Buddha). The emphasis on the life of the Buddha may be because of
the fact that Buddhism here was a foreign religion.
221
Cultural Developments Mathura School
This school developed around the city of Mathura: an important city on the
uttarapatha as well as the second capital of the Kushanas. The images discovered
here belong to all the three religions: Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism.
Besides, there are also few royal sculptures from Mathura depicting Kushana
rulers.These were created using red spotted sandstone, easily available in the
nearby Aravalli region.

Jaina sculptures have been recovered from a ruined stupa at Kankali Tila. They
depict Jina in seated or standing pose. They look quite similar to Buddhist
sculptures with minor differences.They are generally nude. The standing Jina is
straight with hands long enough to reach the knee. The seated Jina is in padmasana
(lotus-position or cross-legged posture) with hands in dhyana mudra. Jainas
venerate 24 tirthankaras who are distinguished by different emblems on their
throne or chest: lion for Mahavira, bull for Rishabh etc.They also donated reliefs
to the stupa, known as ayagapatas, in the form of square slabs depicting Jina,
stupa, swastika, twin fish symbols, miscellaneous scenes etc.

Buddhist images, too, occur in both seated and standing variety.They are generally
shown wearing a dhoti and shawl, with no jewellery and footwear. Facial features
are inspired from yaksha images of the Mauryan era. Ears are elongated. Head is
shaved. Body is stout and husky. The standing Buddha has no bend anywhere in
the body. The seated Buddha is shown on a pedestal in padmasana with right
hand in abhaya (benediction or boon-giving) mudra while left hand rests near
left knee. Some additional features were added to the image: lightly decorated
halo, Bodhisattvas or Vidhyadharas as attendants and a parasol above the Buddha.

Buddha Seated in Abhaya-Mudra, Kushana Period (c. 1st-3rd Century CE), Mathura
Museum, Uttar Pradesh. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https:/
/commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Inscribed_Seated_Buddha_ Image_in_Abhaya_
Mudra_-_Kushan_Period_-_Katra_Keshav_Dev_-_ACCN_A-1_-_Government_ Museum_
-_Mathura_2013-02-24_5972.JPG).
222
Among Saivite deities a sculpture of Karttikeya (son of Siva) was discovered at Sculpture and Architecture
Kankali Tila. His appearance is quite similar to the images of Bodhisattvas, the
only distinction being the spear in his right hand. There is also a sculpture of
Surya shown in a crouching position as if seated on a chariot. Two horses are
depicted near his feet, possibly pulling the invisible chariot. There is also a relief
of Vishnu and Balarama but very few representations of Krishna have been
discovered belonging to this time.

Amravati School of Art

This school developed under the patronage of dynasties like the Satavahanas
and Iksavakus. Both bas-reliefs and free-standing sculptures were produced.
Satavahana reliefs have been found at Amaravati where they were used for
decorating the stupa. They show the stupa, Jataka tales, scenes from the life of
the Buddha and Buddhist symbols like chakra. Compared to the Sunga specimens
there was great improvement in technique.The figures are deeply carved and
have a natural appearance. According to Huntington, this may be because of the
influence of Roman art. The reliefs created under the Ikshavakus show even
further improvement.These have been recovered from their capital
Nagarjunkonda. They were, again, used for decorating stupas. Great advancement
is seen in the usage of space. The figures are well-placed. They have a slim
appearance and look very lively.

Free-standing sculptures emerged towards the end of Satavahanas’ reign of mainly

the Buddha and Bodhisattvas. They have been discovered from Goli, Amaravati
and Nagarjunakonda. The material used is marble or limestone. Although the
school is deeply influenced by Mathura, it has certain distinctive features. The
Buddha is shown wearing sanghati which resembles a toga-like garment. It only
covers the left shoulder. In origin, it could be a modification of Gandhara drapery
or could be an indigenous conception. His face is closely modelled on the Buddha
found on the reliefs.There is, however, a difference in the delineation of the
body. Instead of slimmer physique in the reliefs, he has a massive body. His hair
is in form of short ring-like curls. In iconography the right hand is in abhaya
mudra but the left hand holds the hem of the garment. He stands barefoot on a
plain pedestal. This image too has the mahapurusha-lakshanas. Images of
bodhisattvas, unlike in the Mathura and Gandhara school, are much rarer in the
Amravati school.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Explain the etymology and components of a stupa.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2) Compare and contrast the Gandhara and Mathura school of art.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
223
Cultural Developments
15.3 GUPTA PHASE (c. 300-600 CE)
Art and architecture produced between c.300-600 CE has been celebrated by
nationalist historians and art-historians as the Golden Age or Classical period.
According to Coomaraswamy this period was marked by political stability and
prosperity that enabled the emergence of exquisite art forms that were largely
indigenous with no foreign influence from Greece and West Asia. The art of this
time, in his words, “is self-possessed, urbane, at once exuberant and formal”.
This new expression influenced the entire country and all the religions: Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Jainism.

15.3.1 Architecture
Temples
Temples of the Gupta period can be divided into:
i) Early Gupta style
ii) Late Gupta style
The early Gupta style is dated from 3rdcentury to 5th century CE. There are both
cave and free-standing temples made under this style. One such Cave complex
was discovered at Udayagiri in Madhya Pradesh. Around 20 caveswere excavated
in the low-lying sandstone hills. Three of them bear Gupta period inscriptions:
two issued during Chandragupta II’s reign and one during Kumaragupta’s reign.
In architectural plan all the temples here are single-roomed structures having a
pillared porch for entrance. Interiors are mainly plain. However, rich decoration
is visible on the doorways. The porch was not excavated but built separately
from stones.The pillars in it had a square base, an octagonal shaft and a vase-
shaped capital.

Temple no. 17 at Sanchi. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https:/
/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_17_-_Buddhist_Monument_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-
21_4494.JPG).
224
Free-standing structures had a similar architectural plan.The best example is the Sculpture and Architecture
Vishnu temple at Tigawa. It has two parts – a small square chamber and a pillared
porch.The porch stands on four octagonal pillars with square base and four lion
capitals.The whole structure has a flat roof. Walls are mostly plain. The only
decoration visible is near the doorway in the form of reliefs of river-goddesses
Ganga and Yamuna identified by their respective vahanas — crocodile and tortoise
(according to John Guy this is because the Ganges has a rich crocodile population
and Yamuna has a rich tortoise population). Another temple with a similar plan
is temple no. 17 at Sanchi.

The later Gupta style, dated between 5thand 6thcentury CE, is characterized by an
increase in the complexity of plan. The temples now were built on a plinth or
platform provided with staircase.The flat roof was replaced by a tower that could
be either pyramidal or curvilinear in shape. They were built with stone set together
with dowels or with bricks glued with mud mortar. Further, the doorways and
external walls were more elaborately decorated on which we find depiction of
gods and goddesses of the growing Hindu pantheon, floral patterns etc. Best
examples of this style are:
1) Vishnu temple at Deogarh and Bhitargaon
2) Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara
3) Shiva temple at Bhumara
Buddhist Cave Buildings
Buddhist cave buildings continued to be built in the Western Ghats under the
patronage of Guptas and Vakatakas. They have been found at Ajanta and Bagh,
of which Ajanta caves are best preserved. They consist of 30 caves of which
cave nos. 19 and 26 are caitya halls and the rest are viharas. About six of these
were excavated during the post-Mauryan period for the Hinayana sect. In the
Gupta age Mahayana monks largely occupied these caves. Since this sect believes
in image worship of the Buddha we see rich sculptural representations of the
Buddha and bodhisattvas decorating the caves.

The building plans of caityas of this period are not very different from the plans
found in the post-Mauryan period. Out of the two caitya halls, cave 19 is an
older building. It has an inscription of Harishena, a Vakataka ruler, inscribed in
the early part of his reign. The entrance is still designed as a pillared portico. It
contains a doorway, above which is an ogee-curved arch within which there is a
sun-window. What is innovative is the decoration. There are several sculptural
representations of the Buddha, each enclosed within pilasters. Style of the figures
is very similar to the Sarnath school.The interior of the cave is planned slightly
differently. The first thing greeting the visitor is a covered courtyard surrounded
with four cells. The purpose of the cells is not understood. After this we have an
apsidal hall divided into a nave and side aisle by a colonnade of pillars. The
pillars are thicker and are decorated with fluted patterns and a cushion capital.
At the centre of the hall is the object of worship, a stupa with harmika and
several chhatris. On its dome a standing Buddha has been carved. The harmika
has a carving of the seated Buddha.The roof is barrel vaulted in shape and covered
with beams. The spaces between these beams are covered with miniature paintings
of the seated Buddha. The side aisle has nothing significant and has plain walls.

225
Cultural Developments 15.3.2 Sculpture
Udayagiri and Eran Sculptures
The Udayagiri cave temples are not just the oldest Hindu cave temples in India
but also have the best preserved sculptural representations of Hindu deities. A
study of these indicates that the iconographic formula of Hindu deities had fully
matured in this period.

Siva is preserved in cave 4 in the ekamukhalingam (lingam with one face) form.
Unlike the Gudimallam specimen he has a fuller face, almond shaped eyes with
heavy lids and fleshy lips. Huntington says that this was inspired from the late-
Kushana Mathura art. Cave 3 has a sculpture of standing Karttikeya whose
facial features are similar to the above. His standing pose with feet apart and
knees slightly bent is very similar to the Mathura images. Outside this shrine
two dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are depicted. Ganesha (god of good luck) does
not have any separate shrine dedicated to him; he is carved on the left wall outside
cave 6.

Among the Vaishnavite deities the most impressive representation is in cave 5.

There is a colossal relief of Varaha (boar avatara of Vishnu) rescuing earth from
drowning in the ocean. The earth is represented as a maiden. Varaha stands with
his left leg resting on a rock and right leg straight. The body is husky, giving an
impression of a strong figure. Near the left leg nagas are shown paying respect.
In the upper portion rishis and celestial beings are praising the Varaha. This

Varaaha Panel at Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh). Credit: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra. Source:

Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:375-415_CE,_
Udayagiri_Hindu_ Caves,_Varaha_rescuing_goddess_earth_ legend,_Les_grottes_
d%27Udayagiri_(Inde).jpg).
226
scene spreads on to adjacent walls. The right wall has reliefs of Ganga, Yamuna Sculpture and Architecture
and the ocean. The two river-goddesses are identified through their vahanas:
Ganga on makara (crocodile) and Yamuna on tortoise. Vishnu is also presented
in his anantashayana (literally meaning “sleeping on the serpent Ananta”) form
in cave 13. His head is not well preserved.

At another historical site, Eran in Madhya Pradesh also, there have been recovered
outstanding sculptures of Vaishnava deities in the form of Narasimha, two Varahas
and one free-standing pillar depicting Vishnu’s vahana Garuda.The first Varaha
was made during the time of Samudragupta. It is made of sandstone. The style is
quite similar to that of Udayagiri cave relief. A sash is tied around his waist. The
earth goddess hangs from his tusk. The Narasimha sculpture is another outstanding
piece. Like Varaha he has a strong physique with four arms, wide shoulders and
flat head. He too wears a sash.The second Varaha is executed and decorated very
differently. It belongs to the time of Huna invader Toramana. The boar stands on
his four feet with Prithivi hanging from his tusk. We have small panels of rishis
(saints) seeking shelter in him.

Varaha at Eran in zoological form. Credit: Arnold Betten. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eran,_Varaha_und_Garuda-S%C3%A4ule_
(1999).jpg).

A free-standing pillar has also been found. The inscription on it tells us that it
was commissioned in 485 CE by a local ruler. It has a square shaft, bell-shaped
capital, surmounted by a square abacus with a pair of lions on each side. At the
top we have a wheel and on either side we have two male figures. They represent
Garuda, identified by their holding a serpent. It perhaps stood opposite the Vishnu
temple. 227
Cultural Developments Sarnath School of Art
The earliest samples discovered at Sarnath were mainly of the Mathura school.
However, in the last quarter of 5th century the site developed its own unique
sculptural art. This is reflected in the standing Buddha image donated by a
Buddhist monk Abhayamitra in 473 CE. Three years later he donated two more
standing Buddha idols.

The statues made under the Sarnath school during the Gupta era have very different
characteristics from previous schools in the following respects:

1) First distinguishing trait is the execution of facial features. Eyes are cast
downwards, nose is sharp and lips are curved in a gentle smile. The
mahapurusha-lakshanas are not present: elongated ears, ushnisha and circle
on the forehead. The overall effect is of a delicate face that has achieved
great tranquillity and enlightenment.

2) The second distinguishing trait is the posture of the body. It stands in abhanga
pose in which the body is either tilted left or right. It is covered in drapery
but unlike the Gandhara ones, it does not have any folds. The drapery, in
fact, looks transparent and could be even missed by the viewer if not for the
crease near the waist and slight projection on right and left. Huntington
believes that these sculptures were originally painted. The hands are in pose
similar to the earlier schools: right in abhaya mudra and left in dana mudra.

3) The third unique

characteristic of this school
is its execution of halo. It
was executed in two forms:
Circular halo, covering
back of the head and
shoulders, or
Elongated halo that
covers the entire body.
At times these are plain but in
many examples they are covered
with intricate floral designs. In
some pieces we also see the
depiction of vidhyadharas on the
top left and right and attendants
near the feet of the Buddha.

The school also produced images

of the seated Buddha. They share
several features with their
standing variants: serene face,
mahapurusha-lakshanas and
halos. The difference is in
posture. He is mainly seated in
padmasana. In the earlier schools
the hands may be shown in
Preaching Buddha in Dharmachakra Mudra, Gupta
abhaya mudra, variants of Period. Source: EHI-02, Block-4, Unit-17.
228
dhyana mudra or dharmachakra mudra (gesture of teaching). In this school there Sculpture and Architecture
is a greater preference for dharmachakra mudra.

Gandhara and Mathura School of Art

Images of the Buddha continued to be produced during the Gupta epoch under
Gandhara and Mathura schools. Gandharan sculptures have been mainly
recovered from Hadda in Afghanistan. They were now increasingly made of
stucco (lime plaster) instead of blue schist or green phyllite. In style there is
continuity of the post-Mauryan period reflected in robe and hair style but the
facial features have a softness possibly inspired from the Sarnath school.
The Mathura school of art also saw the influence of Gupta sensibility. The best
specimen is a standing Buddha dated to 434 CE. It is made of red sandstone but
execution is completely different from the post-Mauryan Mathura art. The body
is slimmer and more graceful. Pose is more relaxed and we see a slight bent in
the right leg. It is wearing a drapery with folds, somewhat similar to the Gandhara
school. There is a round halo behind the head which is amply decorated.

15.4 POST-GUPTA PHASE

In the post-Gupta period significant contribution to the development of art and
architecture was made by two southern dynasties: Pallavas and their neighbours,
the Chalukyas of Badami. They mostly patronized Hindu temples. The Pallavas,
who emerged around 600 CE, controlled large parts of Tamil Nadu. At times
their empire even included parts of Deccan and Odisha. But, most of the
architectural marvels of this dynasty have been found at Tamil Nadu. Their temples
are mostly dedicated to Brahmanic deities, possibly under the influence of Bhakti
saints Alvars and Nayanars. A new artistic idiom developed under the patronage
of Pallavas. They were the first to encourage the usage of stone in buildings in
south India. Both cave-temples and free-standing structures were constructed.
This led to development of the Dravida architectural style.
They were frequently locked in conflict with the Chalukyas of Badami who rose
to power in 543 CE under Pulakesin I. While they initially controlled Karnataka,
under capable rulers like Kritivarman I and Pulakesin II they expanded their rule
over Maharashtra and Andhra. The Andhra region was handed over to
Pulakesin II’s brother Vishnuvardhana who founded the collateral branch of the
Chalukyas of Vengi, in 624 CE. Both the branches built significant architectural
structures which occupy a unique position in the evolution of Hindu temple
architecture. Like the Pallavas, they built caves as well as the free-standing
temples.These are both in nagara as well as dravida style. It was perhaps this that
led to an amalgamation of the two styles, leading to the development of a new
vesara style. Therefore, in Badami we find temples made in all these three styles.

15.4.1 Pallava Architecture

Cave Temples
Pallava cave-temples were mainly built under two monarchs Mahendravarman I
(590-630 CE) and his successor Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE). In design
these are very simple consisting of a huge mandapam (hall/pavilion/porch) and
a cubical garbha-griha (sanctum sanctorum or innermost sanctuary wherein the
image of principal deity is housed). The mandapam also doubled up as an entrance
made of either pillars or pilasters. 229
Cultural Developments Two cave temples were constructed under Mahendravarman I:
1) Lakshitayatana at Mandagappattu
2) Lalitankura atTiruchrapalli
An inscription informs us that Lakshitayatana temple was dedicated to the Hindu
Trinity but the dedication of Lalitankura is not known. Compared to the later
temples, these are distinguished by having a very simple decoration scheme. On
the entrance there are two reliefs of dvarapalas. The pillars or pilasters are also
lightly decorated with motifs like medallions.

