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About Sanskrit

Evolution of Sanskrit

History of Literature

Eminent Sanskrit Authors

Adikavi Valmiki

Maharishi Veda Vyasa

Kalidasa

Bhasa

Harsha

Panini

Patanjali

Adi Shankaracharya

Kalhana

Jaideva

Well Known Work in

Children’s Fables

Sanskrit Drama

Sanskrit Poetry

Vedas

Brahmana Granthas

Aranyakas

Vedangas ans Sutra Literature

Upanishads

Epics

Sanskrit and Other Classical Languages

Sanskrit and Modern Indian Languages

Sanskrit and the Sciences

Astronomy

Mathematics

Chemistry

Architecture And Engineering

Medicine

Sanskrit and Metaphysical Subjects

Sanskrit and Humanities

History

Political Economy

Law (Dharamashastra)

Sanskrit and Religion

Buddhism

Jainism

Sanskrit and the Arts

Theatre

Dance

Music

Sculpture

Sanskrit hymns and Subhashitas

Great Personalities

Thus Spake

Subhashitani

Evolution of Sanskrit

Sanskrit is an ancient and classical language of India in which ever first book of
the world Rigveda was compiled. The Vedas are dated by different scholars from 6500
B.C. to 1500 B.C. Sanskrit language must have evolved to its expressive capability
prior to that. It is presumed that the language used in Vedas was prevalent in the
form of different dialects. It was to some extent different from the present
Sanskrit. It is termed as Vedic Sanskrit. Each Veda had its book of grammar known
as Pratishakhya. The Pratishakhyas explained the forms of the words and other
grammatical points. Later, so many schools of grammar developed. During this period
a vast literature -Vedas, Brahmana-Granthas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedangas had
come to existence which could be termed as Vedic Literature being written in Vedic
Sanskrit.

Panini (500 B.C.) was a great landmark in the development of Sanskrit language. He,
concising about ten grammar schools prevalent during his time, wrote the master
book of grammar named Ashtadhyayi which served as beacon for the later period.
Literary Sanskrit and spoken Sanskrit both followed Panini’s system of language.
Today the correctness of Sanskrit language is tested upon the touchstone of
Panini’s Ashtadhyayee.

Sanskrit is said to belong to Indo – Aryan or Indo Germanic family of languages

which includes Greek, Latin and other alike languages. William Jones, who was
already familiar with Greek and Latin, when came in contact with Sanskrit, remarked
that Sanskrit is more perfect than Greek, more copious than Latin and more refined
than either. He said – “Sanskrit is a wonderful language”. It is noteworthy that
though ancient and classical, Sanskrit is still used as medium of expression by
scholars throughout India and somewhere in other parts of the world e.g. America,
and Germany. Sanskrit is included in the list of modern Indian Languages in the
eighth schedule of the constitution of India.

As per the Indian tradition Sanskrit Language has no beginning and no ending. It is
eternal. Self-born God has created it. It is divine. It is everlasting. It was
first used in Vedas and thereafter it has been the means of expression in other
fields.

Sanskrit has been the source of later languages and literature in India. Pali and
Prakrit were first to develop from Sanskrit. Pali was taken as means for exposition
of Buddhistic ideas and Prakrit was used for the spread of Jain doctrines. Most of
the Buddhistic literature is written in Pali and that of Jain cult in Prakrit. A
vast amount of Buddhistic and Jain literature was also written in Sanskrit
simultaneously. Prakrit language had different shades in different parts of India.
So they were named as Paishachi, Shourseni, Magadhi, Ardha – magadhi and
Maharashtri. These Prakrits were used for writing ornate poetry like Gaha
Saptashati and Karpur Manjari and also in Sanskrit drama as dialogues of ladies and
illiterate characters. From each type of Prakrit various Apabhramsha languages
developed bearing the same name as Paishachi Apabhramsha, Shaurseni Apabhramsha and
so on. Modern Indian Languages are developed from these Apabhramsha languages.

Hindi, the official language of India, is developed from Shauraseni Apabhransha. It

is said that all the modern Indian languages used in north part of India are
evolved from Sanskrit and the other Modern Indian Langauges of South India- Tamil,
Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu are evolved from the Dravidian family of languages.
The South Indian MILs are well enriched and nourished by Sanskrit language.

History of Literature

Sanskrit literature is as vast as the human life. There are four aims of human life
which are called Purusharthas. They are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. Dharma
stands for the duties and responsibilities of man. Artha communicates the monetary
necessities, Karma stands for the human desires of all types and Moksha is freedom
from birth and re-birth and worldly involvement. Any and every literature surrounds
these four aims of human life. Sanskrit literature first of all presents Vedas
which are the basis for Dharma. Vedas are the root of Dharma. There are four Vedas
Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samveda, and Atharvaveda. Brahman granthas explain the Vedic
literature and give the detailed process to perform the Yajnas. Aranyakas and
Upanishads discuss the internal meaning of the Vedas and the path of renunciation –
Moksha Purushartha. Pratishakhyas explain the grammatical issues of the Vedas. Six
Vedangas i.e. Shiksha, Vyakarana, Kalpa, Chhandas, Nirukta, and Jyotish help to
understand the Vedas. As per the Indian tradition the Veda is not written by any
author but in fact it is the respiration of God. Veda has been seen by the seers,
the Rishis. Later it was diversified into four Samhitas by the great seer Vyasa.
Some Scholars hold that the Vedas were written by different seers and they
estimated the time of these writings from 6500 BC to 1500 BC. The rest of the Vedic
literature might have been completed before 600 BC.

Valmiki was first to write the worldly poetry; Loka – Kavya. He wrote the Ramayana
the great-epic which had the great impact on the later literature. Even today the
latest poetry is written on the line of Valmiki. The Ramayana was written in 500BC.

The second epic Mahabharata was written by Krishanadwaipayana Vyasa which is known
as encyclopedia of knowledge.

Later the Poets like Kalidasa, Ashvaghosa contributed considerably during the Gupta
period. Bharavi, Bhatti, Kumardasa and Magha – all wrote Mahakaavyas. Harishena and
Vatsabhatti were also prominent writers. Some other divisions of the classical
literature and some names of the classical writers are: Kalhan and Bilhan in the
field of historical Kavyas :Bhartrihari, Amaruka, Bilhana, Jayadeva, Somadeva etc.
are famous as lyric poets. The Brihatkatha, Romantic and Didactic Fables, erotic
poetry, champu kavyas, works on poetics and anthologies, gnomic and didactic poetry
etc. form an unparalled part of Sanskrit literature.

The Scientific Literature covers Lexicography, Metrics, Grammar, Law, Science of

Politics, Love, Philosophy and Religion, Medicine, Astronomy, Astrology and
mathematics etc.

Though lots of Sanskrit literature has seen the light of the day but still much
more Sanskrit literature is lying in the form of manuscripts and waiting for
publication. These MSS are kept in general Sanskrit libraries and in houses of
Sanskrit Scholars whose successors may know or not know the value of the MSS. This
is a huge work to be done.

Eminent Sanskrit Authors

Adikavi Valmiki

Maharishi Veda Vyasa

Kalidasa

Bhasa

Harsha

Panini

Patanjali

Adi Shankaracharya

Kalhana
Jaideva

Adikavi Valmiki

Valmiki is a sage of an excellent power of pen and wisdom. He is called Adikavi

since the moment he cursed an hunter on killing Kraunch bird in a totally original
chhandas. Narada advised Valmiki to write in the same poetic meter the life and
deeds of Rama. Accordingly Valmiki wrote Ramayana, the Adikavya, in seven sections
and 24000 couplets full of the most compelling imagery, idioms and metaphors,
wisdom and nobility. He gave birth to a unique literary and philosophical
masterpiece, one of the greatest works in world literature. Valmiki loved and
respected life in all its splendor and diversity, the birds, the trees, the rivers,
the seasons, forests and even scientific inventions.

Very little is known about the personal life of this sage except that before
becoming a saint he was earning his livelihood as a decoit. One day Rishi Agastya
met him and asked him why he committed such crimes. ‘To support my family’ replied
Mrigavyadha the decoit. ‘Will they be sharing your sins also?’ questioned Agastya’
Mrigvyadha was deeply disappointed when he received the reply in negative by his
parents, his wife and the other members of his family. Shocked and under deep sense
of remorse, he started meditating and went into Samadhi. Ants built their nests
around him and his body took the shape of an ant-hill. God Varuna feeling very much
moved by his condition and his austere penance, washed off the mud and cured his
wounds. Thereafter he was called Valmiki – arising out a Valmika - an ant hill. God
blessed him and called him a sage. The fundamental teaching of the Ramayana is the
sanctity of the institution of the family which is society in miniature.

Ramayana is the source of many other works in other Indian Languages like
Ramacharitamanasa of Tulsidas in Hindi, the Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava
Kandali, Ramayana in Bengali by Krittibas, Ramayana in Marathi by Eknath, Kamba
Ramayana in Tamil by Kamban, Mulla – Ramayana in Telugu by Mulla, Adhyatma Ramayana
in Malaylam by Ramanuja Edutachhan and also in many other Indian and foreign
languages.