The cave temples built under Narasimhavarma I are located in the new city
founded by him – Mamallapuram (today’s Mahabalipuram). The Varaha cave
temple is outstanding and lavishly decorated. It consists of a rectangular
mandapam hall and a cubical shrine. The shrine is empty, making it difficult to
identify its dedication, but the hall has beautiful reliefs of Varaha, Trivikrama
(giant form of the Vamana avatara of Vishnu), Gaja-Lakshmi (Lakshmi seated
on lotus and flanked with an elephant on both sides) and Durga. The entrance
consists of two pillars and pilasters. Instead of plain pillars each pillar has a
seated lion as base, a round shaft and a cushion-shaped abacus. Outside, near the
entrance, we see for the first time a water-tank which became an essential feature
of the Dravida style.

Varaha lifting Bhudevi (earth-goddess), Varaha Cave Temple, Mamallapuram. Credit:

mountainamoeba. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Varaha-mahabalipuram.jpg).
230
 Sculpture and Architecture

Facade of Varaha Cave-Temple. We can see lion motif at the base of the pillars. Credit:
Vsundar. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Vsvarahacave.jpg).

Another cave temple – Trimurti cave – is less spectacular. It only has three cubical
shrines built next to one another with no mandapam. The central shrine is
dedicated to Siva, left one to Vishnu and right one to Brahma. The doors of each
shrine has a relief of two dvarapalas. In addition, the wall next to the Brahma
shrine also has a relief of Durga.

A unique cave associated with his reign is the Yali (lion) cave. It is located about
5 km. from Mamallapuram in Saluvakuppam village.The cave is shaped as a
seated lion with face further decorated with mini-lions. In its entrance, too, there
is a pillared porch with base of the pillars shaped as seated lions. The purpose of
its creation is not understood.

Structural Temples
Free-standing temples built with stone blocks or bricks first emerged under
Narasimhavarman II (700-728 CE). Best examples are:
Shore temple at Mamallapuram
Kailashanatha temple at Kanchipuram.
These temples added a new element to the architectural plan. They were built
within a walled complex: a typical feature of the Dravida style.
The Shore temple at Mamallapuram derives its name from the fact that it
overlooked an ancient port. Today, only the western portion of the structure is
visible as the rest is buried under sand. The temple has three different shrines: 231
Cultural Developments two dedicated to Siva and one to Vishnu. The Vishnu shrine is considered to be
the oldest and at the front and back of it there is the Siva shrine.The roof of the
Vishnu shine is flat whereas the two Siva shrines have pyramidal roofs. Each
shrine is provided with a circumambulatory passage. From ruins in the vicinity it
is possible to argue that there existed other minor shrines, halls and a tank for
ritual ablution.The entire complex is surrounded by a huge rectangular enclosure
with a gopuram (gateway) on the west.

Frontal View of Shore Temple, Mamallapauram. Credit: mckaysavage. Source: Wikimedia

Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mamallapuram.jpg).

Shore Temple, Side View

Credit: Bernard Gagnon. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/
232 wiki/File:Shore_Temple_01.jpg).
The Rajasimheshavara or Kailashanatha temple is located at Kanchipuram. Like Sculpture and Architecture
the Shore temple it is located within a rectangular enclosure. The main shrine is
square in shape and houses a siva-linga. It has a circumambulatory passage. The
roof is pyramidal in shape topped with a stupika (top most part of a Hindu temple).
It is decorated with barrel-vaulted structures. The main shrine is surrounded by
nine small shrines. For the congregation of devotees a separate mandapam was
built on its east. In later period the two buildings were joined with help of another
pillared hall known as antarala.

One Side View of Kailashanatha Temple, Kanchipuram. Credit: Bikash Das. Source:
Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7th_century_Sri_
Kailashnathar_ Temple_Kanchipuram_Tamil_Nadu_India_01_(5).jpg).

15.4.2 Pallava Relief Sculpture

The sculptural art that developed under the Pallavas is mainly in the form of
reliefs. Many of these reliefs were used in the decoration of temples depicting
deities and mythological stories associated with them. Supplementing them are
the representations of dvarapalas, seated lions and dwarves. Pallava style is
characterized by slenderness of the figures and their highly animated look.
Huntington traces this as influence of the post-Mauryan Amravati school of art.
The figures are deeply carved and adequately spaced, creating an impression of
a three dimensional image.What is innovative is the scale of these images. In
most of the Indian schools, in order to emphasize centrality of the main figure,
different scales were used for the characters. Thus, in the sculptures depicting
the Buddha, the figure of the Buddha was huge and other figures like dwarves,
attendants etc. were smaller. In Pallava reliefs, however, all figures have the
233
Cultural Developments same scale.The main figure was emphasized by being placed centrally and being
on a throne or pedestal.

Other than the temple reliefs an open-air relief was also discovered at
Mamallapuram. A natural fissure in the rock divides it into left and right portions.
The right portion on the lower side shows an elephant flock with two elephants
depicted larger than the rest, walking towards the fissure. Near the fissure there
is one figure with his left hand up as if he is lifting something. It is identified as
Krishna lifting Govardhana. In the middle, on the fissure, there is depiction of
nagas. The figures near the fissure are significant. In the lower half there is a
figure shown in two different poses: one doing penance and other bowing to the
naga deity. Above him there is a scene of rishis sitting on either sides of a mini
shrine. Above this is the most significant representation. There is a figure doing
a penance by standing on one leg and Siva in front of him bestowing a boon.
This scene is construed as Arjuna’s penance or Bhagiratha’s which led to the
descent of the Ganga. The latter interpretation has more weightage, given the
fact that this relief was built over a tank which is now lost. It is believed that the
rainwater flowed into the tank through the fissure. This relief, according to
scholars, has an allegory. The Bhagiratha penance scene may imply ending of
the drought and Krishna’s scene can mean ending of the flood. The two scenes
could be seen as glorifying the building of tanks, thus ending these extreme
conditions. In other words, it underlines irrigation works undertaken by the
Pallavas.

15.4.3 Architecture under the Chalukyas

Cave Temples
The cave temples built under Western Chalukyas are located at Badami and Aihole.
At Badami there are three cave temples: two dedicated to Vishnu and one to
Siva.They have similar plan. Unlike the Gupta and Pallava cave temples, the
entrance here is in the form of an open courtyard which leads to a closed veranda
after which there is mandapa which contains a cubical garbha-griha.The temples
are beautifully decorated. Pillars of the veranda are square-shaped and decorated
with medallions and garlands.The mandapa, however, has different set of pillars.
They are round in shape with cushion capitals. Several relief sculptures decorate
the walls and often depict stories related to the chief deity. Near the entrance
there are reliefs of dvarapalas and dwarves.

Structural Temples
The dynasty built beautiful structural temples. Clusters of temples have been
discovered at Pattadakal, Mahakuteshwar and Aihole. They were built with large
stone blocks, set together without the help of mortar. Both nagara and dravida
style temples were constructed. There are also specimens which are quite unique
and cannot be classified either as nagara or dravida. The Chalukyas introduced
new elements like open porch, use of balcony slabs and carving of auspicious
motifs and figures on pillars. These later became a regular feature of temple
architecture.

Aihole has some of their oldest temples like Gaudara Gudi, Chiki and Ladhkhan
temples. These temples have a unique plan. A square garbha-griha is located
within a pillared mandapa. The mandapa may be open as in Gaudara Gudi or
closed as in Chiki and Ladhkhan temples. The temples are built on a platform
234
provided with a staircase. The roof of the temples might be slightly slanted. The Sculpture and Architecture
Ladhkhan temple also has a small shrine on its roof accessed by a staircase below.
It is believed that these temples were originally assembly halls and were later
converted into temples.

Gaudara Gudi Temple, Aihole, Karnataka. Credit: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra. Source: Wikimedia
Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Le_temple_Gaudara_Gudi_(Aihole,_
Inde)_(14383019304).jpg).

The nagara style temples have been discovered at Aihole, Pattadakal, Alampur
and Mahakuteshwar. The temples at Alampur were built by their collateral branch,
the Chalukyas of Vengi. In terms of architecture, some of the temples show further
evolution of the nagara style. There is is the beginning of the cruciform ground
plan. The oldest temple in which this is visible is Huchchappayya temple at
Aihole. In this the three components – garbha-griha, mandapa and ardhamandapa
(entrance porch forming a transitional area between the outside and mandapa of
the temple) – are built one after another forming a cruciform ground plan. The
garbha-griha has the typical nagara-shikhara (curvilinear roof). Its
ardhamandapa is designed as an open-porch. Other nagara temples built by this
dynasty closely follow this plan. A slight variation is visible at Jambulinga temple
at Pattadakal which has a closed ardha-mandapa.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Write a note on Udayagiri and Eran sculptures.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................... 235
Cultural Developments 2) Discuss temple architecture under the Pallavas.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

15.5 SUMMARY
This Unit has been an attempt at surveying and analysing significant developments
in art and architecture between the period c. 200 BCE- c.750 CE. Being a very
broad chronological span, it is divided into post-Mauryan, Gupta and post-Gupta
periods, each characterized by novel contributions. We have thrown light on
these contributions. You also learnt about the elements of a stupa in post-Mauryan
age, emergence of Buddhist rock-cut architecture, temple architecture in terms
of both cave temples and free-standing temples and different sculptural schools
and their chief characteristics.

Changes in art styles and the emergence of architectural idioms is, no doubt, an
important subject of study. Stupas and viharas received extended patronage by
various groups in the society. The Gupta era is marked by the formative stage of
temple construction and post-Gupta age saw the flowering of different styles of
temple architecture: Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.

15.6 KEYWORDS
Abacus: Slab forming top of the capital of a column.
Bas Relief: A form of sculpture where instead of converting entire stone into an
image only a part of the stone is utilized to make an image. The resultant sculpture
looks embedded into the stone.
Bodhisattva: Any person who is on the path towards the Buddhahood (the
condition or rank of the Buddha/enlightenment/supreme state of life). It also
means the “awakened one”. In Mahayana Buddhism it means a sentient person
who is able to reach nirvana but delays it due to his compassionate heart for his
fellow suffering beings.
Capital: Top portion of the pillar.
Iconography: Study of rules for making an image. For instance, a Vishnu image
will have four hands, each carrying a kaumodaki/gada (mace), chakra, conch
and lotus.
Kalpavriksha: Mythical tree that can grant any wish.
Pilaster: Pillar carved onto a wall.
Porch: Covered entrance of a building.
Shaft: Middle portion of a pillar.

236 Vidyadharas: Bearers of knowledge.

Yaksha and Yakshi/Yakshini: Forest spirits known from the time of Rigveda. Sculpture and Architecture
They are seen as the cult of common folk. They could be good and evil. They
were generally invoked for attaining wealth, prosperity and beauty.

15.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Sub-section 15.2.1
2) See Sub-section 15.2.2
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Sub-section 15.3.2
2) See Sub-section 15.4.1

15.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Guy, J. (2017). Indian Temple Sculpture. Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing Private
Limited.
Harle, J. C. (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale
University Press.
Harle, J. C. (1996). Gupta Sculpture: Indian Sculpture of the Fourth to the Sixth
Centuries AD. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
Huntington, Susan L. (1985). The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain.
Weatherhill.
Michell, G. (1988). The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms.
University of Chicago Press.

237
Cultural Developments
UNIT 16 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY*

Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Hydraulic Engineering
16.3 Astronomy
16.4 Architecture
16.5 Metallurgy
16.6 Scientists of Ancient India
16.7 Summary
16.8 Key Words
16.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
16.10 Suggested Readings

16.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn about:
the contribution of ancient Indian scientists to the fields of metallurgy,
architectural engineering, hydraulic engineering, astronomy, mathematics
etc.;
the life, times and achievements of ancient Indian scientists; and
how the western and the Arab world learnt a great deal from Indian
achievements in science and technology.

16.1 INTRODUCTION
Formal education was available in brahmana ashramas, hermitages and in
Buddhist and Jaina monasteries. Apart from Vedic and Dharmasastric teaching,
subjects like grammar, rhetoric, prose and verse compositions, logic, mathematics,
astronomy, medicine and astrology were taught to the students. Actual
professionals handled distinctive forms of education. The writing of a manual in
Sanskrit on a particular subject was an indicator of its importance. In this Unit,
we will be studying various achievements of ancient India in the fields of
metallurgy, architectural engineering, hydraulic engineering, astronomy,
mathematics, astrology, medicine etc. in the period between 200 BCE-1200 CE.
We will also be studying the life and contributions of various ancient Indian
scientists who made a mark in the field of science through their acumen and
genius.

16.2 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

Kalhana’s Rajatarangini gives details of some of the finest examples of hydraulic
engineering. This is a 12th century text which tells us about the most well-
conceived irrigation networks. These functioned through various canals, irrigation
238 * Dr. Suchi Dayal, Academic Consultant, Faculty of History, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
channels, embankments, aqueducts, circular dykes, barrages, wells and Science and Technology
waterwheels. An example of a vast embankment is Guddasetu, built by king
Damodara II and the construction of a series of Arghat or waterwheels, by the 8th
century CE king Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty. The text also
mentions the hydraulic feats of an irrigation engineer called Suyya. He is credited
with draining the waters of the Vitasta river and controlling it by constructing a
stone dam, and clearing its bed. Suyya also displaced the confluence of the rivers
Sindhu and Vitasta, and constructed stone embankments for seven yojans along
the Vitasta in order to dam the vast Mahapadma lake (now famous as the Wular
lake). In fact, Suyya is credited with having made, “…the streams of Indus and
Jhelum flow according to his will, like a snake-charmer his snakes”.The system
of irrigation established by Suyya was designed in such a way that everyone was
supplied with a fair share of water (Pandey, 2016).

The prominent dynasties of the South and the Deccan such as the Pallavas, Cholas,
Chalukyas, Kakatiyas, Pandya, Chera and the Vakatakas constructed many
irrigation devices and water bodies. The famous Kaveri Anicut was built by the
Pallavas. In the subsequent period, the Cholas innovated with an irrigation device
called the chain-tank. In this method the tanks were constructed along the slopes
and were connected with water channels. Apart from these other devices like the
wells, depressions excavated in sheet rock, cisterns, ponds, tanks were also built.
In dry regions like Gujarat, tanks, kunds, step-wells or baolis, wells, ponds etc.
were built. This led to systems like johadhs, anicuts, check-dams, khadins, tankas,
adlaz, jhalara, modhera, vapi, medhbandhi (earthen structure on fields to prevent
water from flowing out).

Tanks, reservoirs, ponds and step wells also had deep ritual significance. Most
temples in the Deccan and south India were constructed in the vicinity of seep
springs which were dammed up in the form of a step tank or some other water
body. Gujarat and Rajasthan are known for Step wells. They were made into
beautiful architectural structures. Most were fed by deep aquifers. Water was
drawn by a rope from balconies and corridors, to lower levels, and subterranean
chambers, to keep it cool. An elaborate network of copper pipes was constructed
within the palaces of rulers for cooling terrace pavilions; channels flowed through
royal chambers, fountains and water-gardens, and even filled under-ground tanks.

16.3 ASTRONOMY
The early expositions of Indian astronomy were designed to organize large
sacrifices. These were recorded in the Jyotishavedanga. With the coming of the
Hellenistic Greeks, a variety of new systems were introduced. Some of these
were incorporated in Indian astronomy. There was shift from astronomy based
on the lunar mansions and constellations to astronomy that placed greater
emphasis on the planets (Thapar, 2002). The new astronomy was a departure
that gave direction to the new theories influencing astronomy and mathematics
in the Eurasian world. Ujjain, which was on the Indian prime meridian, became
a centre for studies in astronomy.

Aryabhata I (476 CE) was the first astronomer who tackled the problems of new
astronomy. He invented a system of expressing numbers with the help of
consonants and vowels, based again on the decimal place value principle. The
system was used by Bhaskara I (574 CE) and Aryabhata II (950 CE), and applied
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Cultural Developments in the astronomical Jaimini-sutras of unknown date. Aryabhata I of Kusumapura
(Pataliputra or Patna) laid the foundations of scientific Indian astronomy in 499
CE. He taught astronomy to his pupils who included Pandurangasvamin,
Latadeva, and Nihsanka. One of his successors, Bhaskara I was the author of the
Laghubhaskariya and the Mahabhaskariya which follow Aryabhata’s system of
astronomy. He also wrote a commentary on the Aryabhatiya.

Aryabhata I was the author of two distinct systems of astronomy, the audayika
and the ardharatrika. In the first, the astronomical day begins at the mean sunrise
at Lanka, and in the other, it begins at the mean midnight. Aryabhata I was the
first Indian astronomer who referred to the rotation of the earth to explain the
apparent diurnal motions of the fixed stars.

Varahamihira’s redaction of the old surya-siddhanta heavily borrows from the

ardharatrika system of astronomy of Aryabhata I. But, his work is valuable from
the viewpoint of the historyof Indian astronomy. Brahmagupta (b. 598 CE) wrote
his Brahmasphuta-siddhanta in c. 628 CE and his Khandakhadyaka in 665 CE.
The second work gives easier methods of computation of the longitude of planets
according to Aryabhata’s ardharatrika system of astronomy. In his first work he
has corrected all the erroneous methods of Aryabhata I and has in more than one
place corrected the longitude of the nodes, apogees, and other astronomical
elements of planets. Indeed, after Aryabhata I, the next name of significance is
undoubtedly Brahmagupta.

There was an increasing exchange of ideas between the Indian and Arab
astronomers and mathematicians. Earlier there was a similar interaction between
Hellenistic and Indian astronomers. Indian works on mathematics, astronomy
and medicine were very much prized in the scholarly centres that arose under the
Caliphate at Baghdad. The Indian methods were of the most elementary character,
while those of Ptolemy were much advanced and more elegant. Yet the Indian
astronomers could solve some problems where Ptolemy failed. For instance,
they could find the time of day by altitude from the sun’s azimuth. Thus, although
scientific Indian astronomy is dated much later than the time of Ptolemy, barring
the mere idea of an Epi-cyclic theory coming from outside India, its constants
and methods were all original.

16.4 ARCHITECTURE
All forms of civil engineering from drainage system to huge temples, both rock
cut and structural were conceived and build by ancient India; all those still extant
shows the engineering skill of our ancestors. During the Gupta period, structural
principles of constructing small and large temples were put to work. The art of
building temples was so developed that separate temple idioms came into
existence such as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. Treaties such as Silpratnakosa,
Silpapradipa, Silpasastra, Bhubanapradipa, Mayamatam, Visnudharmottara
Purana, Silpasarani etc. were codified by Silpin; these treatises throw ample
light on the ancient Indian architecture and archaeometry.

In the construction of religious edifices like Stupas and Caitya-grhas the Buddhists
showed their engineering skill. Construction of stupas and caityas was an
important aspect of Buddhist religious life. The word stupa is derived from the
root stup, meaning ‘to heap‘, and suggests the mound-like shape and method of
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construction of these edifices, while the word caitya is derived from citi (altar). Science and Technology
Constructing stupas was an ancient practice. The earliest stupas were simply
mound of earth piled up in the form of a mound. Gradually with time, they became
elaborate and acquired more height. Ashokan stupas are the earliest which were
made of bricks and mud mortar. In the Sunga period some stupas were made
even more elaborate with the encasing of the mound within a veneer of dressed
stone slabs. The stupa was provided with a railing, harmika, chhatra and gateways.
The gateways were embellished with sculptures mostly from Jataka stories.
Gradually the advantage of filling the core with rubble or other material was
recognized. And the outward thrust of the fill material on the facing wall was
minimized by dividing the inner space into compartments in the form of boxes
or radiating spokes like those of the wheel of a cart (Satpathy, n.d.).

With the growth of the Sangha, monasteries and caitya grhas were also built.
They were constructed to meet the needs of the monks who lived in abodes far
from habitation. The early Buddhist cave monasteries were quadrangular in shape,
a typical example of which has been found at Nasik. The basic pattern for such
viharas must have been evolved by the second century BCE as seen from some
of the specimens at Ajanta. The vihara had later a covered mandapa (courtyard)
in the centre and with the installation of the Buddha’s image inside the cell in the
back wall, it became a chaitya-cum vihara, serving the purpose of a shrine as
well. At Nagarjunjakonda separate chaitya halls were provided in the vihara
enclosures. Later specimens of stupas became ornate with base-terraces, umbrellas
being multiplied as at Nalanda (Bihar), Ratnagiri (Odisha), and other places.
Initially, the stupa was the object of worship. Later, an image of the Buddha was
either placed on it as at Ajanta and Ellora, or worshipped singly as at
Nagarjunakonda. The chaitya-grha usually had an apsidal ground plan with the
stupa in the apsidal end and a central nave separated from the side aisles by a
row of pillars. Unfortunately no structural chaitya-grha survives, but the rock-
cut examples depict them with gabled wooden roofs, initially simple in form,
and with wooden pillars arranged with an inward rake to counter the outward
thrust of the gabled roof

Temple Architecture
The Gupta period (300-600 CE) saw the beginnings of systematic construction
on the basis of structural principles in temple architecture. The basic elements
are a square sanctum (garbhagrha) for the image, a small pillared portico
(mukhamandapa), and sometimes a covered circumambulatory passage
(pradakshinapatha) around the sanctum. There was a tendency during this period
in stone construction to use stones larger than what the size of the building
warranted. This was because the relationship between the strength and stability
of construction and the economy of materials was yet to be understood (Satpathy,
n.d.). The stone was usually prepared at the site of the quarry. Fragments of
carvings found at some quarries suggest that the sculpturing of the stones was
also usually done at the quarry site, although sometimes this was done after the
stone had been set in its place on the temple itself. All of this entailed accurate
measurements.

Models to scale were perhaps sometimes employed. From about the fifth century
CE brick-built religious structures, both Buddhist and Brahmanical, gradually
became common in the alluvial plains. These included Buddhist caitya halls,
monasteries, and stupas as well as Brahmanical temples. Bricks were easy to
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Cultural Developments procure in the plains, whereas stone was not always readily available. And bricks
also afforded the advantage of convenient handling and flexibility in construction
technique because of their small size. One difficulty encountered in the use of
bricks was the bridging of spaces as in the case of doorways, windows, and other
openings. The craftsmen attempted to overcome this problem by using
exceptionally large bricks, some early examples being more than 50 cm. long.
But even this was not always sufficient to surmount the difficulty, and so lintels
of wood were resorted to. Stone lintels were subsequently found to be preferable
to wooden ones (Satpathy, n.d.). At one period brick structures with stone dressings
became a rather common type of construction.

The post-Gupta period witnessed brisk building activity with experiments in

various temple forms. Interesting results of such experimentations are seen at
the principal centres at Aihole, Badami, Mahakuteswar, Pattadakal, and Alampur.
The south Indian temples of the vimana (lit. well-proportioned) type with a
pyramidal sikhara made their earliest appearance at Badami in the simple form
of the temple known as Maleguti-Sivalaya (garlandmaker‘s temple). Later variants
and developed forms of vimana with karna-kutas (miniature square shrine at the
corner of the roof), and nasikas (arched opening above the superstructure wall),
projecting from the façade became common. Equally interesting are the Hoysala
(twelfth-thirteenth century) temples at Halebid and Belur, famous for their
intricately carved sculptured decorations, a kind of which is also seen in some of
the Vijayanagara (fourteenth century) temples noted for large-sized mandapas.

Though essentially linear in elevation, the north Indian Sikharas have some
variations. While at Bhubaneswar itself the typical Odishan form is represented
by the Muktesvara temples (tenth century), the Rajarani temple (eleventh century)
shows an interesting experiment with miniature sikharas clustered around the
jangha (bottom portion of the spire) as in the temples of western and central
India including those at Khajuraho. The Lingaraja temple (eleventh century)
shows the culmination and grandeur of this type of temple, but the Surya temple
(thirteenth century) at Konarak (Puri district) in its original form with bold and
lively sculptural decorations must have been a magnificent work. At Khajuraho,
again, a beginning was made with a plain sikhara without any embellishment of
the miniature spires (uru-srngas) which became the characteristics of the later
examples. The temple components were ardha-mandapa (entrance porch),
mandapa (hall), antarala (vestibule), and garbhagrha (sanctum), the entire
structure being placed on a high platform and the walls decorated with beautiful
carvings. The result of these experiments was the emergence of two broad temple
architectural styles, one predominating in the north called nagara and the other
common in the south called dravida or vimana.

The main structural component during the post-Gupta period continued to be

stone. One wonders how the big slabs of stone used in the temple structures were
transported and set up in position to make the temples. From reliefs carved on
temples and from a manuscript describing the building operations of the temple
at Konark one gets an idea of the methods employed in transporting large stones
to the construction site and hoisting them into place. They were transported on
barges along rivers and streams or pulled by elephants over wooden rollers. They
were lifted into place by means of rope pulleys on scaffolding. Ramps of timber
or sand were built on which to haul up exceptionally large stone slabs.

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Rock-Cut Architecture Science and Technology

The rock-cut temples, both cut in and out of the rock, mostly followed the
contemporary architectural styles. The Kailasa temple at Ellora (800 CE) stands
unparalleled as a monument to the artistry and craftsmanship of Indian rock-cut
architecture. The temple of Kailasa was executed by cutting away more than
fifty million tonnes of rock from the sloping hill by means of hammer and chisel,
a process which took some 100 years. The first step was to cut three trenches at
right angles into the hill, thereby isolating a massive block of stone over 60 m.
long, 30 m. wide, and 30 m. high. Next, this block was carved from the top
downwards and hollowed out into the form of the temple with its intricate carvings.
In order to highlight the shape of the temple against the grey stone of the mountain
surrounding it, the entire edifice was coated with a white gesso, imparting to it a
brilliant sheen (Satpathy, n.d.). The Jainas too carved out retreats in the hills of
Udayagiri and Khandagiri near Bhubaneswar in the first century BCE and shrines
later at Ellora, Badami, and elsewhere.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Discuss the skill of ancient Indians in hydraulic engineering.
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2) Describe how various types of architecture in ancient India exhibit the genius
of Indian engineering skill.
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16.5 METALLURGY
Ancient Indians excelled in metallurgical sciences. A type of iron manufactured
in the ancient period in India was the one that was used to manufacture the
famous Iron Pillar at Delhi. It is a 1600 year old pillar with a height of 7.67 m
and weighs six tons. It was initially erected by Chandra as a standard of Vishnu
at Vishnupadagiri, according to a six- line Sanskrit inscription on its surface.
Vishnupadagiri has been identified with modern Udayagiri near Sanchi in Madhya
Pradesh, and Chandra with the Gupta emperor, Chandragupta II Vikramaditya
(375- 414 CE). In 1233, the pillar was brought to its current location in the New
Delhi’s Qutub complex. It is rust resistant due to the addition of phosphorus.
This element together with the oxygen from air contributes to the formation of a
protective veneer on the surface which forms again if damaged by scratching.
The pillar is still a wonder and millions come to see it. There are a few more such
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Cultural Developments pillars in India, for instance at Dhar (Madhya Pradesh) and Kodachadri hill
(coastal Karnataka). Besides, the same technology was used to manufacture huge
iron beams used in some temples of Odisha, such as Jagannath of Puri (12th
century). The iron beams at Konarak’s famous Sun temple are of even larger
dimensions. Chemical analysis of one of the beams confirmed that it was wrought
iron of a phosphoric nature.

16.6 SCIENTISTS OF ANCIENT INDIA

In ancient India not only great accomplishments were achieved in the field of art
and architecture, literature, philosophy etc., many natural and pure sciences also
flourished and registered remarkable growth and development. In the realm of
astronomy, mathematics, biological and medical science ancient Indians made
various breakthroughs. Among the intellectual and scholastic luminaries
Baudhayana, Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Bhaskaracharya, Varahamihira and
Nagarjuna deserve special mention. One of the best analyses of the lives and
careers of ancient Indian scientists has been undertaken by B.B. Satpathy.
Presented below are the details about them, based on his book Science and
Technology in Ancient India (n.d.).
1) Baudhayana (c.500 CE): His Baudhayana sutras is a work on a wide range
of subjects including philosophical discussions on dharma (righteous
conduct), rituals etc. as well as scientific discussions on mathematics etc.
He adhered to the Yajurveda school. He is credited with the writing of the
earliest Sulba2 sutras (appendices to the Vedas performing the role of manuals
enunciating rules for the construction of Vedic altars, preparation of the site
where Vedic sacrifices were to be carried out etc.) known as the Baudhayana
Sulbasutra. It specifically deals with the dimensions of Vedic brick fire-
altars. The rules of construction are noteworthy from the viewpoint of
mathematics. They throw light on various significant mathematical formulae,
including the value of pi to a considerable degree of precision and giving a
version of the Pythagoras Theorem. The sequences associated with primitive
Pythagorean triples were named Baudhayana sequences.
Baudhayana’s dharmasutra, like that of Apastamba, also constitutes a portion
of the larger Kalpasutra (a compendium of the Jaina tradition that contains
the biographies of Jain tirthankaras, particularly Parshvanatha and
Mahavira). It is composed in the form of prashnas which literally means
questions or books. These prashnas comprise the Shrautasutra and other
ritual texts, the Shulvasutras, which elucidate Vedic geometry and the
Grihyasutras which throw light on domestic rituals. Therein we find an
explication of rectangles and squares which is deemed as the earliest recorded
statement of the Pythagoras Theorem. The sulbasutras also suggest how to
square a circle i.e. how to construct, using only a ruler and compass, a
square the area of which is equal to that of a given circle. It is interesting to
note that Indians learnt and knew of the Pythagorean Theorem before the
Greeks.
2) Aryabhata I (c.476-550 CE): He was the first among eminent astronomer-
mathematicians of ancient India. He composed the Aryabhatiya/
Aryabhatiyam (in 499 CE at the age of 23) and the Arya-siddhanta(a lost
literary piece on astronomical computations).
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1
Sulba/Shulva means measurement.
He received his education in Pataliputra (Kusumapura). It is stated that he Science and Technology
was the head of an institution (kulapa) at Kusumapura and because the
Nalanda University was in Pataliputra and was equipped with an
astronomical observatory at that time it is conjectured that he might have
been the head of the University of Nalanda too. He is also known to have
established an observatory at the Sun temple, Taregana/Taregna (near Patna
in present-day Bihar). He authored several works on astronomy and
mathematics, some of which could not be recovered and are considered
lost. His major composition Aryabhatiya – a book on mathematics and
astronomy – was extensively consulted and quoted in the subsequent
mathematical literature across India and has survived to present times. The
sections on mathematics encompass algebra, arithmetic, plane and spherical
trigonometry. They also explain complex mathematical formulae on
continued and quadratic equations, sums-of-power series etc. and provide a
useful table of sines. We get glimpses of the Arya-siddhanta in the writings
of his contemporary Varahamihira and later mathematicians and
commentators like Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I. This text, it seems, was
based on the older Surya Siddhanta and used the midnight-day reckoning,
in contrast to the sunrise in the Aryabhatiya. It also described numerous
astronomical instruments:
1) the gnomon (shanku-yantra),
2) a shadow instrument (chhaya-yantra),
3) both semicircular and circular angle-measuring devices (dhanur-yantra/
chakra-yantra),
4) a cylindrical stick called the yastiyantra,
5) an umbrella-shaped device (chhatra-yantra),
6) bow-shaped as well as cylindrical water-clocks.
A third text to his credit that has survived in its Arabic translation is Al-nanf.
It states that it is adopted from the Sanskrit work by him but the Sanskrit
name of the original composition is not known. It is referred to by the Persian
scholar Abu Rayhan al-Biruni in his chronicles.

Aryabhata had huge influence on Indian astronomical tradition and our

neighbouring cultures which translated his writings. The Arabic translation
during the Islamic Golden Age (c. 820 CE) was particularly significant.
Some of his explanations are cited by Al-Khwarizmi and in 10thcentury CE
AlBiruni mentioned that Aryabhata’s followers believed that the Earth
rotated on its axis. His definitions of sine (jya), cosine (kojya), versine
(utkrama-jya) and inverse sine (otkram jya) influenced the birth of
trigonometry. As a matter of fact, the modern terms “sine” and “cosine” are
adaptations of the words jya and kojya introduced by Aryabhata. As just
stated, they were translated as jiba and kojiba in Arabic and then
misunderstood by Gerard of Cremona while translating an Arabic monograph
on geometry to Latin. He assumed that jiba was the Arabic word jaib which
means “fold in a garment”, L. sinus (c. 1150).