Maharishi Veda Vyasa

Maharishi Vedavyasa is that famous a personality who outstands as a representative

of extreme human intelligence and vast ocean like knowledge. He is known to be the
grandson of the sage Vasistha and son of Rishi Parashar. He spent his life on Badri
fruits only in Badrikashram and thus came to be known as Badarayan. He was born in
an island and hence was called Dvaipayana. He was dark in colour and thus acquired
the title of Krishna and since he classified the available knowledge of Veda into
Samhitas, he got the title of Vedavyasa. His mother was Satyawati.

Vyas not only compiled the Samhitas but also the eighteen Puranas. He also wrote
Brahma Sutras and the Bhagwat Puranam – the touch-stone of human knowledge. He
wrote Mahabharata – the great epic which is known as the encyclopedia of knowledge.
It has been written in Mahabharata itself that one who knows the Vedas with all its
Vedangas and Upanishads but does not know Mahabharata cannot be called a learned
scholar (Mahabharata, Adiparvan, 2.235). This epic is not only a story of the
battle between two groups of cousins but is an excellent code of moral conduct. It
is a treasure house of anecdotes, subhashitas and a grand treatise on conflict
management.

It is said that Vyas dictated the script of Mahabharata to Ganesh who wrote it on
bark leaves by breaking one of his tusks. Vyas is also a prominent figure in the
Mahabharata. He was the father of Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura.
Vyas was born on Shukla Purnima of Ashadha month which is worshipped even today in
Indian homes as Guru Purnima. He is worshipped as Guru because of his greatness and
vastness of knowledge. It is said that this whole world is pervaded by Vyasa
(Vyasochchhishtam Jagat Sarvam) and there could definitely be no better an
adjective for him.

Kalidasa

Kalidasa has been the national poet of India and the brightest star in the
firmament of Indian Poetry for the last two thousand years. He has been unanimously
acclaimed as the greatest Sanskrit poet. His genius has been acknowledged,
appreciated and admired by poets, critics and the literary public alike. Kalidasa
enjoys a high rank among global poets like Dante, Goethe, Shakespeare etc. Scholars
are of different opinions regarding his date. Different theories place him anywhere
between 200 BC to 600 AD.

Tradition mentions Kalidasa as a contemporary and court poet of King Vikramaditya

who founded an era known after his name, commencing with 57 B.C. Hence, most of the
scholars opine that Kalidasa flourished in First Century B.C.

Works
There are about 41 works which are attributed to Kalidasa but the following seven
world famous works are undoubtedly composed by him: two Lyric Poems: Ritusamhara
and Meghaduta; two Mahakavyas : Kumarasambhavam and Raghuvamsham;. Three Plays:
Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam and abhijnanashakuntalam.

Ritusamhara, a lyrical poem appears to be the first work of the young poet. Here,
the natural, scenic and floral beauty of six seasons, viz., the grishma (summer),
varsha (rainy), sharad (autumn), hemanta (dewy), shishira (winter) and vasanta
(spring) is picturesquely described.

Kalidasa has introduced a new genre of lyrical poetry by composing Meghaduta in

Mandakranta meter, wherein an exiled love - lorn yaksha at mountain Ramagiri
delivers his sandesha-message to his beloved darling residing in Alakapuri (in
mountain Kailasa) through a cloud – messenger. On the pattern and imitation of
Meghaduta more than one hundred Sandesha-Kavyas have been composed mostly in
Mandakranta metre but none equals Meghaduta.

In Kumarasambhava, the poet has described the penance of Parvati to win Shiva’s
love, their wedlock finally resulting in the birth of Kumara Karttikeya, the
warrior god who killed demon Taraka.

In Raghuvamsha, the poet has dealt with the heroic deeds of the solar dynasty of
the ancient Indian barons in 19 cantos. It begins with the description of King
Dilipa and ends with the narrative of Agnivarna. It abounds in beautiful
descriptions and narratives, to name a few, go-seva by Dilipa, Raghu’s digvijaya,
Indumati-svayamvara, Aja-vilapa, etc.

Malavikagnimitram is an intrigue drama which is based on the love-story of Malavika

and King Agnimitra. Vikramorvashiyam is based on the love story of the celestial
nymph Urvashi and King Pururavas. Abhijnana-shakuntalam is the best amongst all the
plays written in Sanskrit till today. Its plot has been taken from Mahabharata and
Padmapurana. Kalidasa through his fancy and adeptness in introducing new elements
in the main plot, adds the episode of the curse on Shakuntala by sage Durvasas
which lends additional charm to the love-story of Shakuntala and King Dushyanta.
This also elevates the character of the hero.

Kalidasa, a peerless poet par excellence, was acquainted with and affluent in
various systems of Philosophy, several schools of religious beliefs Law and Polity,
Economics, Dramaturgy, Erotics, sixty-four arts including music and fine arts,
Zoology and Plant-science too. Numerous references to all the aforementioned vidyas
are so efficiently included in his works that they bring forth the high expertise
of the poet.

Kalidasa’s poetic genius has brought Sanskrit poetry to the highest elegance and
refinement. His style is pure and chaste. It is unartificial and marked by brevity,
simplicity of expression and easy flowing language characterise his works. His
writings are adorned with similies unparalleled for their charm and
appropriateness. He is a poet of Nature. He has delineated everything related to
culture and society prevalent in his times. According to one eulogy while once the
poets were being counted, Kalidasa (as being the first) occupied the last finger.
But the ring-finger remained true to its name (anamika = nameless), since his equal
has not yet been found (by whom it could be occupied).

This truly testifies his popularity and sovereignty. Numerous honours and titles
have been conferred upon him, viz. Kavikulaguru, Kavikulashiromani, Dipashikha
Kalidasa, the Shakespeare of India, etc. Kalidasa is capable of winning the heart
of any connoisseur of literary taste on earth. He, through his writings is a true
representative of India and Indian culture.

Bhasa

Bhasa was the first great dramatist whose complete dramas are now available to the
world. In the year 1910, Mahamahopadhyaya T. Ganapathi Shastri of Travancore
discovered a collection of 13 plays with a similarity of expression and
construction and declared them as the compositions of one single author, Bhasa. It
is certain that this well known dramatist was a predecessor of Kalidasa. The
greatest Sanskrit poet Kalidasa mentions his name with respect in the prelude to
his first drama, the Malavikagnimitram. Some scholars place him in 2nd or 3rd
century A.D. between Ashwaghosha and Kalidasa. Probably Bhasa was a devotee of Lord
vishnu.

Bhasa derives his plots from the great epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, from the
Purana Shrimadbhagavata and most probably from Brihatkatha of Gunadhya. The
thirteen plays of Bhasa are as follows:

The one act plays, based on Mahabharata are – Pancharatram, Dootavakyam,

Madhyamavyayogam, Dutaghatotkacham, Karnabharam and Urubhangam.

Dramas, based on Ramayana are - Praitimanatakam and Abhishekanatakam, one is based

on Shrimadbhagavatam is Balacaritam and the others based on Brihatkatha are
Pratijnayaugandharayanam and Svapnavasavadattam. Avimarakam and Daridracharudattam
are based on Lokakathas.

Bhasa was a born-dramatist. He has presented various models of Sanskrit drama, such
as Prakarana and Bhana (one act play) etc. In all his small dramas, the poet has
succeeded in making them extraordinarily dramatic.

Bhasa\'s Svapnavasavadattam is a masterpiece of Sanskrit literature. According to

Acharya Rajashekhara, Svapnavasavadattam was the only drama which proved itself
non-combustible in the fire of criticism. Svapnavasavdattam, means \'the Dream of
Vasavadatta who meets her husband Udayana in a dream\'. The plot has probably been
taken from the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya. From the point of view of stage-
performance, Bhasa’s plays are magnificent.

Harsha

Harsha, also known as Harshavardhana, the second son of Prabhakarvardhana and

younger brother of Rajyavardhana ruled a large empire in Northern India from 606 to
647 A.D. He was an orthodox Hindu but later became Buddhist convert. Emperor Harsha
himself was a great scholar who patronised and sponsored many poets like Banabhatta
and Mayura. We come to know his life-history from the famous work Harshacharitam
composed by Banabhatta, the foremost Sanskrit prose writer.

Harsha is the composer of three Sanskrit works : Nagananda, Ratnavali and

Priyadarshika. The first one is a nataka whereas the remaining two are natikas.

The Nagananda is a play in five acts which describes the self-sacrifice of

Jimutavahana, prince of Vidyadharas. Besides the main theme, there is an
interesting sub-plot in the drama in which hero\'s love for Malayavati has been
depicted.

The Ratnavali, Harsha\'s masterpiece is a natika in four acts which deals with the
story of the union of king Udayana and Ratnavali, daughter of the king of Ceylon.

Later dramaturgists like Dhananjaya etc. regard Ratnavali and Priyadarshika as

standard Sanskrit dramas.

The Priyadarshika is also a natika in four acts, having for its theme the union of
Udayana and Priyadarshika, daughter of King Dridhavarman. In both these dramas,
there is not only a similarity of subject matter and form but also a reminiscence
of Kalidasa\'s Malvikagnimitram. The noteworthy feature of the Priyadarshika is the
effective introduction of a play which is technically called garbhanka, as an
integral part of the action.

Numerous illustrations from both the natikas Ratnavali and Priyadarshika have been
amply cited by later dramaturgists and are popular amongst teachers and students of
drama and dramaturgy.

Panini

Panini is, today, recognised all over the world as the greatest model of human
intelligence. Though India had a long tradition of grammarians but the final
codification of Sanskrit language is ascribed to Panini only whose grammar has
remained normative for its correct usage ever since. Panini\'s Ashtadhyayi is the
oldest complete grammar available but the maturity, depth, and brevity, as found in
it, is a proof in itself that this work is a link in the long chain of grammatical
works. Panini himself has mentioned the names of ten grammarians – Apishali,
Kashyapa, Gargya, Galava, Chakraverman, Bharadwaj, Shakatayana, Shakalya, Shonaka
and Sphotayana.

Panini\'s Ashtadhyayi contains 4000 sutras presented in eight chapters of four

quarters each. It is remarkable that the text has come down to us intact without
any interpolation. Ashtadhyayi is written in sutra style. A sutra has to be brief,
precise and unambiguous. The sutras have to be interpreted within their shared
context. Thus sutra is not an independent statement. Panini\'s many sutras contain
references to a living speech. He has discussed the peculiarities in the usage of
the language by easterners and northerners.

The starting points of this great work are the famous Maheshwara Sutras in which
the sounds have been broadly divided into three categories – Swara, Antastha and
Vyanjana. These sounds have been presented in a remarkably scientific system.

Panini\'s contribution towards formation of words is superb. He catagories the

words in two main groups i.e. \'Subanta\' and \'tinganta\', and bases the verb
forms on ten lakaras, three persons and three numbers, Thus every root can be
conjugated into ninety inflectional forms and could take care of almost all the
modes, aspects and voices. Similarly every Subanta could have theoretically twenty
four forms based on eight cases and three numbers. The roots are grouped into ganas
and the members of a particular gana constitute similar forms. The nouns are
declined according to the last varna in a particular gender, Panini believes that
the total sentence is an indivisible unit (Vakyaikyah) and the word is lame without
its usage in a sentence. Sometimes nouns are also used as verbs. There are separate
rules governing case - endings regarding the relationship of subject with the
object and with other words used in the sentence. Panini\'s Ashtadhyayi has been
the sole refuge for later grammarians like Katyayana, Patanjali and many others.

As regards the personal life of Panini, it has been gathered from various external
sources that the names of his parents were Panin and Dakshi. He was born at
Shalatur village near Peshawar and pursued his studies at Takshashila University.
His date could be fixed anywhere in 500 B.C. The saying that \'Sanskrit is best
fitted for Computer\' owes its origin to the great sage Panini.

Patanjali

The word Patanjali has been explained as Patantyah Anjalaya yasmai i.e. one for
whom the hands are folded as a mark of respect. Patanjali has been regarded as a
great sage and referred to by many names such as Gonardiya, Phani, Adhipati,
Sheshraja etc. According to a legend, he is considered to be an incarnation of
Sheshanaga. Patanjali was an expert of at least three branches of Sanskrit studies
namely yoga, vyakarana, and ayurveda. An ancient verse regards him as a sage who
cleansed dirtiness of mind with yoga, of speech with grammar and of the body with
ayurveda. Thus Patanjali contributed immensely towards the science of meditation,
science of language and science of medicines.

Patanjali’s Yogasutra is the main basic work of Ashtangayoga Philosophy. The eight
angas are Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi.
‘Yoga’ is the control of the senses and the states of chitta. When the mind becomes
pure, the chances of its being ruffled by external disturbances are generally
reduced.

Patanjali’s Mahabhashya is yet another milestone. It is the first and oldest

existing commentary on the Ashtadhyayi of Panini. Dealing with 1228 rules of
Panini, it has remained supremely authoritative and furnishes the last and final
word in all cases of serious doubts ever raised over grammatical issues. Katyayana
wrote a number of vartikas to supplement Paninian rules but Patanjali proved their
futility and supported Panini. In short, it is an encyclopedic work of this branch.
In addition to this, it is flooded with brilliant quotations the number of which
may exceed 700. The whole discussion is presented in conversational style of
question – answer or objection – refutation etc. It is quite evident that Sanskrit
was the spoken language at that time. The theory of gravitation has first been
explained in Mahabhashya only.

The work on medicines Nidan sutras or Samvediya-Nidan Sutras is also accepted as

the real contribution of Patanjali to the science of medicines.

Some other works attributed to him are Mahanada, Charak – parishkara, Siddhanta –
sarawali, paramartha – sar and lok shastra.

Patanjali belonged to a place called Gonarda which could be Gonda Pradesh of U.P.or
a part of Kashmir. Nothing is known about his parentage. He received his education
at Takshashila and taught students at Pataliputra. If Patanjali is accepted as
contemporary to king Pushyamitra then he may be placed around second century B.C.

Adi Shankaracharya
Adi Shankaracharya was not just a philosopher or a scholar. In fact he was a man of
amazing energy combining in him a mystic, a saint, a scholar, a poet and above all
a practical reformer and an able organizer.

Shankara was born in Kalady village in Kerala. Various evidences prove his date as
509 BC to 477 BC. His mother Aryamba was a pious devotee of Lord Shiva. His father
Shiv Guru left him when he was only three years old. At the age of five only he had
studied all the Vedas and Vedangas. Staying at Gurukul, he went to beg alms from a
house. The lady was so poor that she could only give a dry Amla and she felt very
sorry for it. Shankara prayed to Goddess Lakshmi who showered gold coins in the
shape of Amla. This stotra a known as Kanakadhara stotra. At the age of seven he
returned from Gurukul and wanted to renounce the world, but his mother denied. He
entered a river and shouted that a crocodile had caught him and would only release
him if he is permitted to renounce the world. The helpless mother granted him the
permission for renunciation with the promise that he would perform her last rites.
Thus Shankara left and on the way crossed rivers, hills, forests, towns, meeting
varied personalities and limitless varieties of the creation experiencing the
Brahman-the ultimate reality in every tiny living and non-living creature. He came
across a cave in which Govinda Bhagwadpad was deeply engrossed in Samadhi. The cave
was on the bank of the river Narmada and its flooding waters started entering the
cave. Shankara adjusted a pot in such a way that the water could not enter the
cave. Ultimately Govinda initiated him into Sanyasa and taught him the four
Mahavakyas – Tat tvamasi, Prajnanam Brahma, Aham Brahmasmi and Ayamatma Brahma.
Here Shankar attained Siddhis through Yoga and meditation and obtained super
natural powers.

From here he visited Kashi and from there went to Badari Dham and wrote the
Brahmasutra Bhashya. From here he was proceeding towards Kedar – ashram where he
saw Kumarila Bhatt trying to immolate himself in fire as a revenge for his own act
of denying the existence of God. Kumarila requested Shankar to meet Mandan Mishra
and make him his disciple who will propogate the philosophy of Vedanta. Unable to
save Kumarila, Shankara went to Mandana Mishra’s house and defeated him and his
wife Sharda in Shastrartha. Acharya Mandan Mishra got engrossed in the propagation
of Vedanta. From here Shankar proceeded towards Shri Shailam. Here he got the news
of his mother’s death and true to his promise, he went and performed her last
rites. To establish geographical, historical and spiritual integrity in India he
established four mathas in four directions of the country – Jyotirmath in North,
Govardhan Math at Puri in east, Shringeri Matha in Karnataka in south and Dwarika
math in Gujarat in west and established Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham at Kanchi as his
abode.

Shankara in the short span of his life (only 32 years), wrote Bhashya on Upanishad
and Gita. He also composed 240 stotras, prakaran granthas, introductory books such
as Upadesh Sahasri, Vivek Chudamani, Aparokshanubhuti etc., in all eighty books in
number.

He spent his last moments in the worship of Bhagwati Kamakshi at Kanchipuram and
left his body at the young age of thirty two only.

Not only the land of India but also the entire world today bows before Adi
Shankara’s wisdom, intellect and the principles that he enunciated and the empire
of spirit that he established. In fact, he is the brightest luminary in the galaxy
of ancient Indian thinkers. In fact he was the first torch-bearer of national
integration functioning on the intellectual, philosophical and religious plans,
trying to bring about a perfect unity of thought all over India.

Kalhana

Kalhana is one poet who composed the first and the best historical Kavya
Rajatarangini which portrays the history of Kashmir. It has covered the entire
period of developments from 1300 B.C. to 1150 A.D.

Rajatarangini contains eight tarangas (wave). He has surveyed the royal collections
with the kings, puranas, various inscriptions, anthologies, seals and coins to make
his work more and authentic. The Kavya starts with one King Govinda of 1300 BC and
contains the most authentic chronological descriptions of various prominent
incidents. He has not only mentioned the qualities of the kings but also their
immoral acts as well. The main objective of this work is the propagation of
morality. He has appreciated the prevalent religious tolerance in the various sects
of Kashmir. Hindus and Muslims worked together without ever having a tinge of
enmity. He has specially opposed the kings who ever tried to disturb this unity. He
has bitterly criticized the greedy priests, indisciplined soldiers and wicked
officials. He has showered praises on the pious ambitions of Rani Chidda.