Aryabhata’s astronomical calculation methods had same weight. Along with

the trigonometric tables they came to be widely used in Islamic adaptations
to figure out several Arabic astronomical tables (zijes). In particular, the
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Cultural Developments astronomical tables formulated by Al-Zarqali (11th century) – the instrument-
maker and most important astronomer/astrologer in western part of
the Islamic world – on the basis of Aryabhata’s legacy were translated into
Latin as the Tables of Toledo (12thcentury) and remained the most accurate
ephemeris used for centuries in Europe. The calendrical calculations
introduced by Aryabhata and his followers have been in continuous use in
India for the practical purposes of preparing the Panchangam (Hindu
calendar). In Islamic cultures they formed the basis of Jalali calendar devised
in 1073 CE by a group of astronomers such as Omar Khayyam. The modified
versions of Jalali are the national calendars used in Afghanistan and Iran
today. Dates of the Jalali calendar are based on actual solar transit, just like
in Aryabhatiya and earlier Siddhanta calendars.This kind of calendar needs
an ephemeris for calculating dates. Although the dates were difficult to
decipher, seasonal errors were much lesser in Jalali calendar than in the
Gregorian calendar.
India’s first satellite Aryabhata and the lunar crater Aryabhata were named
to honour this great Indian scientist. Further, the Aryabhatta Research
Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES) as a centre for research and
training in astrophysics, astronomy and atmospheric sciences was set up
near Nainital (Uttarakhand) in his name. The inter-school Aryabhata Maths
Competition is also named after him, so is Bacillus aryabhattai, a bacterial
species discovered in 2009 by the ISRO scientists.
3) Brahmagupta: His contribution holds a unique position in the history of
Indian mathematics. His pioneering interpretations on Geometry and Number
Theory make today’s mathematicians marvel at their originality. His
theorems that resulted in the calculation of circum-radius of a triangle and
lengths of the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral, construction of a rational
cyclic quadrilateral and integer solutions to a single second degree equation
were ground breaking. After the Greeks ascended to supremacy in
mathematics (especially geometry) during the time from 7thcentury BCE to
2nd century CE there was a sudden dip in mathematical and scientific
enquiries and investigations during the next millennium till the age of
Renaissance in Europe. But, mathematics and astronomy continued to
flourish in Asia, specifically in India and the Arab world. A continued
exchange of information was visible between the two cultures and later
between Europe and the Arabs who had gained a lot from Indian scientific
temper. An unparalleled contribution of Indian intellect was the decimal
representation of positive integers along with zero that eventually travelled
to the Western world despite the fact that there was some initial resistance
and reluctance to accept it.
Brahmagupta is said to have spent his early days as court-astronomer to
emperor Vyaghramukha. He is best remembered for his seminal composition:
the Bahmasphutasiddhanta (theory of “the opening of the universe”) or
simply the Siddhanta. He is credited with another work by the name
Khandakhadyaka which he wrote later. The Siddhanta comprises of 1008
shlokas (verses) constituting 25 chapters that contain theorizations and
inferences on algebra, arithmetic, geometry and number theory. He was the
first to introduce zero as a digit. The Siddhanta was translated into Arabic
and titled Sind hind. The Khandakhadyaka contains 194 verses arranged in
9 chapters that throw light on astronomical calculations. He was definitely
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 a prominent mathematician of his times who also had the audacity of Science and Technology
critiquing his predecessors for their faults and omissions and rectifying them
as much as he could. He authored a sequel to the Khandakhadyaka with
some rectifications to some concepts elucidated in the Khandakhadyaka.
He was the head of Ujjain observatory. He passed away in 668 CE.

4) Bhaskaracharya: The time-span between c.500 and 1200 CE was the best
for Indian astronomy mainly because of genius astronomers such as
Aryabhata, Lallacharya,Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhaskaracharya and
others. The Siddhanta Shiromani written by Bhaskaracharya is regarded as
the prime-point of all astronomical treatises composed in those 700 years
or so. It contains the essence of ancient Indian astronomy and mathematics.
He resided in Vijjadveed (surrounded by Sahyadri hills; it was an important
centre of learning during his time). His father Maheshwar taught him
mathematics and astronomy. Unfortunately, today we have no clue as to
where was Vijjadveed located. Bhaskaracharya composed the Siddhanta
Shiromani in 1150 CE at the age of 36. It is a mammoth text of close to
1450 verses and is divided into four parts:
1) Lilawati,
2) Beejaganit,
3) Ganitadhyaya, and
4) Goladhyaya.
As a matter of fact, each of these sections can be deemed as separate books.
One of the most important features of Siddhanta Shiromani is that it contains
simple methods of arithmetic and astronomical calculations. A basic and
crucial knowledge of ancient Indian astronomy can be had by only perusing
this compendium. As such, it surpasses all the ancient Indian treatises on
astronomy. Its segment Lilawati is an excellent example of how a difficult
subject like mathematics can be laid bare in poetic language. Lilawati has
been translated into several languages across the world.
Bhaskaracharya’s inferences include the following:
Earth is not flat, doesn’t have any support and has a power of attraction.
North and South poles of the earth experience six months of day and
six months of night.
Both one day and one night of Moon are equivalent to 15 earth-days.
Earth’s atmosphere extends to 96 kms. and is composed of seven
sections.
Beyond the earth’s atmosphere there is a vacuum.
He was aware of the precession of equinoxes.
He accurately calculated apparent orbital periods of the Sun and orbital
periods of Mercury, Venus and Mars. There is a slight difference between
the orbital periods he calculated for Jupiter and Saturn and the corresponding
modern values. The methods and concepts developed by him are relevant
to this day.

5) Varahamihira (505–587 CE): He was among the band of Indian scientists

such as Aryabhata, Dhanvantari, Sushruta, Charaka and Bhaskaracharya 247
Cultural Developments whose areas of expertise varied from mathematics, surgery, medicine, to
meteorology. He had acquired astonishing knowledge of a whole range of
technical subjects like hydrology, meteorology, astrology, astronomy and
seismology. His magnum opus – the Brihat Samhita – throws light on all of
these. The Arab scholar Alberuni translated into Arabic his another
composition: the Brihat Jataka. He also lavished praise on Varahamihira
for the richness in detail in the Brihat Samhita.

Varahamihira was a resident of Ujjayini. He respected learning wherever it

was found and was thoroughly familiar with astrological works of the Greeks
and he refers to these in his texts. His other compositions include Pancha
Siddhantika, Vivahapatala, Laghujataka, Yatra. They were possibly written
in that order stated. He was born in Avanti (roughly corresponding to modern-
day Malwa) to Adityadasa who was himself an astronomer. It is mentioned
in one of his own works that he was educated at Kapitthaka. He was one of
the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of the court of legendary king Yashodharman
Vikramaditya of Malwa who belonged to the Aulikara dynasty and held
sway over much of the Indian subcontinent between c. 530-540 CE as
mentioned in the Mandsaur pillar inscription.

Varahamihira was the first to state in his chief composition the

Panchasiddhantika dated c. 575 CE that the ayanamsa/ayanabhaga
(precession of the equinoxes) lasted for 50.32 seconds. It is a book on
mathematical astronomy. It delineates the five astronomical canons prevalent
around that time and provides useful information on older Indian texts on
the topic which are now lost. It presents a summary of five earlier
astronomical texts, namely:
1) Surya Siddhanta,
2) Romaka Siddhanta,
3) Paulisa Siddhanta,
4) Vasishtha Siddhanta, and
5) Paitamaha Siddhanta.
It is a significant work on Vedanga Jyotisha as well as Hellenistic astronomy
that includes Greek, Roman and Egyptian elements. Alberuni explicated
the five astronomical traditions on the basis of Varahmihira’s theory.
Varahamihira’s another influential contribution is the encyclopaedic Brihat-
Samhita that encapsulates a vast array of topics of interest like astronomy
and astrology; planetary movements, eclipses and their effects; other natural
phenomena; geography and botany; clouds, rainfall and growth of crops;
manufacture of perfume and cosmetics; domestic relations and matrimony;
architecture and iconography; gems and pearls; characteristics of Khadga
(sword), Angavidya (knowledge of the limbs); auspicious and inauspicious
characteristics of people and animals, good and bad omens and the science
of precious stones (gemmology).
It elucidates gemstone evaluation criterion expounded in the Garuda Purana
and provides information on the sacred Nine Pearls borrowed from the same
treatise. It has 106 chapters binding nearly 4000 shlokas and is eulogized as
the “great compilation”. Chapters XXI-XXXIX are geophysical in nature
and primarily deal with meteorology that includes appropriate planetary
248
 conjunctions, cloud formation, rainfall and its volume, signs of immediate Science and Technology
rain, hurricanes etc.
He was an astrologer as well. He wrote about all three chief aspects of
Jyotisha (astrology) like horoscopy. His Brihat Jataka is revered as among
the five main compositions on Hindu astrology. It is said that the two texts
of the West – the Romaka Siddhanta (“Doctrine of the Romans”) and the
Paulisa Siddhanta (“Doctrine of Paul”) – influenced his mind and intellect.
However, this view is debatable and contestable because we have much
evidence to show that it was the indigenous Vedic thought that first motivated
and impacted deductions of the astrologers of Western origin that
subsequently returned to Indian land after being reformulated.
6) Nagarjuna: He was a chemist and an alchemist. The growth and
development of the scientific discipline of Chemistry in India, particularly
alchemy, entered an exciting phase during the age of tantrism. Initially
centred on the worship of Siva and Parvati, it was an amalgamation of
alchemical processes, on the one hand, and grotesque rites, on the other.
There was also a class of Tantras which was a mixture of Buddhist and
Saiva cults. Nagarjuna’s Rasaratnakara – a momentous literary piece on
alchemy composed around 7th-8th century CE – belongs to this category. It
deals with the preparation of rasa (liquids, mainly mercury). As per a tantric
sect a person ought to preserve his body by means of mercury and
medicaments. As per the tantrics mercury was produced through the creative
conjunction of Siva and Parvati and mica was produced from Parvati. The
combination of mercury and mica was believed to be symbolic of death and
poverty. The Rasaratnakara describes alchemical processes and preparations
of mercurial compounds. It also gives noteworthy information on the
extraction of zinc, mercury and copper. He explains the preparation of
crystalline red sulphide of mercury (swarnasindura or makaradhwaja) which
was effectively and efficiently used as medicine for many diseases and
disorders. He was an eminent scientist who, for the first time, not only
enunciated cementation processes but also propounded zinc production by
a distillation technique. In the Rasaratnakara he also provides a list of the
apparatus used by earlier alchemists. The process of distillation, liquefaction,
sublimation and roasting are also enunciated.
Alberuni states that Nagarjuna was a native of Daihak fort near Somnath
who lived about a century before his time and he has eulogized Nagarjuna
as being adept in Rasayana. Nagarjuna’s efforts were focussed on
transforming base metals into gold. We are told that due to his commendable
chemist activities he had acquired such a reputation that the people believed
that he was in communion with gods and goddesses who had blessed him
with the power of converting base metals into gold and extracting the “elixir
of life”. The Rasaratnakara is in the form of a dialogue between him and
gods.
He has discussed various combinations of liquids in this treatise. It also
surveys the status of alchemy and metallurgy in India during those times.
Methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, copper and tin from
their ores and their purification are also being elaborated upon.To prepare
the “elixir of life” from mercury, apart from minerals and alkalis he also
249
Cultural Developments used vegetable and animal products. He highlighted the usage of vegetable
acids like sour gruel and juices of fruits and bark for the dissolution of
diamonds, pearls and metals. Historians look up to him as an alchemist,
metallurgist, chemist and medicineman. His texts include:
Rasaratnakara,
Rashrudaya,
Rasendramangal,
Arogyamanjari,
Kakshaputatantra,
Yogasara,
Yogasataka,and
Uttaratantra.
Mahmud of Ghazni attacked India and is said to have destroyed some of
these manuscripts and taken some with him. Arabs learnt the transmutation
of base-metals to gold from Nagarjuna. They termed it Al Kimia. Medieval
Europeans learnt it from them and called it Alchemy. Although Nagarjuna
could not produce gold through the transmutation of base-metals, these
methods did result in metals with gold like yellow lustre and yellowish
brilliance. These techniques are deployed to manufacture imitation jewellery
to this day.

During the latter part of his career he seems to have shifted towards organic
chemistry and medicine. He wrote Uttaratantra which is considered to be a
supplement to an earlier compendium on surgery and medicine – the Shusruta
Samahita by Sushruta who lived long before him. The Uttaratantra throws
light mainly on the preparation of medicinal drugs. The writing of four
Ayurvedic compositions – Arogyamanjari, Kakshaputatantra, Yogasara and
Yogasatak – are also ascribed to him. Many of his ideas on medicine were
incorporated into the Yunani system of medicine of the Arabs. His
contribution could not have escaped their attention. The methodology of
alchemy was also, quite possibly, borrowed by them from India because
their homeland was not rich in metals; thus alchemy and the knowledge of
smelting of metals could not have been indigenous to them. Apart from
India there is no reference to alchemy in the ancient world. There is first
mention of it in medieval Europe.

They seem to have borrowed from India the technique of transmuting base-
metals into gold-like metals. The Arabs called the technique Al Kimia which
according to the Oxford Dictionary literally means the ‘transformation of
metals’. Al means ‘The’ and Khimia which is derived from the Greek term
Khemia means ‘to transmute metals’. But westerners were unaware of the
technique of alchemy. This is borne out by the fact that the term Alchemy
which the westerners use for describing this technique was borrowed from
the Arabs. The word Alchemy is obviously a corruption of the term Al Kimia
which the Arabs gave to the technique of converting base metals into gold
like substances which they culled out from Indian texts on the subject
250
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Science and Technology

1) Discuss the achievements in metallurgy in ancient India.

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2) Discuss any two scientists of ancient India.
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16.7 SUMMARY
Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in
India. Ancient Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics
as well as various branches of science. Scientists flourished in India and cultivated
astronomy and mathematics and took both the subjects to their height. Baudhayana
was the first one ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which were
later rediscovered by the western world. The value of pi was first calculated by
him. What is known as Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayan’s
Sulva Sutra, which was written several years before the age of Pythagoras.
Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and
physicist. He was a pioneer in the field of mathematics. Aryabhatta showed that
zero was not only a numeral but also a symbol and a concept. Discovery of zero
enabled Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance between the earth and the moon.
He also gave a scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipse clarifying that
the eclipse were not because of Rahu and/or Ketu. In 7th century, Brahmagupta
took mathematics to heights far beyond others. In his methods of multiplication,
he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today.

Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. He is famous for his book
Siddanta Shiromani. Bhaskara introduced Chakrawal method or the Cyclic
method to solve algebraic equations. Varahamihira was another well-known
scientist of the ancient period in India. He lived in the Gupta period. Varahamihira
made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology and ecology.
Nagarjuna was an eighth century alchemist. In his treaties Rasaratnakara, he
has discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.
251
Cultural Developments
16.8 KEY WORDS
Stupa: a mound of earth; a tumuli. Originally meant to enshrine the relics of the
Buddha.
Caitya: a stupa-cum-sanctuary
Vihara: monastery; living quarters of monks
Shikhara: curvilinear spire of a north Indian temple
Vimana: structure over the garbhagrha of a temple
Nagara: north Indian temple style
Dravida: south Indian temple style
Vesara: Mixed variety, combining nagara and dravida features in a temple.

16.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Section 16.2
2) See Section 16.4
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Section 16.5
2) See Section 16.6

16.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Pandey, Archana (2016). Society and Environment in Ancient India (Study of
Hydrology). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention.
Volume 5(2), 26-31. ISSN (online) 2319-7722. www.ijhssi.org/

Satpathy, B.B. (not dated). History of Science and Technology in Ancient India.
DDCE/History (M.A)/SLM/Paper.

Thapar, Romila (2002). The Penguin History of Early India. From the Origins to
AD 1300. Penguin Books.

252
 Science and Technology
UNIT 17 ECONOMY AND TRADE*

Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Post-Mauryan Period
17.2.1 Trade
17.2.2 Coinage
17.2.3 Crafts and Craft Production
17.2.4 Agriculture
17.2.5 Urbanization
17.3 Gupta and Post-Gupta Period
17.3.1 Land Grants
17.3.2 Trade
17.3.3 Coinage
17.3.4 Urban Processes
17.3.5 Craft Production
17.4 Summary
17.5 Key Words
17.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
17.7 Suggested Readings

17.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit we shall study economic trends in the period between c.200 BCE to
750 CE. After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn about:
changing patterns of agricultural ownership;
the process of urbanization;
nature of external and internal trade;
coinage system; and
the debates on economic processes.

17.1 INTRODUCTION
The period between c.200 BCE to 750 CE can be divided into two parts from the
viewpoint of economic processes and trade activities:
1) Post-Mauryan
2) Gupta & post-Gupta
In terms of economic trends the post-Mauryan phase was completely different
from the Gupta and post-Gupta era. It was characterized by a high degree of
urbanization achieved through intensification of various economic processes like

* Dr. Avantika Sharma, Assistant Professor of History, Indraprastha College for Women,
University of Delhi. 253
Cultural Developments trade, crafts, monetization and agriculture. The Gupta and post-Gupta epoch, on
the other hand, was distinguished by agrarian economy based on land-grants.
However, according to the Feudalism school, accompanying this agrarian
expansion was the decline of urban centres, trade and coinage. This led to the
localization of economy characterized by self-sufficient units.These developments
first started during the Gupta period and reached their zenith under post-Gupta
time. However, the absence of urbanization, trade and coinage in this period has
become extremely debatable. We will study the two periods and debates on them
in greater detail below.

17.2 POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

In order to reconstruct the history of the post-Mauryan period between c.200
BCE to 200 CE a variety of sources are available, including both foreign as well
as indigenous sources. Among the former, the most important is the Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea which gives rich data on sea trade between India and Rome.
Some aspects of this trade can be understood from works by Classical writers
like Pliny and Tiberius. Among indigenous sources Jataka stories are considered
to be a rich source on understanding the trade and lives of traders. Other than
this, some important information can be gleaned from other Buddhist texts like
Milindapanho, Divyavadana, Mahavastu, Avandanashataka and Lalita vistara.
Texts like Manusmriti and Mahabhasya are also significant. But, donor
inscriptions are the most noteworthy in this regard. They record donations made
by the merchant and artisan class. Though most archaeological sites have been
excavated vertically, some important information about the nature of urban
settlements can still be gathered from them. Besides, rich hoards of coins of
various dynasties have also been discovered that throw light on commercial
activities during this period.

17.2.1 Trade
The most significant development of this period in the economic sphere was
increase in the volume of international trade. India had trade links with the Western
world as well as Southeast Asia. In the western world most of the trade was with
the Roman empire. This is attested by both classical sources as well as
archaeological data.

Trade was conducted through both land and sea routes. Sea route was possibly
more important.Trade started from the ports in Egypt and ended on the ports
located on the eastern coast of India. An account of this journey is preserved in
the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. It has been suggested that India was a major
contributor to this trade and exported items like:
pepper,
sapphire,
turquoise,
lapis lazuli,
diamond,
onyx,
textiles of cotton, muslin and silk acquired through China,
254 ivory,
 pearls, Economy and Trade

tortoise shells etc.

Some of these goods like grains, oils, iron and steel, teak, ebony were also exported
to ports in Iran, Arabia and Africa. Trade was also conducted on land, with north
India participating in the famous Silk Route trade between China and Rome. In
return, India acquired huge quantities of Roman gold (aurei) and silver (denarius)
coins causing significant drain of wealth from Rome. This has been lamented by
Classical writers like Pliny and Tiberius. The process of drain is further confirmed
by the discovery of Roman coin hoards in south India.
India imported the following goods:
tin,
lead,
copper,
antimony,
realgar (ruby sulphur or ruby of arsenic),
orpiment,
storax (also known as styrax),
silverware,
glassware,
coral,
linen,
topaz,
slaves, and
wine.
Wine was carried in Roman amphorae ware, rouletted ware and terra sigillata
recovered from several parts of India. Southern and eastern part of the Indian
subcontinent also acted as an intermediary between Rome and Southeast Asia.The
Periplus informs us of traders from Southeast Asia bringing goods like spices,
ivory, tortoise shell, sandalwood, cinnamon and cassia which were further
acquired by Romans.

In facilitating this trade an important role was played by Buddhism and its
monasteries. D.D. Kosambi was the first to comment on this link. According to
him, the monasteries were important consumers of items like cloth and materials
required in rituals; hence they created demand for these goods. At times, if
required, they could also provide merchants with the required capital or loans. It
is important to note that the monasteries were located on important trade routes.
Some archaeological finds even indicate the involvement of monks in trade. In
one monastery at Devnimori in Gujarat, Roman amphorae sherds with traces of
wine were discovered. A monastery located in Pushkalavati even had a room full
of distillation apparatus. Scholars believe that it could have been a storehouse or
even a workshop for liquor manufacture. H.P. Ray, in addition, argues that
compared to Brahmanism, Buddhism was more liberal towards trade. It did not
have strict dietary taboos and also did not ban inter-dining which was suited to
the requirements of trade.
255
Cultural Developments India also had a significant amount of internal trade. It was conducted along two
routes:
1) the great northern route (uttarapatha)
2) the great southern route (dakshinapatha)
Uttarapatha started from Pushkalavati (modern Peshawar) in the north-west and
ended up at Tamralipti (Tamluk in Bengal), connecting various important cities
in the present-day Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. One
arterial route connected Kaushambi with Ujjaini in the Deccan. From Ujjaini
another route went to the south called dakshinapatha. Several products were
exchanged along these routes. A variety of textiles were traded. Jatakas praise
the silk, muslin and cotton cloth produced at Varanasi, woolen textiles from Punjab
and blankets from Gandhara. The Arthashastra speaks highly of the fine cloth of
Madurai and Kanchi. War animals like horses and camels were acquired from
north-western region, while elephants were acquired from eastern and southern
India. The western portion of the subcontinent was also known for steel weapons.
South India was known for gemstones like diamond and pearls and the presence
of gold mines.

17.2.2 Coinage
An increase in trading activity also led to widespread usage of metallic currency.
A wide range of coins of different dynasties have been recovered across the
subcontinent. Some of these are of punch-marked variety issued by the
ganasanghas in modern Rajasthan and Punjab and by kingdoms in the far south
– Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. But, a vast majority of them were created according
to a new technique – “die-struck” – introduced by the Indo-Greeks ruling in the
north-west. Die-struck coins were issued by the nigamas at Taxila, Varanasi,
Kaushambi and Vidisha. In north, the Kushanas, for the first time in Indian history,
issued a large number of gold coins. The weight of these coins was based on
Roman gold coins. They also issued few copper coins. In Deccan the Satavahanas
issued a variety of coins made of:
silver,
copper,
lead, and
potin.
Besides these, large hoards of Roman coins, as evidence of brisk trade, have also
been found in south India. It is believed that these were mainly used as bullion in
India.

17.2.3 Crafts and Craft Production

Another significant development in post-Mauryan period was an increase in the
number of crafts. The contemporary Buddhist treatise Milandapanho mentions
the presenceof 75 different occupations, of which almost 60 were crafts. This is
in sharp contrast to only 12 crafts mentioned in a 6thcentury BCE Buddhist
compendium Digha Nikaya. The list in Milandapanho enumerates crafts like:
potters,
basket-makers,
256
 salt-gatherers, Economy and Trade

tanners,
ivory-workers,
rope-makers,
comb-makers,
cotton thread spinners,
bow manufacturers,
bow string makers,
arrow fletchers,
painters,
dyers,
dye-manufacturers,
tailors,
weavers,
grass cutters,
hewers of wood
smiths of gold, silver, iron, lead, tin, copper, brass and ivory.
It also indicates that within a craft each task was specialized. This proliferation
is also supported by donor inscriptions of this time recovered from Buddhist
stupas and monasteries. In the treatise we find mention of craftsmen like:
carpenters (vaddhaki),
bamboo-workers (vasakara),
reed-workers (konacika),
perfumers (gandhika),
cloth-makers (pravarika),
oilmen (tilapisaka),
garland-makers (malakara),
jewelers (manikara),
ivory-workers (dantakara),
goldsmiths (suvarnakara), and
blacksmiths (lohikakaruka).
One factor for such proliferation was the specialization of specific tasks within a
craft, as mentioned earlier. For example, in textile sector there were separate
people performing the task of spinning, weaving and dying.
These crafts were organized into guilds, identified in the inscriptions as:
shreni,
nigama, and
goshthi.
Their presence is also known from the Jatakas. Compared to the Mauryan period
they now played a far greater role in economy. In the Mauryan period the state 257
Cultural Developments regulated guilds through special officers who ensured quality of goods and also
determined their prices. In this period, these tasks were now performed by guilds.
In addition, we also find that guilds acted as banks. Inscriptions in Nasik record
money deposited with a weavers’ guild, the interest of which was paid for the
upkeep of a nearby monastery.

However, one sphere where the state still maintained its monopoly was the mines.
This is known from Classical accounts like Periplus, from which we know that
pearl fisheries under the Pandyas were worked upon by prisoners. Similarly,
Ptolemy informs us that diamond mines were under the control of Kushanas.
Besides the mining of precious stones we also know that the state controlled the
mining of salt. However, Ranabir Chakravarti also points out the instances of
salt tax. This meant that along with the state there was also some private initiative
involved in its production. Further, from the Jatakas we also come to know that
the state still fixed prices for the goods important to it, like horses and jewels.

17.2.4 Agriculture
Supporting this massive expansion in craft and trade activity was agriculture.
This sector, too, saw rise of private initiative. In Mauryan period we know that
the state encouraged expansion of agricultural land through policies like
janapadanivesha. It provided tax relief, tools and seeds for cultivation. In this
period we hardly hear of janapadanivesha. Instead, we know from Manusmriti
that land belonged to those who cleared it. Milindapanho, too, refers to individuals
clearing the forest and making the land cultivable. Under the Satavahanas there
are inscriptions recording individuals donating land to the sangha. The rise in
private ownership did not mean decline in royal ownership. There are references
to raja-khettam (crown land). And we also have instances of rulers donating
land to religious establishments.

17.2.5 Urbanization
From the above discussion you can understand and discern that this period was
marked by the rise of private initiative in agriculture and craft production. Also,
there was an increase in the quantity of craft production as well as the volume of
external and internal trade.The intensification of these economic processes led
to massive urbanization throughout the subcontinent. For the first time in the
archaeological data we notice the development of cities outside the Gangetic
plain. These new cities were:
Chandraketugarh, Tamralipti or Tamralipta and Mangalkot in Bengal,
Sisulpalgarh in Odisha,
Satanikota, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh,
Kaveripattinam, Kanchipuram, Madurai in Tamil Nadu etc.
Some scholars like R. S. Sharma and B. D. Chattopadhayaya have credited
Mauryan expansion with the increase in urbanization. Sharma argues that
Mauryans introduced urban infrastructure like fire-baked bricks and ring wells
(for supplying water as well acting as soakage pits) in new regions which
facilitated new settlements. Chattopadhayaya has used the concept of secondary
urbanization to explain this process in Bengal.This means urbanization that occurs
in the periphery through regular interaction with an already developed urban
258
centre, which in this case was the Gangetic valley.The development of Economy and Trade
urbanization in this period is often seen as acme of the second urbanization which
dates to 6thcentury BCE.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Discuss India’s internal and external trade in the post-Mauryan period and
what role did Buddhism play in it?
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2) Analyze Milindapanho as an important source of information on crafts and
craft-specialization during the post-Mauryan times.
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17.3 GUPTA AND POST-GUPTA PERIOD

For information about the economy during this period we have Sanskrit sources:
i) law-books (smritis) of Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati and Katyayana
ii) technical works like Amarakosha/Namalinganushasanam (a dictionary-cum-
thesaurus), Krishi Parashara (a literary composition on agriculture)
iii) kavya literature such as Abhijnana Shankuntalam, Devichandraguptam and
others.
Since this period saw the final composition of the Mahabharata, Ramayana and
Puranic literature we can use these, too, to understand this period. It also witnessed
composition of Tamil epics like Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. Along with
them we also have travelogues of several foreign visitors; most significant being
Chinese Buddhist monks like Fa-hsien who visited during the Gupta period and
Huien Tsang who visited India during Harsha’s reign. From 9-10th century CE
there were several Arab travellers like Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, and Al-Biruni who
have left important accounts.
In addition, historians are also aided by ample epigraphic data recording grants
of land to religious establishments and officials. Majority of these are in form of
copper plates. We also have some excellent numismatic data.

17.3.1 Land Grants

The Gupta and post-Gupta phases are marked by expansion of agriculture and
changes in its organization. The chief factor for this was the large number of 259
Cultural Developments land-grants given to religious establishments and officials. This practice was
first recorded under the Satavahanas who gave a few grants to the Buddhists. In
this period it became more widespread. Under the Guptas land-grants first became
popular in peripheral areas like Madhya Pradesh and Bengal. The grants in Bengal
were mainly given by individuals with the approval of central authority.
Interestingly, the recipients were granted exemption from royal taxation.The
grants made in Madhya Pradesh were by Vakatakas, the feudatories of Guptas.
Compared to the Guptas the conditions of these grants were even more generous.
Along with taxes the state also gave up the rights to mines, pastures on land
along with the right to govern the inhabitants. Under the post-Gupta polities
land-grants were also given to officials. The law-book of Brihaspati recommends
grant of land to capable, brave officials. Huien Tsang informs us that under Harsha
high officials had land assigned to them. We also have epigraphic data regarding
land-grants to officials under the Gurjara-Pratiharas and their successors. Such
inscriptions were also issued under the Palas and Rashtrakutas.

The impact of land-grants has generally been thought to be beneficial to

agriculture. The epigraphs inform us that lands like khila, aprahata,
bhumicchidranyaya and avanirandhranyaya were granted. These terms mean
uncultivated land and this implies extension of land under cultivation. Further,
these grants also mention names of several non-Sankritic villages which indicates
that these villages were on the periphery. The grants to brahmanas proved to be
advantageous in many ways: they helped in integration of tribes into the society
as peasants. Primarily of north Indian background, they brought advanced
agricultural practices of the Gangetic plains to new areas. From texts like Krishi
Parashara, Brihat Samhita of Varahamira, Agni Purana, Vishnudharmottara
Purana we know of the usage of better quality seeds, fertilizers and ploughs. We
also know of the undertaking of irrigational activities like building of dams,
tanks, ponds, embankments and step wells. There was also an increase in the
number of crops cultivated. From Amarakosha we come to know of a variety of
lentils, rice, wheat, fruits and vegetables that were cultivated. So, the result of all
this was agrarian expansion on a massive scale.

17.3.2 Trade
This time-span was marked by important changes in the pattern of external and
internal trade.The flourishing Indo-Roman trade declined due to the decline of
the Roman empire. From 6th century CE trade links were established with its
eastern successor – the Byzantine empire. Coins of this empire have been
recovered from Coimbatore. This trade, instead of Red sea, was now carried
along the Persian Gulf. This also led to the involvement of Sassanid empire in
this trade. From Christian topography we come to know of important ports on
western coastline like:
Kalliena (Kalyan in Mumbai), and
Sibor (Chaul in Mumbai).
India during this period mainly exported silk and spices. On the east coast it
continued to have flourishing trade links with Southeast Asia. The two ports –
Kaveripattinam in Tamil Nadu and Tamralipti in Bengal – played a major role.
The flourishing trade is testified by contemporary Tamil epics Silappadikaram
and Manimekalai which mention large number of craftsmen and foreign merchants
260 living in Kaveripattinam.
The brief revival of trade with Byzantine, according to the feudal school of Economy and Trade
thought, declined due to these factors:
1) Firstly, in 6th century CE Byzantine empire learnt the art of rearing silk
worms from China which reduced its dependence on foreign trade.
2) Secondly, the expansion of Arabs under Islamic banner to Egypt, Syria,
Iraq and Iran further disrupted the trade. It revived only from 10th century
CE onwards.
However, K.N. Chaudhari has noted the positive impact of Islamic expansion
and subsequent uniting of regions in Egypt, north Africa, Syria, Iraq and Iran
under Umayyads and Abbasids. He sees this entire region being united under
Arabic language which facilitated exchange. Also, the expansion of Islam led to
rapid urbanization in these areas. The new urban centres significantly increased
the demand for luxury goods. On the other end, from 7th century CE onwards
China, under dynasties like T’ang and Sung, also encouraged western trade
through land and sea routes. The Arab world demanded:
Chinese goods like porcelain, silk, jade, paper;
Indian goods like pepper, teak, coconut coir, rice grain, iron, cotton textiles,
muslin; and
Southeast Asian goods like sandalwood, spices.

In return, the Arabs provided:

incense,
horses,
tin,
silver, and
gold.
Indian ports, on the western and eastern coast, acted as intermediaries between
the Arabs and Chinese and also facilitated exchange with Southeast Asia.

One important information comes from charters which were given to the traders
by different dynasties in this period. On the basis of these charters the feudal
school has argued for the feudalisation of trade. It was now oriented towards
serving local economic units. It means that the trade largely catered to local
needs, leading to the rise of self-sufficient units. Merchant charters dated from
6th century CE onwards in western India forbade them from competing with one
another. This meant that a merchant guild monopolized trade in a particular area.
They were also given privileges like exemption from dues, freedom to deal with
labourers and control over artisans. The state, however, still determined the price
of the merchandise bought by it. The 8thcentury charters from south India even
appointed merchants as managers of town and villages. This meant decline in
trade, as merchants were increasingly playing the role of landlords than traders.

The theory of localization of trade has not got support from other scholars.
According to Ranabir Chakravarti epigraphic data indicates emergence of
mandapikas in northern and western India which were centres of internal
exchange. These have been mentioned in epigraphic records recovered from
Kangra, Gwailor, Bharatpur, Jabalpur, Nadol, Jalore, Kathiawad. Some of these
261
Cultural Developments were associated with large urban centres at Siyadoni, Bilhari and Anhilwara.
The most significant exchange consisted of essential commodities like oil, salt,
liquor, fish, crops and luxurious items like horses, camel, elephants, spices, gems
and textiles. Their commercial significance is highlighted by the collection of
tolls and taxes in these areas. In the Deccan and far south such centres were
known as pentha and nagaram.

17.3.3 Coinage
Linked with the decline of trade is the thesis of decline of coinage. Most of the
coins discovered from the Gupta period are gold and silver coins. The quantity
of gold in these coins was, in fact, higher than that of Kushana gold coins. It was
raised to 144 grains from 124 grains. However, very few copper issues of the
dynasty have been discovered. R. S. Sharma points out that gold coins are more
likely to have been used for large transactions like buying land. For everyday
transactions copper coins were more suitable.This implies that everyday exchange
might have been carried out through barter or cowry-shells. But, by the post-
Gupta period there is a complete decline in the use of coins. We hardly find any
issues of Harsha, Palas, Gujara-Prathiharas and other post-Gupta dynasties.