This poetic work contains beautiful figures of speech and is written mostly in
Anushtubh meter.

Kalhana was a resident of Kashmir. His father Champak was a true follower of King
Harsha of Kashmir. After the assassination of the King, Champaka left politics and
thus Kalhana also was deprived of the royal grace.

Kalhana was a Shaiva but also appreciated Buddhism. He started writing this work in
1148 AD and completed it in nearly three years.

He has spared no pains in collecting the precious material and evidences. He

deserves all credit for being the composer of such an excellent historical
Mahakavya.

Jaideva

Jaideva is an extremely popular lyric poet and his famous Geeti Kavya Geeta Govinda
has influenced the later poets, painters and dancers to base their performances on
this beautiful work. This Kavya describes the pious love of Radha and Krishna which
represents the bondage of Atman with Paramatman. Jaideva was a devotee of Krishna.
He has described Krishna and Radha leelas in such a beautiful language that every
syllable of it resounds musically when recited. It abounds in rhythmically matching
groups of words. Even the long compounds can be tuned perfectly to create a soft
musical effect. Every song is composed in fixed Raga and tala. These songs are sung
in the whole of India at special occasions and festivals. It is the best lyric
Kavya of Sanskrit Literature. It has a beautiful combination of poetry and
dialogues which gives it a dramatic effect. Some western scholars treat it as
musical drama.

Jaideva was a poet in the court of Raja Laxman Sen of Bengal who flourished in 12th
Century A.D. His work has touched the heart of every Indian Bhakta of Krishna.

Well Known Work in

Children’s Fables

Sanskrit Drama

Sanskrit Poetry

Vedas
Brahmana Granthas

Aranyakas

Vedangas ans Sutra Literature

Upanishads

Epics

Children’s Fables

Fables are the tales written for innocent children to impart knowledge of politics,
economics, worldly wisdom and other day today gimmicks. Their theme is the
attainment of three ends of life i.e. Dharma, Artha and Kama and not Moksha. They
are in narrative form and usually the animals and birds feature in them. They have
been made up to behave and speak like human beings. There is a main story and other
short stories are interwoven into it. These highlight human follies and weaknesses.
Generally the whole story is in prose but the moral or the lesson derived from them
is usually given in verses. In Sanskrit literature Panchatantra and Hitapadesh are
the most popular works of this style.

Panchatantra

Panchatantra is the oldest work available in its original form. On the basis of
internal and external clues its time can be fixed as 300 BC. It has been largely
influenced by the Arthashastra of Kautilya.

Vishnusharma is the author of Panchatantra. It was written by him to instruct the

three dull Princes of King amarkirti of Mahilaranya. As the name itself denotes
Panchatantra is divided into five chapters – ‘Tantra’. ‘Tantra’ means the secrets.
Five secrets of good administration, kingship and worldly wisdom have been
expounded with the help of the animal fables. There is a quaint humour in these
fables because the animals are made to discuss dharma, gods, myths, legends,
politics, economics, ethics etc.

These five tantras are Mitrabheda (separation of friends), Mitrasamprapti (union of

friends), Kokolukiya (peace and war), Labdhapranasha (loss of what is gained). And
aparikshitkarakam (doing things without pre-examination). Each division of
Panchatantra has its main story but many others have been interwoven to prove the
main one. The whole story of Panchatantra is in prose but the moral of the story
has been given in the form of verses.

The language of Panchatantra is very easy and simple. The sentences are very small
and easy to understand. The figures of speech used are Anuprasa, Upama, Rupaka,
Utpreksha etc.

The truth of life given here is true for all places and for all times.

The Panchatantra is very popular not only in India but in other countries also as
is evident from its 250 editions written in about fifty languages in and outside
India.

Hitopadesha

The most important of all the editions of the Panchatantra is Hitopadesha. It is

full of good advice imparted through stories. It has been written by Narayan Pandit
in about 1400 AD. under the patronage of King Dhawalchandra of Bengal. The poet
himself has accepted that Hitopdesha is based on Panchatantra.

Panchatantra has five ‘Tantras’ but Hitopdesha has only four – Mitralabha (wining
of friends), suhridbheda (loss of friends), vigraha (war) and sandhi (peace). Here
the order of the first two chapters has been reversed and third chapter of
Panchatantra has been divided into two and in these two chapters the contents of
the Vth chapter have been inserted. Out of forty three stories in Hitopadesha
twenty five have been drawn from Panchatantra.

Hitopadesha is a manual of politics for Kings in internal and foreign policy. It

has many portions which are an embodiment of deep rooted political knowledge. Here
the influence of Kamandaka’s Nitisara is evident.

The language of Hitopadesha is simple end easy flowing without any embellishment
yet it is forceful and effective.

Hitopadesha has been much more popular in India and Europe and has been translated
in many Indian and foreign languages.

Sanskrit Drama

Drama or \'Naatya\' is considered as a most beautiful part of Sanskrit literature.

The earliest forms of dramatic literature in India are represented by Samvada –
Suktas (hymns which contain dialogues) of Rigveda. Bharata muni is the founder of
the Science of music and dramaturgy. His Natyashastra, with an encyclopedic
character, is the earliest known book on Sanskrit dramaturgy. The first chapter of
Natyashastra relates to the origin of drama. The gods under the leadership of
Indra, expressed their desire for some sort of drishya (enjoyable by the eye)
Shravya ( delightful to the ear) and Kridanaka (entertainment to fulfil the
desire). Brahma created a fifth Veda – Natyaveda, taking the elements from four
vedas – Pathya (dialogue or text) from Rigveda, gita (music) from Samaveda,
abhinaya (acting) from Yajurveda and rasa (emotions) from Atharvaveda.
Amritamanthan and Tripurdaha were the first two plays, which were staged on the
occasion of Flag-ceremony of Indra.

Bharatmuni and his disciples brought this art on the earth from heaven.

\'Rupaka\' is the general term in Sanskrit for all dramatic compositions. \'Natya\'
is another wider term for the drama. Sanskrit dramaturgy has classified dramas into
two types the major and the minor ones (uparupaka). The rupak is divided into ten
classes – Natak, Prakarana, Bhana, Prahasana, Dima, Vyayoga, Samavakara, Vithi,
Anka, and Ihamriga. There are eighteen classes of uparupakas. Most important of
them are Natika, Sattaka and Trotaka.

Vastu (the plot), neta (the hero) and rasa (the sentiments) are the essential
constituents of a drama or rupak. The plot of a rupak may be borrowed from history
or tradition, or may be fictitious or mixed. The characteristic features of the
Sanskrit drama, are –

Absance of tragedy – Sanskrit drama never has a sad ending. It is a mixed

composition, in which joy is mingled with sorrow. Love is the main theme of most of
the dramas and vidushak is the constant companion of the hero in his love affairs.

The interchange of lyrical stanzas with prose dialogue.

The use of Sanskrit and prakrit languages. Sanskrit is employed by the heroes,
kings, Brahmanas and men of high rank, Prakrit by all women and men of the lower
classes.
Every Sanskrit play begins with a prologue or introduction, which opens with a
prayer – nandi and ends with Bharata – vakya.

The best productions of the Sanskrit are the compositions of the great dramatists –
Bhasa, Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Shudrak, Vishakhadatta and Rajeshekhar.

Sanskrit Poetry

Sanskrit is the oldest language of the world. Since Sanskrit literature has come
down to us through oral tradition called the Shruti Parampara, the maximum number
of works are in poetry only. Starting from the Rigveda, the earliest document in
world literature, there is a continuous flow of Sanskrit works in poetry. The three
Vedas – Rik, Sama and the Atharva are composed in verses. The Upanishads are all
written in poetry form. Our great epics Ramayana in 24000 couplets and Mahabarata
in one lakh couplets are in verses only. All the eighteen Puranas, Vishnu,
Bhagwatam, Narad, Garud, Padma, Varah, Brahma, Brahmanda, Brahma Vaivarta,
Markandeya, Bhavishya and Vaman, Shiva, Linga, Skanda, Agni, Matsya and Kurma are
composed in verses.

The puranas are followed by the great Mahakavyas. Buddacharitam and Saunderananda
are earliest in this line written by Ashvaghasha. Kalidasa’s Raghuvansham and
Kumarsambhavam are the great works of world fame. Bharavi’s (6th cent. A.D.)
Kiratarjuniyam in eighteen cantos is famous for its depth of expression. Bhatti’s
Ravanavadham (6th cent. A.D.) in 22 cantos excels in the use of grammar rules.
Kumardasa’s Janaki Haranam in 20 cantos is based on Ramayana.

Magha’s Shishupal-vadham has influenced all the later poets by his excellent usage
of words. He flourished in 7th century A.D. Shriharsha’s Naishadhiyacharitam is
based on a story from Mahabharata. It is said that the glow of stars like Bhairavi
and Magha faded down on the rise of the sun like Naishadha Kavya.

There is a long series of other Kavyas like Ratnakar’s Harivijaya, Kshemendra’s

Dashavataracharitam, Shrikanthacharitam by Mankha and many others.

The historical works also are available in verses. The famous ones are
Vikramankadevacharitam by Bilhan, Rajatarangini by Kalhan, Kumarpalacharitam by
Hemchandra and many others.

A huge amount of literature exists in the form of Khanda Kavyas, Giti Kavyas,
Muktakas and stotra – kavyas. The famous ones are Ritusamhar and Meghadootam by
world famous poet Kalidasa, Geeta Govinda by Jaideva, Bilhana’s Chaur-panchashika,
Bhartrihari’s Shatakatrayam, Amaru-shatakam, and stotras by Adi Shankaracharya and
Pushpadanta.

Even in ancient times there was a long tradition of story telling. There are
voluminous works in the form of collection of stories written in verses. In
Panchatantra and Hitopadesha, the morals of the stories have been written in
verses.

The most popular works are Brihat Katha Manjari by Kshemendra containing 7500
verses, Kathasaritasagara by Somadeva written in 24000 couplets, Vaitala-pancha-
vimshtika available in both the forms i.e. poetry and prose.

A third form of literature came into existence known as champu kavyas written in
mixed style of prose and poetry. Some of the works are Yashastilakchampu, Bharata
champu etc. More than 500 champu kavyas are available till date. The greatest
speciality of Sanskrit Literature is that topics like law, medicine, astronomy,
grammar, poetics, politics, mathematics, philosophy etc have also been written in
verses only. Some of the renowned works are the various Smrities (law), Charaka-
samhita, Sushruta Samhita (medicines), Aryabhatiyam(astronomy), Arthashastra
(political economy), Sahitya-darpanam, Rasagangadhara, Dhvanyaloka (poetics) and
Natyashastra (dramaturgy) etc.

The flow of Sanskrit poetry continues till date. Some of the famous poets of the
21st century are Srinivas Ratha, Ramakant Shukla, Satyavrata Shastri,
Bhaskaracharya Tripathi, Shrikrishna Semwal, Om Prakash Thakur, Ganesh Dutt Sharma
and many others. Annual Kavi Sammalens are organized by Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan
and the various other Sanskrit Academies of India.

Vedas

‘Vedas’ are the most ancient literary compositions in the world literature. They
are the treasure-house of Indian civilization, culture and philosophy. The word
‘Veda’ means ‘knowledge’. It has been derived from root vid ‘to know’ to exist, to
gain, to think etc.’ It is through the Vedas that we learn about the extra-ordinary
ways to attain the desired ends to avoid the undesirable ones. The Vedas are the
treasure chest of knowledge in which each and every subject has been dealt with
extensively be it philosophy, theosophy, ecology, astrology, astronomy, science or
poetics. That is why it has been rightly said ‘sarvjnanamayo hi sah’.

Vedas approach nature not as an object of enjoyment and exploitation but as ‘Mother
Goddess’ Vedic seers believed in universal brotherhood and fraternity. According to
the vedic thought, the entire cosmos is teleological, purposive and goal oriented.
The built in Rita sustains controls and directs the entire world. The Vedas
emphasize participatory living in a community. Move together. Speak with one voice.
Try to understand each others mind-advise the Vedas . Vedic messages are universal
in nature.

The most important texts are the four collections which are called the ‘vedas’ or
the ‘samhitas’. They are four – Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda
respectively.

Rigveda
The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest and the most important one in Vedic Literature.
As is evident from its name itself, it comprises the glorification of various gods.
These gods represent natural and cosmic phenomena which have been idolized as Gods.

The priest of Rigveda is known as ‘Hota’ because his main function is the
invocation of these deities. These invocations are known as hymns, mantras or
richas.

Rigveda is globally accepted to be the oldest literary work yet no definite date
has been ascribed to its scripting. According to some scholars it has been scripted
between 1200 and 1000 B.C. while according to others, this period is between 4000
and 2500 B.C.

Although twenty one recensions of Rigveda have been mentioned yet only five are
more popular – Shakala, Vashkala, Ashvalayana, Sankhyayana and Mandukayana. Out of
these five also, only Shakala is available. According to Shakala recension, 10600
hymns of the Rigveda have been divided into 1028 suktas which further have been
divided in ten mandalas. II to VII mandalas are the oldest ones and are similar in
many ways. They have been named as ‘Family Books (Parivarika Pustakas)’ because
they are attributed each one to a family of seers. They are Gritsamada,
Vishwamitra, Vamdeva, Atri, Bhardwaja and Vasistha. Both I and VIII mandalas have
some similarities and some dissimilarities also. Hence the first mandala has been
put just before the ‘Family Books’ and the VIII just after them. In IX mandala all
the suktas have been offered to soma. The X mandala is relatively later. ‘Who is
the creator of this creation, how was it created, what was the material out of
which it was created, what becomes of us after leaving this mundane world’ all
these philosophical queries have been dealt with here. There are some suktas which
throw ample light on the beliefs, traditions and customs of the Vedic Aryans.

The Rigvedic religion was originally polytheistic but gradually it became

monotheistic. Indra being the god of power, rain and also the synonym of the sun
was the most important. Next comes Agni who is the priest and the mediator between
men and gods. Some of the other gods and goddesses who have been eulogized are
Soma, Savitr, Surya, Rudra, Mitra, Varuna, Vishnu, Ushas, Vak etc. In fact these
were the divine manifestations of one great power only.

Vedic Aryans had very practical and optimistic approach towards life. There was no
idol worship in those days.

‘E-kam sad viprah bahudha vadanti’ i.e. the truth is one but is called by many
names.

Samveda
Samveda means ‘Veda of chants’ . It is a collection of hymns largely drawn from the
Rigveda which have been given a musical mode. Hence Samveda is a system of
melodious chanting of vedic hymns . The vedic hymns are fruitful only when chanted
in rhythm with proper high and low notes called ‘swara’ It is the vibrations
created that give value to the hymns. It has been rightly said that musicology is
synonymous to sama ‘gitishu samakhaya’ moreover, the priest of Samveda is called
‘Udgatri’ a singer, who pleases the gods with melodious hymns of Samveda. The use
of ‘Jagati ’ & ‘Gayatri’ metres derived from the root gai-to sing also justify the
conclusion.

Samveda is said to have one thousand recessions ‘Sahsravartma Samvedah’ but today
only three- Kauthum, Jaiminiya & Ranayaniya recessions are available out of which
the ‘Kauthum’ is the most popular.

Samveda has two divisions- purvarchika and Uttararchika. Total mantras are 1875.
Except seventy five mantras all have been taken from the Rigveda. There are 650
mantras in Purvarchika divided in six ‘Prapathkas’. The first five ‘ Prapathakas’
are called ‘Gramgana’ while the last and the sixth is called ‘Aranyagana.

Uttararchika has 1225 mantras divided in four hundred songs. Each song has three
mantras in average. According to the other division ‘Uttararchika’ has been divided
in nine ‘ Prapathakas’ which have twenty one chapters. Each sukta further has 2-3
mantras.

Mantras are uttered together with their swaras. Each swara of each letter in the
veda is fixed and maintained. Thus the text could be preserved for generations
together. For all swaras, the basis is sound (nada) which can be characterized with
variance – high, low and middle tone. The pronunciation of the letters are based on
six factors - varna, swara, matra, balam, sama and santana.

There are seven musical notes- Shadaja (Sa), Rishabha (Re), Gandhara (Ga), Madhyama
( Ma), Panchama (Pa), Dhaiwata (Dha), and Nishada (Ni)

To convert the hymns of the Rigveda into melodious melodies of the Samveda, some
changes are made called ‘Samavikara’

The importance of Samveda is immense. It is the main origin of musicology. In fact

gandharvaveda which has given birth to about sixteen thousand musical notes and
their modifications has been deduced from Samveda only. In fact music is the living
symbol of Vedic civilization.

Yajurveda
Yajurveda is the veda of ‘yajush’. Yajush means worship and sacrifice. It contains
sacrificial formulas in prose . This Samhita was meant for ‘Adhvaryuh’, the priest
who was responsible for the sacrificial fire and carrying out of the ceremonies.

Just as the main function of ‘Hota’ the priest of Rigveda is to invoke various gods
similarly to perform ritual ceremonies practically for those gods was the sole
responsibility of ‘Adhvaryuh’ the priest of the Yajurveda. If the Rigveda is
theory, Yajurveda is practical. If the Rigveda is related to knowledge, the
Yajurveda is related to action. ‘Which mantras should be chanted for achieving the
desired object, what type of offering should be offered, how big and of what shape
should be the altar, all this practical knowledge is the subject matter of
Yajurveda .

The Vedic yajna has both an inner and outer form. The outer form involved the
priests and offerings. The inner rituals proceeded through speech, mind-breath, and
soul and thus was a matter of yogic practice and meditation. Yajna was considered
to be the naval of the universe, the central point of the whole cosmos.