The lack of currency has drawn attention of several other scholars. It has been
argued by R. C. Wick that even after the decline of Gupta dynasty its coinage
was still used in north, east and central India. Few 7thcentury coins issued by
Harsha, Jayanaga, Shashanka have also been reported. In southern Bengal
numismatist B. N. Mukherjee also discovered excellent silver coins used between
the 7thto 13th centuries. Some of the coins of this period were introduced by
Hunas which, in turn, were influenced by the Sassanids. Several Indo-Sassanid
coins have been discovered. One such series – “Gadhaiya coins” – were circulated
in north and western India. These were initially made of silver but in the later
period we have debased silver, copper and billon (alloy of a precious metal –
most commonly silver but sometimes also mercury – with a majority base metal
content such as copper).They were issued by private merchants as well as the
state. Another series were probably in use under Gurjara-Prathiharas. Some of
their inscriptions mention coins like:
vigrahapala,
dramma, and 
adivaraha dramma.
According to numismatists these are billon coins with varied silver content. John
S. Deyell has reported nearly 46 such hoards. In south India, however, we have
not discovered any coins of Pallavas, Pandyas, Chalukyas of Badami and Cholas.
We have discovered coins for Eastern Chalukyas from 7th century CE. Most of
the finds of the other dynasties date between 10 th-13 th centuries. But,
Chattopadhyaya has drawn attention to many southern inscriptions mentioning
different denominations of coins.

It is very difficult, indeed, to decide on whether there was a decline of coinage in

this period or there is lack of archaeological work. It may be possible that more
coin hoards will be discovered in future. Meanwhile, we cannot deny the
increasing usage of barter and cowry shells for the purpose of trade. These are
testified by the accounts of Chinese and Arab travellers.
262
17.3.4 Urban Processes Economy and Trade

The nature of urban processes in this period is debatable. According to Sharma

this period was characterized by decline of urban centres and de-urbanization.This
occurred gradually in two phases. The first phase, between c.350-400 CE,
coincides with the rise of Gupta empire. Archaeological study records the desertion
of sites or decay in the standard of early historic settlements. Some sites like
Bara, Hastinapura, Sohgaura, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara, Chirand, Sisupalgarh,
Tamralipti, Brahmagiri and others were completely deserted. Some of these
desertions were also noted by Huien Tsang. Other sites like Purana Qila, Mathura,
Taxila, Varanasi, Sringaverapura, Vaishali also show signs of decay. Sharma
assesses this through various ways. Most common among them is assessing the
decline in the quality of building material used. In Mathura, for instance, houses
were now built with brick-bats and mud. At Purana Qila the inhabitants reused
bricks from older structures.
Sharma has attributed this to two factors:
1) Decline of Indo-Roman trade
2) Kali Age crisis.
The decline of Indo-Roman trade lessened the inflow of bullion into the
subcontinent. This naturally lessened the income of artisans, traders and the
state.This may explain the decay and desertion of urban centres. It forced the
state to tap into agriculture for extra income. This is supported in the epigraphic
data where a large number of taxes like bhaga, bhoga, kara, bali and halivakara
were collected. Further, the state also followed the policy of expansion of
agriculture into the hinterland through land-grants. But, the rise of taxation led
to revolts in the rural areas, as recorded in the historical sources as the Kali Age
crisis. The lower castes refused to pay taxes. As a result, income of the state
declined further and the state couldn’t pay salaries to priests, soldiers, officials.
This decreased the purchasing power which, again, negatively affected the income
of artisans and traders.

The twin crisis fully matured in the post-Gupta period. By this time there was a
complete decline of foreign trade. We do not have trade links with either Byzantine
empire or Southeast Asia. Also, the Kali Age crisis had progressed significantly,
leading to large-scale land- grants to monasteries, temples and brahmanas. So,
as opposed to the post-Mauryan times when there were donations by traders and
artisans maintaining religious establishments, now there were agricultural grants
maintaining them. This shift also reflects the decline of crafts and trade and
increasing importance of agriculture.

Sharma’s theory of urban decline has attracted criticism of other scholars. Upinder
Singh argues that for the Gupta age it is hard to imagine a picture of urban
decline.The contemporary Sanskrit and Tamil literature is full of descriptions of
urban life. In Mrichchhakatika (meaning the “Little Clay Cart”, a Sanskrit drama
attributed to Sudraka of 5th century CE that revolves around the story of rich
courtesan Vasantsena and poor brahmana Charudatta) the heroine lives in a
beautiful, lavish house in Ujjain. Tamil epics like Silappadikaram describe the
markets in Puhar and Madurai. However, Singh points out to the paucity of
archaeological evidence regarding the decay of cities.

263
Cultural Developments There is another set of scholars who believe that the post-Gupta period was
marked by the revival of urban centres (third urbanization). According to
Chattopadhyaya the epigraphic data from Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom has brought
to light urbanization in upper Ganga basin, Indo-Gangetic divide and the periphery
of Malwa plateau. In Indo-Gangetic divide the inscriptions identify Prithudaka
or modern Pehoa near Karnal as a site where a regular fair for trading horses was
organized. It was probably a nigama (market town). In upper Ganga basin he
identified Tattanandapura (modern-day Ahar) as an urban centre from the use of
suffix pura. Inscriptions at the site are dated between c. 867-904 CE. They give
us valuable information about the layout of the settlement which consisted of a
number of big and small roads, some leading to market areas (hattamargas).
Most prominent of the markets was the eastern market (purvahattapradesha)
which implies the presence of other market areas.The records also describe various
kinds of buildings like shops, residences and temples built of bricks. Excavations
at the site have confirmed the usage of burnt bricks, along with iron and copper
objects and early medieval coins.

A similar town identified in the records is Siyadoni in the Jhansi district, Uttar
Pradesh. It was a commercial centre, bigger than Ahar, consisting of several
hattas (market places) where there were shops owned by traders and different
craftsmen. One area of the town was exclusive to the merchants identified as
vanijonijarathya. Another important town was Gopagiri which was an important
political as well as commercial centre. It was a fort town looked after by
Kottapalas (superintendants of forts) and Baladhikritas (commanders of army).
It was also a residence for merchants, some of whom were part of the local
administrative council. In manufacture the town was known for oil-making. It
had residential areas and two market places reserved for oil-millers.

Similarly, in south India there was revival of urban centres under the Cholas
from 9th century CE. A majority of them were centered around temples built
either by the Cholas or their subordinates to legitimize their power. These could
be a single temple or a complex of multiple temples. Many of these received
land-grants, monetary grants and gold for their maintenance. Some of this was
reinvested in land and trade.The involvement in such activities led to the
emergence of urban complexes in the premises of these temples. The temples
became grand structures, incorporating within them smaller shrines, hospitals,
buildings for educational and cultural purposes. Further, the demand made by
these establishments for grain, luxury goods and local items led to the emergence
of these as centres of trade and even encouraged settling down of craftsmen in
their vicinity. Apart from temple towns, few towns also owed their origin to the
revival of trade. Some of older towns like Korkai, Kaveripattinam retained their
significance but there was also the rise of new port-towns like Nagapattinam and
Mamallapuram developed by Cholas and Pallavas respectively. In addition to
them, there were also centres facilitating internal trade that were known as
nagarams. Few of these also evolved as cities like Kanchi. Some of them became
areas of craft activity and craft specialization.

However, a critique of this theory has been given by D.N. Jha. He states that the
urban centres such as Pehoa/Prthudaka, Tattanandapura (Ahar), Siyadoni (Jhansi),
Gopagiri etc. as pointed out by Chattopadhyaya date to 9th and 10th centuries. So,
this dating does not contradict the decline of towns during Gupta epoch. Sharma
264
postulates the collapse of urban centres between c. 400-1000 CE and argues for Economy and Trade
their revival from 10th century CE onwards.

17.3.5 Craft Production

The presence of several crafts in the Gupta and post-Gupta times can be discerned
from archaeology, epigraphy as well as texts like Amarakosha. The most important
craft was pottery as indicated by large number of finds from Rajghat, Ahichchhatra
and Bhita. Another important craft was iron-smelting. The advancement in this
metallurgy is visible from the fine specimen – the Mehrauli iron pillar in Delhi.
Amarakosha also mentions others craftsmen like goldsmiths, garland-makers,
potters, brick-layers, washermen, weavers, tailors, painters, shell-cutters,
carpenters etc. In terms of organization there existed guilds as well as specialized
settlements as names of places like Lohanagara indicate. In post-Gupta period
we see the emergence of sugar-making and oil milling as important industries.
Some of the sugar products like molasses and candy were even exported to West
Asia and China. A record, dated 930 CE, preserved in Bangladesh tells us about
expert craftsmen like leatherworkers, carpenter, washermen, florists and
blacksmiths. Just like the previous period, iron-smelting and textiles continued
to be significant industries.

In the opinion of the feudal school, the position of artisans declined in this period.
The collapse of trade and subsequent urban decay encouraged their migration to
rural areas. One often cited example is the migration of silk weavers from Gujarat
to Malwa in search for better livelihood. This may have happened due to the
decline of external trade. Another factor that worsened their condition was the
restriction on their mobility. The land-grants to temples, priests, officials and
merchants often transferred to the beneficiary the right to extract labour from
artisans. In fact, the beginning of jajmani system could be traced back to this
period.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) What role did land-grants play in the expansion of agriculture during Gupta
and post-Gupta era?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2) How different are the Gupta and post-Gupta centuries from the post-Mauryan
period in the context of economy and trade?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

265
Cultural Developments
17.4 SUMMARY
There is no doubt among scholars that the post-Mauryan period from c.200 BCE
to c. 200 CE registered huge economic growth marked by flourishing external as
well as internal trade. There was ample growth in craft production and
specialization leading to massive urbanization throughout the subcontinent.
However, economic processes of Gupta and post-Gupta times are still debatable.
While there was expansion of agriculture through land-grants in this period, the
decline of trade, coinage and urban centres is a matter of contestation and
disagreement.

17.5 KEY WORDS

Billon: alloy of copper with either silver or gold.
Bullion: gold, silver or any other precious metal in bulk before coining or valued
by weight.
Guild: an economic organization of people following the same craft. Such an
association gives an artisan/trader greater bargaining power and security.
Potin: alloy of copper, tin and lead.
Topography: study of the shape and features of land surfaces; arrangement of
physical features of a geographical zone.

17.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Sub-section 17.2.1
2) See Sub-section 17.2.3

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) See Sub-section 17.3.1
2) Consult Section 17.3 comprehensively.

17.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Champakalakshmi, R. (1999). Trade, Ideology and Urbanization: South India
300 BC to AD 1300. Oxford University Press.

Chattopadhyaya, B .D. (1994). The Making of Early Medieval India. Oxford

University Press.

Chaudhuri, K. N. (1985). Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An

Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge University Press.

Deyell, John (2002). The Gurjara-Pratiharas. In Chakravarti, R. (Ed.) Trade and

Traders in Early Indian Society. Manohar Publishers accessed online [7/09/19]
https://bit.ly/2mbpfEf
266
Deyell, John (2006). Harsha’s Coinage: Hidden in Plain Sight? In Numismatic Economy and Trade
Digest, Volume 40. Accessed online [7/09/19]https://www.academia.edu/
37695796/Harshas_coinage_hidden_in_plain_sight?auto=download

Jha, D. N. (2002). The Feudal Order: State, Society, and Ideology in Early
Medieval India. Manohar.

Sharma, R. S. (1965). Indian Feudalism, c. AD 300-1200. University of Calcutta.

Sharma, R. S. (1987). Urban Decay in India, c. 300-c. 1000. Munshiram

Manoharlal.

Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From
the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

267
Cultural Developments
UNIT 18 ENVIRONMENT, FORESTS AND
WATER RESOURCES*

Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Environment
18.3 Forests
18.4 Water Resources
18.5 Summary
18.6 Key Words
18.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
18.8 Suggested Readings

18.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will know:
the perspectives on environment through the study of a few historical sources
pertaining to both north and south India;
how forests have been envisioned and perceived in our ancient historical
tradition;
the significance of rivers and management of water resources through
irrigational activities; and
Indian model of eco-friendly living of people of the past.

18.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit covers the time-frame between c. 200 BCE and c. 750 CE. The lives
and activities of people of early India were greatly impacted by their environment.
They were very close to nature and natural resources. It can be gleaned from
textual sources like Arthashastra, Manusmriti, Brihat Samhita, the Epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata and many others. These works highlight notions
about environmental conservation, interaction with diverse biological entities,
forest ecology, agricultural produce, water management etc. It is quite apparent
that people strove towards developing effective measures to safeguard their
ecosystems and engage in sustainable development. In this Unit, we will try to
analyze how they had a sound understanding of ecology through a study of
environment, forests and water resources.

18.2 ENVIRONMENT
Conceptualizing Environment:
It is relevant here to understand how societies, cultures and communities in ancient
period visualized and identified their environment. What were the popular ideas
* Dr. Abhishek Anand, Academic Consultant, Faculty of History, School of Social Sciences,
268 IGNOU, New Delhi.
concerning environment which helped them to deal with adverse situations? We Environment, Forests and
Water Resources
can convincingly postulate that everything related to nature, such as ecology,
landscape, water, winds, vegetation, bio-diversity etc., should be an object of
study while studying environment. It is significant to remember that researches
into the environmental history of ancient India have taken stock of environment
and its multifarious aspects. These include close linkages between history and
geography; impact of historical developments on natural environment and
environmental practices and vice-versa; relationship of the process of state
formation; state and societal interventions in natural environment and topography;
settlement patterns; botanical and zoological knowledge; interaction between
civilizations and natural resources; control over such resources and its nature
and purpose; policies and regulations for resource use; demand for forest products
and its impact on forest inhabitants and their livelihood; tribal relationships and
notions of the ownership of forest and its resources; incorporation of forests into
the state ambit for political, economic, administrative, military and strategic
reasons; royal hunts in the forests; stable and dynamic facets of land use; agrarian
production and extension of agriculture to virgin tracts of land; land reclamation;
possible changes in the tribal habitat and “peasantization” of the tribes of
peripheral zones; peasant economy; water-control; harvesting of water resources
and irrigational works; their ownership, management of and association with
increasing agrarian output; irrigation technology; importance of pastures or
grasslands as a source of revenue; pastoralist culture, pastoralist specialization,
pastoralist activity, pastoral nomadism and agro-pastoralism; influence of
ecological settings on the distribution of land-grants; damage to environment in
the form of deforestation; its causes, extent and pace; denudation of native tree
cover; resource depletion; soil degradation; forest clearance for agriculture;
environmental preservation in the form of conservation of depleting natural
reserves, forests, flora and fauna etc. Even seemingly disparate historical processes
like emergence and proliferation of castes, rise of religious and philosophical
sects and evolution of regional art styles have been studied in the context of
environment. Covering all these aspects in this Unit would be well neigh
impossible. We will limit our analysis to the study of the perspectives the ancient
Indians had towards environment as reflected in a few prominent historical sources
of the period under study.

Arthashastra
The Arthashastra is a treatise written in the form of Sanskrit prose on statecraft,
governance, economic policy and military strategy. Its authorship is attributed to
Kautilya (Chanakya in common parlance) and it is believed to have been
composed, compiled, redacted and codified between 2nd century BCE and 3rd
century CE. It is used extensively to reconstruct Mauryan history. However, it
may also be used to study the state of affairs in the post-Mauryan times, when it
was given its final shape and form. There is a debate whether it describes the
actual functioning of the state or an ideal state. However, even if it points to an
ideal order, the vast mine of information on environment supplied by it indicates
that people of those times must have inculcated and developed such knowledge.

Kautilya informs us that people were aware of rainfall patterns, soil types as
well as appropriate irrigation techniques. He divides the landmass between the
Himalayan range in the north and oceans in the south, south-west and south-east
into the following geological regions:
269
Cultural Developments 1) Village areas (grama/gramya),
2) Mountains (parvata),
3) Forests (aranya),
4) Dry lands (bhauma),
5) Humid or wet lands (audaka),
6) Plains (sama), and
7) Uneven lands (visawa).
The text displays knowledge and concern about various living creatures – plants
and vegetation, wild and domestic animals – and both punishments and penalties
are prescribed for causing harm to them. It ordains appointing supervisors of
cattle, elephants, horses and pastures to perform duties like protecting wildlife
and preventing poaching of wild animals, ensuring adequate rationing to domestic
animals and their proper care, compliance to norms regarding dealing with pet
animals by their owners, regulating grazing by cattle etc. One of the
responsibilities of the village-headman (gramika) was to prevent cruelty to
animals.