In fact all the three Vedas are complementary and interdependent. The Rigveda
contains the mantras offered to various gods, the Samveda teaches how to chant them
correctly with proper high & low notes while the Yarjurveda explains the
sacrificial acts accompanying the same . Thus Rigveda is related to knowledge, the
Samveda to devotional sentiments and the Yajurveda to action.

Patanjali , the author of Mahabhashya has made a mention of one hundred recensions
of Yajurveda but presently only six are available. Yajurveda has two divisions -
krishna (Black) and shukla (White). Taittiriya, Maitrayani, Kathaka & Kapishthala
belong to Black Yajurveda while Kanva and Madhyandina are related to the white
Yajurveda.

White (shukla) Yajurveda is mostly used in northern part of India and Black
(Krishna ) Yajurveda is more popular in southern part of India. Shukla Yajurveda is
known by the name of Vajasaneyi Samhita also. It has forty chapters which describe
different ‘yajnas’ in detail. 34th chapter is the famous shivasankalpasukta, while
the 40th chapter is popularly known as Ishopanishad.

It is noteworthy that the main theme of Yaujrveda is to expound different

sacrificial acts. The mantras are mainly from the Rigveda but the explanations
pertaining to sacrifices are in prose. Moreover , the whole mantra has not been
drawn, only a part of it has been taken like ‘Agnaye Swaha’ ‘Indraya Swaha’. From
the Shataraudriya of Shukla Yajurveda started the tradition of eulogizing one god
by different names. Yajurveda emphasizes the moral and the social responsibilities
for a human being and from here starts the ecology .

Thus the place of Yajurveda is very important in Vedic literature.

Atharvaveda
Atharvaveda is the fourth and the last Veda. It stands apart from other Vedas in as
much it lays more emphasis on expounding the means essential for making the life
comfortable and happy.

Atharvaveda contains a collection of hymns, magic spells and incantations that

represent the beliefs, faiths, traditions, conservations and customs of the masses.
It contains a very high level of scientific knowledge also. Love for the country
and mother earth is reflected in many suktas.
The Atharvaveda means the Veda of the Atharvas or the knowledge of magic formulas.
‘Atharvangirasa’ is the oldest name for Atharvaveda which means the veda of
Atharvas and Angirasas. The hymns of the first part relate to prevention and cure
of diseases warding off natural and supernatural ills, gaining of health, strength
and success while the other part relates to subjugation, seduction, eradication
etc.

Atharvaveda is mentioned to have nine recensions by Acharya Patanjali but today

only two are available- Shaunaka and pippalada. The former is more popular for all
practical purposes.

The Atharvaveda consists of about 6000 mantras divided in 730 Suktas which further
have been arranged in twenty ‘Kandas’. About 1200 mantras have been taken from the
Rigveda. All the hymns of twentieth ‘Kanda’ have been picked from the Rigveda.

Some of the special Suktas of this Veda are ‘Bhaishajyani Suktas’ in which number
of diseases, their signs and symptoms and treatments have been given. The ‘Aayushya
Suktas’ contain prayers for long life and sound health. In ‘Paushtika Suktas’ there
are prayers for the welfare and prosperity of farmers, businessmen, cattle grazers,
labourers etc. and for the safety of the animals also. In fact the Veda contains
medicinal treatment, surgery, yajna-therapy, naturopathy, mantra and tantra therapy
and mani-bandhan therapy.

‘Shringara Suktas’ also called the ‘Prasada Suktas’ are prayers for providing
safety from fear, thwarting evils and having the blessings and happiness. In
‘Prayashchita Suktas’ are the mantras for expiation of evils, mistakes committed in
‘Yajnas’ and festivals while ‘Strikarmani suktas’ have the mantras for developing
the love and affection between husband and wife, ensnaring the beloved with the
help of herbs and mantras and for destroying the co-wife. These are called
‘Premsuktas’ also .

In ‘Rajkarmani suktas’, as the name itself denotes, are the hymns for the victory
of Kings . They describe their duties, law and judiciary, warship, weapons etc. The
‘Philosophical Suktas’ mention ‘Brahma, Virat Brahma, Maya, Ishwara, monotheism,
rebirth etc.

In the Atharvaveda for the first time the earth has been honoured and praised as
mother ‘Mata Bhumih putroham Prithivyah’. It expounds the social institutions like
celibacy, household austerity etc.

Thus Atharvaveda Samhita being related with the practical life of human beings is
very much significant. Atharva Veda is rightly called the Bhishag veda and Ayurveda
has been regarded as a sub system of Atharvaveda only.

Brahmana Granthas

Brahamana Granthas occupy an important place in Vedic literature. They are

indispensable for understanding Vedic culture, religion and philosophy. Their
importance can be realised by the very fact that like the Vedic Samhitas,
‘Brahmanas’ also have been termed as Veda- ‘Mantra brahamanatmako vedah’.

‘Brahman’ this word has been derived from Brihu – vardhane – to increase. These are
the books that explain in great details the significance and importance of the
rituals given in the Vedas. Although there are cosmological myths, tales, legends
still ‘yajna’ is the sole theme. They deal with the science of ‘yajna’ describing
its ceremonies, discussing its values and speculating on its origin and
significance. Geometry and mathematics had a ritual origin where the earth was
represented by a circular altar and the heavens were represented by a square alter.
The rituals consisted on conversions of the circle into square of identical area.
Like the Vedas, no definite date can be assigned to Brahmanas also. However, it can
be said that they were composed before the rise of Buddhism i.e. 500 B.C. as
Buddhism is the reaction to the ills in ritual practices. Hence all the Brahmanas
must have been composed much before 600 B.C.

All the four Vedic Samhitas have their own Brahmanas. Two Brahmana Granthas
Aitareya and Kaushitaki or Sankhyayana are attached to Rigveda. Tandya Mahabrahman
or Panchvinsha, Shadvinsha, Adbhuta and Jaiminiya belong to Samveda. In fact
Shadvinsha Brahman is only a completion of Panchavinsha which consists of 25
chapters while the last part of Shadvinsha Brahmana is called Adbhuta Brahmana.
Shatpatha Brahmana belongs to white (shukla) yajurveda while Taittiriya is attached
to Black (Krishna) Yajurveda, Gopatha is the Brahmana Grantha of Atharvaveda.

The essential contents of all the Brahmanas are almost the same. There are two main
divisions of the contents of these –vidhi and arthavada. Vidhi means rule,
regulations. This part describes the rituals and the fruit received therefrom while
Arthvada is the explanatory portion and recommends the rituals. Deep rooted
symbolical meaning of the mantras has been expounded with the help of myths and
legends.

The most special feature of the Brahmanas is the utmost emphasis laid by them on
‘Yajna’. Yajna is supposed to be the most important action, ‘yajno vai
shreshthatamam karma’. The beauty and the greatness of these ‘granthas’ lies in
connecting the sacrificial formulas with the sacrificial rite by pointing out on
one hand their direct relation and on the other their symbolical connection with
each other.

The society was divided into four castes – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra
Brahmins signified the academicians were respected as equivalent to gods because of
their functions as teacher, philosopher and seeker of knowledge. The Kshatriyas
were the defendants, the Vaishyas were traders and earned money for the country
while shudras have been described as ‘Tapas’ which perhaps symbolizes the physical
labour.

The etymologies given by the Brahmana granthas are very important and significant
from the point of view of Philology and Grammar.

Because of the numerous myths and legends having marvellous poetic beauty the
Brahmana granthas occupy a unique place in Vedic Literature. The Philosophical
thought and cosmological knowledge of these books is significant.

Thus the Brahmana Granthas are important not only for understanding the Vedas but
are indispensable from theological, geographical, cultural, philosophical,
political, historical and social point of view as well.

Aranyakas

The four Vedic Samhitas, Brahmana Granthas, Aranyakas and Upanishads are the
integral part of Vedic Literature. They are interdependent and complimentary to
each other. Aranyakas are the links between the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. Here
the subject matter of Brahmanas has been explained in the style of the Upanishads
meaning thereby that the rituals have a spiritual basis. Thus a perfect co-
ordination has been established by the Aranyakas between the path of action
(Karmamarg) and the path of knowledge (Jnanamarg). They are representative of
transitory period as they gave a philosophical and spiritual explanation of yajna
and all the things related to that.

Aranyakas were read and taught in the forests away from the villages. Just as the
Brahmanas contain and explain the rituals and ceremonies for a householder
(grihastha) similarly the Aranyakas explain the laws and rituals for those who have
gone into Vanaprastha - the third ‘ashrama’ according to the Indian culture. Here
the secrets and mysticism of the yajnas have been elaborated tastefully. They throw
light on the duties of the priests also.

Sometimes it becomes quite difficult to differentiate between Aranyakas and the

Upanishads because of their very close similarity.

Just as the Vedas have the Brahmana Granthas attached to them, similarly the
Aranyakas are also attached to the Vedas. Undoubtedly Arnyaka literature must have
been very large but today only eight Aranyakas are available. Aitereya and
Sankhyayana belong to Rigveda. Samveda also has two Aranyakas –
Jaiminiyopanishadaranyaka and chhandogyaranyaka. Brihaddaranyaka, Kanva
Brihadaranyaka and Madhyandin Brihadaranyaka are that of white (shukla) Yajurveda
and the Taittariyaranyaka is that of Black (Krishna) Yajurveda. Atharvaveda does
not have any Aranyaka Grantha.

Thus the Aranyakas are the basis of the philosophy that developed later in the
Upanishads in the form of expounding monotheism, Brahman, Atman, knowledge etc.

Vedangas ans Sutra Literature

The four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads all together constitute the
sacred revealed literature of India. Towards the end of the vedic period some
literature was written in sutra style. ‘Sutra’ means strings. All the works written
in this style on various subjects are one uninterrupted string of short sentences
twisted together in the most concised form. Brevity is the great object of this
style.

The works which have been written in sutra style proved to be very useful in
understanding the Vedas. That is why they were named as ‘Vedangas’ also i.e. the
studies accessory to the Vedas. Thus the Vedangas are representative of Sutra
literature. They are six – Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Channdas and
Jyotish.

Shiksha
Shiksha (Phonetics) explains the proper articulation and pronunciation of vedic
texts. There are six parts of Shiksha – letters (varnas), accent (swara), time
consumed in articulating vowel (matra), effort (bala) Melodius chanting of mantras
(sama) and conjugation of letters (sandhi). If some mistake is committed in any of
the above six, instead of giving the desired result it can prove to be disastrous
as well.

Pratishakhyas are the oldest representatives of the Vedangas. Different recensions

of the four Vedas had different ways of pronouncing the Vedic texts and these
variations were recorded in pratishakhyas. Some of the other Shiksha granthas are
Narada Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha, Vyas Shiksha etc. but Panini Shiksha is the
most perfect grantha of Shiksha.

Rituals (Kalpa)
These are the rules for the sacrificial rituals in a concised, perspicuous and
connected manner. The theme of this Vedanga is to study the correct ways of
performing rituals. There are four components of Kalpa Sutra (i) Shrauta Sutras are
related to the yajnas propounded in the Vedas (shruti) (ii) Grihya Sutras contain
not only the rituals of a householder but also the ceremonies starting from
conception upto the funeral rites (iii) Dharmasutras provde rules for the conduct
of life. They are mainly concerned with the duties of people (iv) Shulva sutras -
Shulva means a measuring rope. The sutras are related to the making of the
geometrical calculations necessary for the proper construction of the altar. There
are six shulva sutras available but the oldest is Baudhayana Shulva sutras which
contain the so-called Pythogorean theorem. It was necessary that the areas of
various alters must match with the standard shyenchiti altar.

Grammar (Vyakarana)
The analysis and the determination of the Vedic words is the main function of this
Vedanga. Hence it is very important since it clarifies and helps in understanding
the difficult hymns of the Vedas and safeguards them from distortions.

The words have been classified into four categories – Nama (nouns and pronouns),
Akhyata (verb), Upasarga (prefix) and Nipata (indeclinable).

Etymology (Nirukta)
The words which could not come within the reach of grammar have been discussed and
explained by Nirukta. Thus it is complementary to grammar.

The Nirukta of Yaskacharya is the most important. In fact Nirukta is a commentary

on Nighantu, a collection of difficult words occurring in the Vedas but it is not
available today.

The main and the most significant contribution of Nirukta is to give the
etymological meaning of every word.

Meter (Chhandas)
Chhandas is important for the purity and the melodious chanting of the Vedic hymns.
According to Acharya Katyayana a fixed number of letters is called – Chhandas.

In Vedas there are seven meters – gayatri, anushtubh, pankti, jagati, Brihati,
Ushnik and Trishtubh. Further there are many divisions and sub divisions of these
meters depending on the increase and decrease of letters.

The chhandashastra of Pingala is the oldest and most perfect grantha on meters
which deals with both vedic and the classical meters.

Jyotish (Astronomy and Astrology)

To get the desired results of a yajna it is very important that it should be
performed at auspicious time on auspicious day, paksha, month etc. Jyotish
determines the right time for rituals. It is called the eye of Vedas. It contains
useful information about the movements of various planets, their sizes, the
eclipses and their effect on human beings.

Today only one book called Vedang Jyotish is available. Lagadha is supposed to be
its author. Later quite a few commentaries were written on this book.

Upanishads

The Upanishadas are the fountain heads of Indian. Philosophy, the treasury of the
highest knowledge. They are called the \'Vedanta\' which means the conclusion
(anta) of the Vedas because with the Upanishads concludes the earliest sacred
literature of India i.e. the Vedic literature. The Upanishads impart that knowledge
which leads man from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light and from death to
immortality.

The word Upanishad means to sit near the teacher and attain knowledge. The
Upanishad vidya destroys the ignorance, perverts the miseries and leads to union
with Brahma i.e. the freedom from the vicious circles of birth and rebirth.

The Upanishads were not composed at one particular date, but in any case their
composition was completed before 600 B.C. They are regarded as the record and
outcome of academic disputations and transactions of the great sages of the
upanishadic period. The entire teaching of the rishis, kings, philosophers have
been made available to us through various samvadas. These dialogues were held at
the celebrations of great sacrifices, at the samiti or Parishads arranged by King –
philosohers such as Janak. The ashramas also served as the philosophical
laboratories to discover the spiritual and the highest truth of life.

Like Brahmanas and the Aranyakas, Upanishads are also attached to the four vedas.
There is a large number of Upanishads but eleven of them are masterpieces. They are
Aitreyopanishad of the Rigveda, Kena and Chhandogya of the Samveda, Isha and
Brihadaranyaka of white (Shukla) Yajurveda, Katha, Taittiriya and Shvetashwatara of
the Black (Krishna) Yajurveda while Prashna, Mundaka and Mandukyopnishad belong to
the Athrvaveda.

In the Upanishads Brahma has been described not as an object or human being but as
all powerful, eternal, endless divine power which is within everybody and is known
as Atman. Atman can not be achieved by sense organs or mind. It can be realised
only and that too within oneself. Various allegories, parables, and analogies have
been profusely utilized to unravel the mysteries of the Highest Self i.e. the
famous allegory of yaksha has been used in Kenopanishad to illustrate the
superiority of Brahman to all its manifestations. Atman can be known by controlling
the mind and the sense organs through continuous meditation over a period of time.
This Atman is identical with Paramatman. \'Aham Brahma Asmi, Tat Tvam Asi, Jivaiv
Brahm Naparah\' are boldest expressions (Mahavakyas) of the Upanishads.

Brahma is all pervasive \' Ishavasyamidam Sarvam\'. He creates, supports and

withdraws all again into itself. That is why it is that from which everything is
born, by whom everything is supported and in when everything merges back. Brahma
becomes known to one who knows one\'s own self. But to know one\'s own self one has
to get detached from all worldly pleasures because both of these are diametrically
opposed and can never meet like two parallel lines. One more point which has been
emphasised in the Upanishads is that a man gets birth according to the \'Karma\'
done by him in previous births.

Undoubtedly, the Upanishads lay much emphasis on morality. One has to fulfil his
social responsibilities towards parents, teachers, gods and guests. The \'Yajna\'
is not the end (Sadhya) but means (Sadhan) to attain Brahma. Austerity (Tapa),
control over oneself (Dama) and good actions (Karma) have been said to be the means
to self realization and the truth is its abode.

The sole purpose of the Upanishads is to attain Liberation (Moksha) – the freedom
from death and birth but this is achieved through knowledge only
-\'Vidyayamritamashnute\' one attains knowledge when one realises that one\'s body
and sense organs are different from the Atman as they are perishable but the Atman
is not. After knowing this one becomes free from all bondages. Upanishads are thus
the most valuable gems of Indian Philosophy which would live for all times and
provide solace to soul and mind in the wilderness of the advancing cultures and
civilizations.

Epics

The Ramayana
Ramayana (the path of Rama) is both a work of art and the mirror of a perfect human
soul. This unique piece of poetry flowed from the pen of Valmiki at a time when no
kavya had yet been written in any form. Hence it is called Adikavya and its author
Valmiki the Adikavi. Ramayana starts with the outburst of a curse against a hunter
for killing a male bird while it was courting its partner. This outburst is
considered by the creator as an indication of the power of the poet to create a
poem of deep human compassion for the fullness of life. This epic played the role
of guide for the poets and artists of later periods. The characters of Ramayana
deserve individual study in view of their varied natures. Rama is a personification
of Dharma because of the perfection of his human qualities and self sacrificing
nature, never violating the laws of truth and merit.

Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit by the poet Valmiki and its present form consists
of 24,000 couplets divided into seven kandas. The epic enjoys such great popularity
that its recitation is considered an act of great merit. Many of its translations
are themselves great works of literary merit including the Ramcharit Manas of
Tulsidas, Tamil version of Kamban, Bengali version of Krittibas etc. Throughout
north India, the events of this story are enacted in the form of Ram Leela. In
South India both the epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata even today make up the
story of Kathakali dance – drama of Malabar. Ramayana events are favourite subject
of Mughal, Rajasthani and Pahari paintings.