It also advocates using non-agrarian lands as sanctuaries/animal parks where

animals were to be given complete protection and their killing or capture was
forbidden. It enlists a wide range of protected birds, animals and fish. It
meticulously gives details of training, care and treatment of cows, elephants and
horses1. The king is advised to safeguard forests (particularly elephant forests),
mines and irrigation works as well as to establish new ones.

Manusmriti
The Manusmriti (2nd century BCE-3rd century CE), also known as Manava
Dharmashastra, is one of the numerous dharmashastras2. It is believed to be a
discourse by brahmana thinkers, ideologues and jurists like Manu and Bhrigu on
laws, rights, duties, conduct, virtues and various other topics. Critiqued otherwise
for its patriarchal tone and caste discrimination, the text has good deal of material
on environment. It defines biodiversity as all living forms classified as chara
(movable living organisms) and achara (immovable plant world). It highlights
the importance and value of underground stems and tuberous roots, fragrant
flowers, nourishing and tasteful fruits, leafy vegetables, trees yielding timber,
various crops etc. Like the Arthashastra, it too lays down punishments of different
kinds for causing harm to plants and trees. It mentions birds of various kinds:
village habitat birds,
diving birds that feed on fishes,
web-footed birds,
birds with striking beaks etc.
It also refers to a range of animals including solitary moving animals and one-
hoofed animals. It states that killing of particularly horse (ashva), goat (aja/
ajaa), buffalo (maha), elephant (ibha), deer (mriga), ass (khara) and camel

1
Kangle, R. P. (1986). The Kautilya Arthasastra: Part I and II. Second Edition. University of
Bombay.
2
Ancient Indian compendiums of moral laws and principles for religious duty and righteous
270 conduct to be followed by a Hindu.
(ushtra) is a crime. It, thus, pays adequate attention to the protection of flora and Environment, Forests and
Water Resources
fauna. It attaches importance to biodiversity conservation in general, protection
of both domestic and wild animals and vegetarian food habits.

Epics and Puranas

The two great Epics (c. 500 BCE-500 CE) – Ramayana and Mahabharata – are
used by historians to cull significant information on polity, social structure, social
practices and norms current at the time, philosophy, cultural characteristics like
customs and traditions, religious sects, aspects of economic and environmental
history etc. that cannot be dubbed and sidelined as “non-history”. They are
believed to have been compiled and given their final form around 4th-5th centuries
CE. Krishna in Bhagvad Gita3 compares the world to a Banyan tree with endless
branches in which all demigods, humans and animals reside. It underlines the
idea of community ecology. Vrindavana was known for its groves of Aamlaki
(Indian gooseberry), Peepal, Kadamba, Tamal and Vata (Banyan). He refers to
the Banyan and Pipal trees as keystone resources.
He is said to have been an ardent appreciator of nature. He says, “The environment
is your concern, it is your duty to be responsible for it.” His life and activities in
Braj 4 and Vrindavana demonstrate supreme level of compassion towards
environment and environmental restoration.There seems to be a notion that
environment could be polluted or harmed through human action and the same
could be reversed. He is depicted as having defeated Kaliya naga and purified
Yamuna of its poison, protected forest by swallowing destructive fires, restored
air by crushing tornadoes etc. In the tale of child Krishna eating mud and foster-
mother Yashoda seeing entire universe in his mouth, he remarks, “… I have to
play in these grounds, I will make these grounds so pure that anybody can pick
up a little piece of earth and taste it.”5 Implied in this statement is the fact that the
earth may have suffered contamination which needed purification.There are also
stories of Bala-gopala stealing butter due to his extreme liking for it and Krishna’s
intimate association with cows is emphasized numerous times.

The Notion of Beauty and Environment: Ajanta Paintings

It seems that people of those times also viewed their environment as something
that was beautiful, pure and serene. This is evidenced in the Ajanta murals. The
caves of Ajanta are located in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra. They are 29 in
number, out of which cave no. 1, 2, 16, 17 and 19 have survived. Although they
are dated to a vast time-range of 1st-7th centuries CE, most of them belong to the
Gupta period. It looks like this site was chosen by great visionaries who
appreciated nature and its scenic beauty. The caves are located in a long horse-
shaped hill overlooking a deep valley. Depictions of nature and its opulence
constitute one of the subject-matter of the murals in these caves. Although the
central theme is religious, almost all aspects of secular domain find painted which
look so life-like and natural. Flora and fauna have been painted freely in a masterly
fashion and these frescoes are replete with floral themes. High mountains, lush
vegetation, forests and gardens, blooming flowers, luxuriant creepers, flowering
trees, flowing streams, soaring birds, fighting or springing animals, roaming

3
Discourse between Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield in the form of 700 verses constituting
chapters 23-40 of the Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata.
4
Also known as Brij or Brijbhoomi.
5
Haberman, David L. (2006). River of Love in an Age of Pollution: the Yamuna River of Northern
India. University of California Press. 271
Cultural Developments predators, monkeys jumping from branch to branch, naïve beings like deer and
elephants have been painted, which show how closely the painter has observed,
grasped, perceived and understood the world and environment around him.

LEFT Depiction of Elephants and Horses, Ajanta RIGHT: Depiction of Elephants and Flora, Colour
Mural titled “The Coming of Sinhala” in Cave no. Illustration/Creative Reproduction of Ajanta
17. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https:// Fresco titled “Adoration of the Buddha” in Cave
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Coming_ no. 17. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://
Of_Sinhala_(Mural_At_ Ajanta_ In_Cave_No_ commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ajanta_ Cave_
17).jpg). 17,_antechamber_ to_ the_ shrine,_ Adoration_
of_the_Buddha_ (color_illustration). jpg).

Inscriptions
The Gupta period demonstrates changes in political economy in which
exploitation of agricultural resources became necessary. Agriculture became
significant to support the growing population and to produce surplus to sustain a
considerable part of the population not directly engaged in food-production. A
major part of state revenue also came from agriculture. Inscriptions of this period
mention various types of land: the term used for land under cultivation is Kshetra.
The tracts not under cultivation are referred to as Aprahata and Khila. Epigraphs
give the impression that uncultivated land was regularly brought under cultivation.
Classification of land also as per soil, fertility and the use to which it was put
was not unknown. Different land measures were known in different regions. It is
not possible to segregate regions precisely as per the crops grown, but all the
main varieties of crops – cereals like paddy, wheat and barley, different kinds of
vegetables, pulses and grams as well as cash crops like sugarcane and cotton
were known long before this period and continued to be widely cultivated.

Hsuan Tsang’s Travelogue

Xuan Zang/Huien Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, visited India between 629-645
CE. He has left behind fairly detailed travel accounts and has described political,
social, religious and economic conditions during Harshavardhana’s times. He
mentions Harsha as an industrious king who undertook many charitable tasks6 –

6
Such as establishment of hospitals for the needy, opening of educational establishments,
272 distribution of charity, provision of free rest-houses on highways etc.
planting of fruit-bearing and shady trees was one of them. He was familiar with Environment, Forests and
Water Resources
his extensive empire which added to his proficiency as an administrator. He was
aware of the topography of his region and temperament of the populace of varied
terrains that helped him choose right governors of provinces.

Sangam Poems
The geographical tract between the hills of Venkatam and Kanyakumari is referred
to as Tamilaham. It includes the whole of present-day Tamilnadu and Kerala.
With forested highlands, undulated terrains, pastures, wet lands, arid zones and
long sea coast, it exhibits a combination of distinct and diverse landscapes/eco-
zones as elucidated in Sangam literature7 in the form of aintinai (five eco-zones):
1) Kurinji/Kurinchi (hilly backwoods),
2) Palai (arid zone),
3) Mullai (pastoral tracts with low hills and thin forests),
4) Marutam (river valleys and fertile agrarian plains particularly suitable for
wetland cultivation of paddy and sugarcane), and
5) Neytal (sea coast).

Credit: Praveenp. Source: Wikimedia Commons(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Thinai_en.svg).

There were areas in which one or the other tinai was dominant. But, most of the
tinais were generally fragmented and mixed up all over the region. The mode of

7
The earliest Tamil texts are found in the Sangam corpus/collection (c. 300 BCE-300 CE). It is
close to 30,000 lines of poetry on the themes of love and war. Their authors assembled in
literary gatherings/academies of scholars, patronized by chiefs and kings, called the Sangams
and the literature produced was, thus, called the Sangam literature. Three sangams are believed
to have taken place: first and last at Madurai and second at Kapatapuram. It is believed that
compositions of the last Sangam alone have survived. They are a mine of information on
everyday lives of the people of those times and on many occasions it is corroborated by
archaeology and foreigners’ accounts. The mention of some kings and events is supported by
inscriptions also.

273
Cultural Developments human adaptation differed from tinai to tinai depending on its ecology. Socio-
economic groups also varied. The forest-tribes of kurinji (variously termed as
Kuravars and Vetars) pursued hunting and gathering of forest produce. Being
dry land, the inhabitants of Palai (called Maravars and Eyinars) could not produce
anything due to scarcity of water. They engaged in cattle lifting, wayside robbery
and plundering.8 Those of mullai (known as Itaiyars/Idaiyars meaning cowherds/
shepherds) were engaged in cattle rearing and shifting cultivation. Dwellers of
marutam (labeled as Uzhavars meaning ploughmen) practiced plough agriculture
and those of neytal (called Parathavars meaning fishermen) did fishing, pearl
diving and salt making. Uzhavars produced considerable surplus of paddy and
the inhabitants of other tinais relied on them for rice which was their stable food.
Thus, Tamilaham demonstrates different forms of subsistence as determined by
ecological conditions of the five tinais and ecological differences between them.
Occupants of each tinai entered into barter with those of other tinais. For example,
the residents of hilly backwoods came down to other zones to exchange their
resources like honey, bamboo, meat, fruits, rice, roots and other wild products.
They also practiced “slash and burn” cultivation on hill slopes and produced
millets and pulses. Such hilly zones also facilitated abundant production of pepper
and other spices. We find literary descriptions of the production of pepper and
facilities for watering the gardens.

The populace of pastoral tracts exchanged their dairy products and the coastal
denizens – fish, salt and pearl. Agricultural zones attracted all of them. The small,
self-sustaining tinais grew into larger eco-zones through such interaction and
interdependence. The terrains of better productivity had a relatively developed
social division of labour. Society in the eco-zones of lesser productivity was
simple and consisted of clans ruled by chiefs. All in all, Tamilaham represented
a complex society of unevenly developed components which shared a common
culture and the state was yet to emerge.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Discuss the perspectives towards environment with reference to any two
historical sources of the period between c. 200 BCE and c. 700 CE.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2) Mark the following statements as right ( ) or wrong (×):
a) Kautilya classifies the landmass between Himalayas and oceans into
eight zones.
b) The Manusmriti states that killing of animals like horse, elephant, deer,
camel etc. was a sin.
c) Sangam literature enunciates the concept of Aintinai.
d) Huien Tsang mentions that Harsha ordered planting of shady and fruit-
bearing trees.
8
Salt merchants and dealers of other goods often traversed through Palai tracts in caravans and
274 Sangam literature refers to their plunder by Maravar robbers.
 Environment, Forests and
18.3 FORESTS Water Resources

In many ancient Indian literary sources the settlement (kshetra) – village (grama)
or city (nagara) – reflected an organized and systematized social order. On the
one hand, the forest (vana/aranya) was the abode of ascetics and renouncers as
well as a terrain that included desert and semi-pastoral tracts of land. These are
differentiated from each other and presented as polar opposites. However, they
are also viewed as being closely linked in the form of a continuum. Thus, there is
both dichotomy and complementarity between the two and the texts often try to
understand and comment upon the influence of kshetra on aranya and vice-
versa. It also needs to be kept in mind that with the rise of urban centres and
particularly in the early centuries of Common Era there was also a growing
demarcation between grama and nagara. The former was not static and could
also be a mobile village of migrating cattle-keepers. Grama also subsequently
became an intermediary zone between nagara and vana.

Now let us delve into a few historical sources to get an idea of how forests were
perceived by ancient Indians.

Arthashastra
Kautilya devises a detailed way of demarcating and classifying ecological spaces
with the intent to harness their resource potential and forests figure prominently
in his scheme. The terms used in the Arthashastra for a forest are:
vana,
aranya/aaranya,
atavi, and
kantara.
Inhabitants of the forest are referred to as:
vanacharas,
aranyavasins, and
atavikas.
Kautilya ascribes importance to the management and protection of forests as
well as gardens, groves and orchards. They were not only recreational venues
but also potential sources of revenue. Aranyas supplied honey, timber, oblation
material for sacrifices, herbs of various kinds, flowers, fruits, roots, vegetables,
wild grains etc. He classifies the forests into material forests, elephant forests
(hastivanas) etc. based on their resource potential and use. Kautilya visualizes
forest as a terrain to be controlled, exploited, protected and expanded9, and a
terrain into which the state must aggressively extend its administrative and fiscal
activity. He instructs the appointment of superintendents of forests and directors
of forest-produce (kupyadhyakshas) to promote forest resources. All forests are
said to be owned by the government. He recommends rewards to the person who
brings a pair of tusks of an elephant which died naturally. He instructs setting up
of factories/manufactories (karmantaham) for goods obtained from forests and
9
Interestingly, he prescribes “creation” of a forest, thus going against and beyond the notion
that wilderness can only occur “naturally”. He states that a vana can be altered, manipulated,
modified and even created for economic purposes.
275
Cultural Developments raise income of the state.10 But, he cautions that forest-products should be used
in a sustainable manner. He lays stress on the protection of specifically those
trees which yield flowers and fruits and those that provide shade. Fines of varying
amounts are said to be imposed for cutting a tree or any part of it, depending on
the kind of harm afflicted. He emphasizes on safeguarding particularly those
forests that were watered by a river as those could be used as a shelter during
rebellion, invasion or other kinds of trouble.11

Kautilya’s Attitude towards Aranyavasins

Kautilya does not speak very highly of the forest-dwellers. He says that
wilderness is an abode of robbers, fowlers and enemies. Forest people are
clubbed with chandalas (untouchables). He advises that secret agents should
win the trust of forest thieves, instigate them to raid cattle caravans, cattle
camps and villages, and then have them killed. He warns that they can be a
threat when kings are campaigning or hunting in their region and should,
therefore, be treated with caution and suspicion. They are frequently
associated with rebellion and plunder. He states that atavikas who try to
loot or ravage a settlement should be scattered into many groups and
destroyed. The term atavika is used in the Arthashastra to connote politically
problematic forest chieftains or people, though not always. Forest chieftains
are not considered friends of kings but they are acknowledged and reckoned
as a political force that kings have to deal with. For example, brahmana
sages who lived in the ashramas in the forest needed peace and harmony
with the forest tribes as well as protection and security from them. Kshatriya
warriors could have occasions of hostility with them. Vaishyas could use
them as farmers and animal herders.

The king is, therefore, asked to subjugate the vanacharas. They are
mentioned not only as cultural others but also as political adversaries, yet
at the same time, as potential allies, although usually of an inferior kind.
Though maintaining a distance, the Arthashastra instructs the presence and
attendance of forest chiefs at the coronation-ceremony of a king. Kautilya
proposes to use them to create trouble for neighbouring kingdoms or as
spies and poisoners in the guise of recluses, householders, merchants,
ascetics, students, mendicants, prostitutes etc. Inversely, spies should also
move around disguised as forest-dwellers.

According to the Arthashastra, Vanavasins must offer a sixth part of their

grains to the king, saying, “This is the share for him who protects us”.12 A
benevolent attitude towards them comes to fore when it says that they should
be made to pay less than the residents of settlements for certain offenses
such as theft or killing of cocks, mangoose, cats, dogs or pigs. Elsewhere it
mentions that an officer called the vivetashyaksha must ensure the livelihood
of the residents of material forests and elephant forests. Hence, it can be
safely concluded that it does not exhibit just one attitude towards them.
Different perceptions seemed to coexist.

10
Raj Kumar, Sen and Basu, Ratan Lal (Eds.) (2006). Economics in Arthasastra. New Delhi:
Deep and Deep Publications.
11
Rangarajan, L. N. (2016). Kautilya: The Arthashastra. Reprint. Penguin Classics.
12
Chande, M. B. (2004). Kautilyan Arthasastra. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributers.
276
In many other treatises also, the forest is visualized as a site of conflict and they Environment, Forests and
Water Resources
refer to clashes between forest tribes and state armies. They also state that vast
forest terrains were spaces where writ of the state did not run smoothly or didn’t
run at all. Forest hunters who, over the centuries, supplied wild game to feed the
residents of settlements are generally portrayed in them as violent, uncultured,
barbaric, uncouth etc. Violence or the threat of violence against them was
necessary for the spread of agriculture and geographical expansion of cities and
states and this is brought to fore in various ancient Indian literary compositions.

Epics and Puranas

When Rama leaves for exile to the forest lying south of the Gangetic plains,
mother Kaushalya is worrisome about his safety. She exclaims, “May the huge
elephants not harm you my dear son, nor the lions, tigers, bears, boars or ferocious
horned buffalo”. However, forests were a source of pleasure to Sita. Arjuna,
Karnikara/Kanaka Champa and Japa Pushpa (Hibiscus) have been outlined as
her favourite trees. Sandalwood (chandana) tree was particularly popular around
that time. Ravana’s Ashoka-vatika in Lanka is said to be full of Ashoka, Champa,
and Shala/Sala trees. Poet Valmiki gives vivid descriptions of honey-scented
groves, lotus-ponds, herds of deer, geese and ducks in the forest. He defines
Aryavarta – land of the Aryans/abode of the Aryans – as the region where black
antelope wandered, precisely the landmass to the north of Vindhyan mountain
range.13

The Mahabharata tells us that the capital of Kurus – Hastinapura – was located
in a forest zone. Pollen remains from the excavations at Hastinapura (Meerut
district, Uttar Pradesh) show the evidence of Dalbergiasissoo (a kind of timber),
Pinus (pine) and other varieties of vegetation.14 The Bhagavata Purana describes
the forests of Vrindavana as “full of bees, flowers, fruits, vegetation and pasturing
grass”; “as sanctified as the clear mind of a devotee”; “there were chirping birds
and clear-water lakes, with waters that could relieve one of all fatigue. Sweet-
smelling breezes blew always, refreshing the body and mind”; “Krishna saw all
the trees, overloaded with fruits and fresh twigs, bending down to touch the
ground as if welcoming him by touching his lotus feet”. He lavishes praise to the
trees of Vrindavana, “… they have dedicated their lives to the welfare of others.
Individually, they are tolerating all kinds of natural disturbances … They supply
various kinds of facilities to human society, such as leaves, flowers, fruits, shade,
roots, bark, flavour extracts and fuels.”15

Abhijnana Shakuntalam
It is a drama by the greatest Sanskrit poet Kalidasa: one of the “nine luminaries/
gems” (navratnas) of the court of Gupta ruler Changragupta II. It makes references
to beautiful tapovanas (sacred groves) where sages/saints/ascetics meditated and
did penance. It amply highlights the closeness of rishi Kanva and her daughter
Shakuntala to the forest. The forest is projected as a peaceful and quiet place.
Shakuntala held plants and deer of the forest very dear to her.

13
Rangarajan, Mahesh (2007). The Forest and the Field in Ancient India. In Mahesh Rangarajan
(Ed.), Environmental Issues in India: A Reader. New Delhi: Pearson Education.
14
Chaudhary, K. A., Saraswat, K. S. and Buth, G. M. (1977). Ancient Agriculture and Forestry
in North India. New Delhi: Asia Publishing House.
15
Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1997). Krsna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead:
A Summary Study of Srimad Bhagavatam’s Tenth Canto. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.
277
Cultural Developments On the other hand, vana in ancient India is also viewed as a space that was bereft
of the cohesion of the kshetra, as the abode of those like thieves and brigands
who did not live by dharma (courteousness), as “strange, remote, wild and
different and teeming with creatures whose appearance and behavior was
unpredictable”16. It was the backdrop of three kinds of human action: the hunt,
the hermitage and the place of exile. The Shakuntala narrative opens with
Dushyanta hunting in the forest with a large entourage of hundreds of elephants
and horses and heavily-armed soldiers as if heading towards a battle. This was
because the aranya was an unknown territory, inhabited by rakshasas.

18.4 WATER RESOURCES

Water resources have been an indispensable part of the agrarian economy. We
will study this from the vantage point of irrigation and significance of rivers.

Irrigation
In this section we will discuss the means of irrigation which were practiced in
the past as evident in the written records.

Inscriptions
Society’s concern with agricultural production is also reflected in the importance
given to irrigation. State promoted irrigational measures and activities since it
derived its revenue mostly from agrarian produce. Irrigation through wells, tanks,
ponds owned and maintained by local populace individually as well as collectively
was widespread during this period. State enterprise entailed construction of
reservoirs as well as settlement of disputes regarding distribution of water, building
of a tank etc. The Junagadh/Girnar rock inscription informs us about the
Sudarshana lake (tadaga), an artificial reservoir. It was originally built during
the Mauryan period by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor of Chandragupta
Maurya. It was thoroughly repaired in the time of Mahakshatrapa Rudradaman
by his provincial governor (amatya) Suvishakha (c.150 CE). It was again severely
and extensively damaged due to excessive rains and Parnadatta, the newly
appointed governor of Saurashtra by Skandagupta, who was perhaps the last
powerful Gupta monarch, and Parnadatta’s son Chakrapalita undertook its
restoration this time (c. 460 CE). There is special mention of the “enormous
money” spent by Rudradaman. The Hathigumpha (“Elephant Cave”) inscription
(2nd century BCE-1st century CE) of Kharavela, the third and greatest emperor of
Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga (present-day Odisha and surrounding
regions), refers to great expenditure done by him on extending a water-channel
to his capital. Similarly, the Nasik inscription of Ushavadata (c. 121 CE), son-in-
law and viceroy of the Western Kshatrapa king Nahapana, gives Ushavadata the
credit of constructing many reservoirs and tanks. Another epigraph from Mathura
(c. 50 CE) eulogizes a brahmana who built a tank.

Arthashastra
Kautilya frequently mentions small-scale irrigation works privately owned and
maintained. It delineates following chief means of irrigation:

16
Thapar, Romila (2012). Perceiving the Forest: Early India. In Mahesh Rangarajan and K.
Sivaramakrishnan (Eds.). India’s Environmental History: from Ancient Times to the Colonial
278 Period.
1) River (nadi) Environment, Forests and
Water Resources
2) Lake (sara)
3) Fountain (utsa)
4) Spring (jalakoopi)
5) Well (kupa)
6) Tank (tadaga)
7) Reservoir (adhara/udkadhara).
He also refers to the construction of dams on streams (setu/setubandha) and
classifies them into two categories:
a) That could be fed by natural sources like springs.
b) Where water was artificially stored.
He elaborates on water-tax (udakabhaga) and enumerates following kinds of
irrigated land:
1) irrigated by manual labour,
2) irrigated by carrying and transporting water on shoulder,
3) irrigated by water lifts,
4) irrigated by raising water from rivers, lakes, ponds etc.
Some scholars point out that a clear reference to the use of canals or channels for
irrigation occurs in the Arthashastra when it is stated that water was set in motion
by digging (khatapravrittim) from a river-dam or tank. Kautilya also gives details
of the officials associated with creation and upkeep of water resources. He outlines
constant inspection of the places of water-supply (udakasthana), water-courses
and roads as one of the duties and responsibilities of the head of city administration
(nagarika). The head of crown lands (sitadhyaksha) was expected, among other
things, to have the knowledge of “water divining”. The collector of revenue
(samaharta/samahartri) was supposed to document the number of setubandhas
(bridges/dams) and sheds for drinking water in his area. And the superintendent
of pasture lands (vivetadhyaksha) was to sink wells and make other provisions
for drinking of water by livestock. He also was entrusted to establish sources of
water in waterless or water-scarce pastoral regions.
It is interesting to note that Kautilya duly recognizes the property rights of an
individual on wells, tanks, reservoirs etc. and allows one to sell or mortgage the
same. He also acknowledges the right to sell water from one’s water-work and
the owner may also give water to the cultivators in lieu of their agricultural
produce or to anyone “as it may be advantageous to him”. He cautions that an
owner shall lose the possession of his tank or any other irrigation-work if he
does not use it for five years, except in cases of distress. He also bestows the
benefits of constructing irrigation-works by stating that such a person shall be
exempted from water-cess for five years, those who repair the ruined or abandoned
ones shall be exempted for four years and so on. He underlines the idea of
establishing irrigation-works as a joint or communal activity by advising that all
local residents should cooperate in building dams etc. and strictly remarks that
only those who do so were entitled to claim water from such hydel projects.
Also, those who walked out of such joint ventures were to share the expenses but
were not allowed the benefits. 279
Cultural Developments
Irrigation during Gupta and Post-Gupta Times: A Case-Study
A popular means of irrigation was drawing water from wells and supplying
it to the fields through carefully dug channels. A mechanism that was
perhaps known before the Gupta epoch entailed tying several pots to a
chain which reached down to the water of the hull and by making the chain
with the pots rotate; it was ensured that the pots would continuously fill
with water and empty it. This apparatus was called ghati-yantra (ghata
means pot) or araghatta. Banabhatta’s Harshacharita (meaning Biography
of Harsha) written in 7th century CE contains very charming description of
how the agricultural fields that produced crops such as sugarcane were
irrigated by means of ghati-yantra.

Rainwater was accumulated in ponds and other types of reservoirs in regions

like Bengal and then used for irrigation; tank irrigation became the norm
in peninsular India. There were, thus, different systems of irrigation
methods. The farmers, of course, depended mainly on rainfall, the
importance of which is highlighted in the Arthashastra as well as in many
texts of the Gupta age.

Importance of Rivers
Ancient civilizations all over the world flourished on river-banks and this is true
for the Indian subcontinent too. Rivers
bring bounty and prosperity. They
provided water for agriculture. They were
used for navigation. Fish constituted part
of human diet and was also profitable in
trade and commerce. The socio-
economic, cultural and religious
importance of rivers is time and again
demonstrated in ancient Indian historical
tradition. The auspiciousness and
sacredness ascribed to them has been a
major focus of our religious awareness.
Large rivers like Ganga and Yamuna were
personified as deities. In the Udayagiri
cave complex near Vidisha (Madhya
Pradesh), securely dated to the reign of
Gupta monarch Chandragupta II, we find
sculptural representation of the river
goddesses Ganga-Yamuna flanking the
doorway. There are numerous such
examples found elsewhere.

Ganga is also associated with lord Siva –

one of the primary gods (trinity or River goddess Ganga riding a Makara
trideva) of Puranic Hindu pantheon. The (alligator), 5 th century CE. Statue
recovered from Ahichchhatra (Bareilly
story of the descent of Ganga on Siva’s district, Uttar Pradesh) and preserved in
hair and then let out in small streams is National Museum, New Delhi. Credit:
found in the Bhagavata Purana. Rabe!. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Nationalmuseum_Neu-Delhi_2017-
280 12-27y.jpg).
 Environment, Forests and
Water Resources

Sculptural panel of the Pallava period (c. 275-897 CE): “Descent of the Ganga”/ “Arjuna’s
Penance” at Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram, Tamilnadu. Penance of sage Bhagiratha,
or sometimes believed to be Arjuna, brought it to earth. Siva is shown controlling fury of
the descending river through his hair locks. ASI Monument No. N-TN-C32. Credit:
Vairam1976. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Arjuna%E2%80%99s_Penance_4.jpg).

Likewise, Yamuna is linked with Krishna. As stated earlier, he is said to have rid
it from Kaliya serpent. Kaveri/Cauvery is associated with Vishnu. The Vishnu
temple at Terazhundur (Nagapattinam district, Tamilnadu)17 has an image of
personified Kaveri and the 8th century Vishnu temple at Thirucherai (Thanjavur/
Tanjore district, Tamilnadu) shows her in a maternal pose with a child in her lap.

The Puranas also state that a person can attain salvation by bathing in the Ganges
which is regarded as a sacred bridge to the divine.18 As per a legend, an ancient
17
Original structure of the temple is said to have been commissioned by Karikala Chola (1st
century CE) and later additions made by later Cholas during 11th century.
18
Flood, Gavin (1966). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press.
281
Cultural Developments king was resting along the bank of Ganges. Around midnight he saw several
women covered in dirt taking bath in Ganga; they were the incarnations of all
rivers across the length and breadth of Indian subcontinent who cleansed
themselves of the filth left behind by countless pilgrims who bathed in them by
bathing in Ganga. Hence, Ganga is projected here as the grand purifier.19

One can achieve the same goal of emancipation (nirvana/moksha) merely by

looking at the sacred Narmada which is also said to have sprung from the body
of Siva. According to a local proverb, “As wood is cut with a saw, so at the sight
of the holy Narmada do a man’s sins fall flat”.20 Puranic literature emphasizes on
visiting pilgrimage-places (tirthas) on the banks of such holy rivers at least once
in a lifetime. The Kumbha Mela at Prayagraj (confluence of Ganga, Yamuna and
mythical Saraswati), Haridwar (Ganga), Nasik/Nashik (Godavari) and Ujjain/
Ujjayini (Shipra) is revered as a great religious and cultural congregation. Huien
Tsang refers to a grand bathing conglomeration at the ancient river-bank
pilgrimage-site of Prayaga (present-day Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh) in c. 644 CE
during emperor Harsha’s reign. This is held by many as the earliest surviving
historical account of the Kumbha festival.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Examine the approach in the Arthashastra towards forests and foresters.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

18.5 SUMMARY
The ancient Indians possessed a great deal of environmental awareness. They
took pride in biodiversity and ecological wealth around them, such as the
appreciation of nature’s beauty and bounty by Krishna in Bhagavad Gita. There
are also umpteen references in several other texts underlining the ecological
awareness which formed a crucial and integral part of the traditional knowledge-
system of ancient India. They reflect perspectives and concern of the people
towards environmental, forestry and wildlife conservation. Even though its chief
aim is to harness resource potential, the Arthashastra exhibits a holistic knowledge
of biodiversity and prescribes ways and measures to avert and punish injury
caused to it.You also learnt about the eco-zones constituting ancient south India
as described in the Sangam poetry.

It is important to note that forests are an ambiguous category in historical sources

of the period under study. As we have seen, on one hand Kaushalya expresses
her fear regarding Rama’s safety in the forests and on the other Sita finds delight
in her forest abode, Shakuntala held plants and deer of the forest very dear to her

19
Sharma, Mahesh (2006). Tales from the Vedas and Other Scriptures. Delhi: Diamond Pocket
Books.
20
Vegad, Amritlal (2008). Narmada: River of Beauty. Delhi: Penguin.
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and the Bhagavata Purana elaborates on the close relation of Krishna with the Environment, Forests and
Water Resources
forest of Vrindavana.

You are also made familiar with the attitude towards water resources. There was
considerable concern towards agricultural production and this is reflected from
the way irrigation got priority during Gupta period. You learnt about a novel
mechanism known as ghati-yantra. We have also acquainted you with the organic
association of the people of those times with rivers. The socio-economic, cultural
and religious significance of rivers in ancient Indian culture is also highlighted
in this Unit.

18.6 KEY WORDS

Aryavarta: region where the Vedic Aryans settled after their migration into the
Indian subcontinent. It covers parts of north-western and northern India.

Eco-zone: area with its own ecological characteristics such as climate, soil
conditions, organisms etc.

Frescoe: the technique of painting on a moist plaster surface with colours mixed

in water or a limewater mixture; a picture painted in this way.

Mural: a large picture painted or affixed directly on a wall or ceiling.

Puranas: a category of Hindu texts attributed to Vyasa. They are dated to the
Gupta and post-Gupta period. There are 18 Mahapuranas and numerous
Upapuranas (supplements or appendices to the Puranas). Their content indicates
that these were heterogeneous, encyclopedic works of various hands
encompassing multifarious topics. For example, the range of topics covered by
the Agni Purana include ritual worship, cosmology and astrology, mythology,
genealogy, law, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, warfare
and organization of army, theories on proper causes for war, martial
arts, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water distribution methods,
trees and plants, medicine, design and architecture, gemology, grammar, metrics,
poetry, food and agriculture, rituals, geography and travel guide to Mithila (Bihar
and neighboring states), cultural history etc.

Slash and Burn Cultivation: primitive type of agriculture in which trees and
bushes on the hill-slopes are cut down and burnt. Thus, the ground is prepared
and seeds are sown.

Shifting Cultlvation: mode of agriculture in which the plot of cultivation is

shifted periodically. This is to avoid exhaustion of land caused by continuous
use of the same plot.

Smritis: law-books in which social and religious norms were written in verse.
They contain and prescribe rules, regulations and duties for general public as
well as for the kings and their officials. These were composed between c. 200
BCE and c. 900 CE. They set out rules for marriage and property. They also
prescribe punishments for persons guilty of theft, assault, murder, adultery etc.

Tinai: physiographic division of land in early Tamilaham characterized by its

own special ecological factors, social groups and their subsistence pattern.
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Cultural Developments
18.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Section 18.2
2) a) ×, b) , c) , d)
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Section 18.3

18.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chattopadhyaya, B. D. (2017). The State’s Perception of the ‘Forest’ and the
‘Forest’ as State in Early India. In The Concept of Bharatavarsha and Other
Essays. Permanent Black in association with Ashoka University.

Rangarajan, Mahesh and Sivaramakrishnan, K. (Eds.) (2012). India’s

Environmental History: From Ancient Times to the Colonial Period. Permanent
Black.

Sinha Kapur, Nandini (Ed.) (2011). Environmental History of Early India: A

Reader. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

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