The story also spread in various forms throughout Southeast Asia especially
Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand, being chosen as themes of traditional Japanese,
Balinese Theatre, dance and shadow play. Incidents from Ramayana are carved on many
Indonesian monuments. In Thailand even today the king is called King Rama and the
main highways as King Rama Roads.

Ramayana also provides glimpses of the great scientific inventions in the form of
bridges which were lifted up and dropped when needed. Many descriptions are
examples of excellent town-planning, engineering, building of bridge over the sea,
aeroplanes in the form of Pushpaka Vimana in which Rama came to Ayodhya alongwith
Sita, Hanuman and other war heroes. Researches are being conducted on the
composition of Jrimbhaka – astra which could make the whole army fall into a deep
slumber.

Ramayana displays a code of ideal human rights. Rama does not believe in capturing
Lanka but infact makes Vibhishana take over the power. Rama believes in removing
enmity and establishing virtues. Hence, it is said that Ramayana Katha will
flourish in this world till the existence of mountains and rivers on earth.

The Mahabharata
Mahabharata, the largest epic in the history of mankind is one of the two major
epics of India, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It is termed as vishvakosha i.e.
encyclopedia of wisdom because of its high literary merit and religious
inspiration. It is an exposition on Dharma – a code of conduct including the proper
conduct of a king, a warrior, of a man living in times of calamity and also of a
person seeking to attain emancipation from rebirth.

This epic contains one lakh couplets (1,00,000) devided into 18 parvans to which a
supplement has been added called Harivamsha (Geneology of God Hari i.e. Vishnu).
The traditional author is the sage Vyasa who perhaps compiled the existing material
that reached its present form about 400 A.D.

The epic describes events that took place in Bharata around 5000 BC. The story
revolves around the five Pandavas, sons of deceased king Pandu and one hundred sons
of blind king Dhritarashtra. Due to blindness Dhritrashtra was passed over as King,
on his father’s death, in favour of his brother Pandu. This feeling of jealousy
further sprouted in innumerable forms although he was made the king when Pandu
renounced the kingship to become a hermit. Enmity forced Pandavas to leave the
kingdom at the time of their father’s death. They returned to some years of
prosperity in a divided kingdom but were again forced to return to the forest for
12 years when Yudhishthira lost his kingdom in a game of dice with Duryodhana – the
eldest of Kauravas. The feud culminated in a great battle in the field of
Kurukshetra (north of modern Delhi in Haryana State) in which only five Pnadavas,
Draupadi and Lord Krishna survived.

The main story covering about one fifth of the total work is interwoven with many
other famous episodes like Nala-Damayanti, Savitri – Satyawan, Shakuntala –
Dushyanta etc., descriptions of places of pilgrimages, myths, moral precepts,
geneological accounts of ruling dynasties and a notional history of creation. There
is a totality of life as it is lived here and now and yet there is a firm human
will to transcend it and enter the realm of eternity.

The epic contains references to invaluable war strategies and missiles which are
being researched in modern times. The description of Brahmastra and its after –
effects match the description of modern deadly nuclear weapons. It is said that it
does not rain for twelve years at the place where Brahmastra is used. Modern
researchers have found that the radio-activity of Kurukshetra is still two and a
half times greater than that of other areas. Technology in architecture,
construction -engineering, tunneling and construction of highways was astonishingly
advanced as we read about laksha-griha, tunnel from palace to the forest, royal
palace built by Mayasur and the layout of town Indraprastha.

Some of the sections of this epic have become famous as separate texts such as
Narayaniyam (Book XIII), the Bhagvadgita (Both VI), the Anugita (Book XIV), Vidur
Niti and Harivamsha in which Krishna is identified with Lord Vishnu and other
avataras are also described.

This gem of our cultural heritage has been further carried over not only in works
after works in Sanskrit but also in all the other Indian languages, languages of
Burma, Malaysia, Thailand, Combodia, laos and many others. The story gained such
immense popularity that its various incidents have been portrayed in stone, notably
in sculptured reliefs at Angkorwat and Angkor Thom in Combodia and by many Indian
miniature painters.

Thus it has served as a thematic source for many a poems, dramas, novels and even
Television serials. It is said that in Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, whatever is
written here may be found elsewhere but that which is not here cannot be found any
where else.

The Bhagwadgita
The Bhagwadgita is an immensely important religious philosophical treatise of
universal wisdom. Its central message is to call for the development of all that is
potential in human personality. It forms a part of the Bhishma Parva of
Mahabharata. It comprises of only 700 shlokas but the range of its content is
enormous. Gita goes far beyond the ethical question with which it begins, to
consider broadly the nature of God and the means by which man can know him. It
beautifully harmonizes the philosophy of action, devotion and knowledge. A familiar
verse compares the Upanishad to a cow and Krishna to the milkman who milks the
nectar in the form of this Gita with the calf Arjuna beside him.

Gita teaches us to do selfless service to all without consideration of their

religion. The truly learned person looks upon all with equanimity, whether it be a
saint, or evil doer or even an animal. He wants us to be active and not passive and
idle.

Krishna talks of general paths to the divine such as those of knowledge,

meditation, good deeds, renunciation of attachment and love and surrender to God.
Gita is above religion. Gita is for the whole mankind. In fact Gita is the science
of managing one’s self.

Its popularity is evident from the number of commentaries, glossaries and

expository books written on it in both ancient and modern times. The earliest
commentary is that of the great philosopher Shankara. Other important commentaries
of ancient times are those of Bhaskar, Ramanuj, Madhva, Nilkanth, Shridhar,
Madhusudan etc. In outstanding modern commentaries are those of B.G. Tilak,
Aurobindo, Gandhi, Radhakrishnan. It has been translated in almost all the
languages of the world.

In fact Gita with its eternal values can serve the whole mankind as a path finder
forever.

Sanskrit and Other Classical Languages

Sanskrit is one of the languages of Indo-European family. Indo-European is the name

given to the family of languages to which Sanskrit belongs. The name is based on
the fact that this family covers most of Europe and extends eastward as far as
northern India, with a total body of speakers of nearly one and a half billion.
Indo-Germanic is a synonymous term preferred by German linguists based on the fact
that it includes the easternmost and western most members of the family.

Sanskrit has its close relationship with other classical Languages of Indo-European
group like, Latin Greek, French, German etc,. For Example the numerals from one to
ten are mostly similar in these languages. In Italian Sie- six, settle- seven,
otto- eight, nove- nine, etc. The words of closes family relationship like father,
mother, sister, brother, etc. as well as a number of other fundamental words of
Sanskrit resemble with other classical languages of this family. For example:
Bhratr in the Sanskrit, Brother in the German, bhratheir in the Irish brat in the
Russian, beradar in the Persian. Pitr in the Sanskrit, Frater in the Latin Pharater
in Greek.

Some other similarities can be found between Sanskrit and other classical
Languages.

SanskritGermanGreekLatinEnglishMatriMutterMateeraMatermotherSunusSohnYasNatusSonSva
sriSchwesteraltheffeesorrorsisterApas,
jalamwasserneeroacquawaterDvizweitheeoduotwoAshtaachtoktaOctoeight
The verbal system of Avestan so clearly resembles with that of Sanskrit, that a
student of Sanskrit after mastering Avestan phonology can easily understand
Sanskrit. The Slavic language which is one of the chief languages of Satam group of
Indo-Uropean languages outside Asia, has many resemblances. Not only in the
languages but similarities can be found between Slavic and Indian Culture.

Curiously enough, the Sanskrit Imperative Ending -u seems to be preserved in some

Gothic imperative forms of the third person singular and plural like at-steigadau,
lingandau. It is evidently the same- au which is evident in all the quotable forms
of passive optative in Gothic.

The peculiar perfect endings in Sanskrit veda, vettha, veda have their exact
counter parts in Greek, oida, oistha, oide. The endings of reduplicating perfects
are not so easily reconcilable, but see, Greek.: gegona, and in Sanskrit yajna.

In perfect tense, Latin has generalized the medial endings. Thus tutudi, though in
meaning identical with Sanskrit tutoda, agrees in form more with Sanskrit tutude,
tutudai.

From the above illustrations, it is clear that the Sanskrit language has many
resemblances with other classical languages of Indo-European group like, Latin,
Greek, German, Iranian, Slavic etc.
Sanskrit and Modern Indian Languages

Languages spoken in India belong to various language families like (i) Indo-
European Family, (ii) Dravidian Family (iii) Austric, (iv) Sino-Tibetan etc, which
include 179 languages and about 544 dialects. The languages spoken in North India
are called Indo-Aryan Languages and come under Indo- European Family. The languages
spoken in South India belong to Dravidian family. The Languages of Kashmir and
Assam belong to Sino-Tibetan Family. Some dialects of Andaman and Nikobar Islands,
West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Orissa belong to Austric Family.

The geographical position of a language has very often had a great deal of positive
influence upon its development. So Sanskrit being the oldest language of India has
influenced all other languages of India, even those, which have not directly
originated from it. There are ample evidences that all the languages of Indo-Aryan
Group are the offsprings of Sanskrit Languages. Sanskrit is considered to be the
mother of most of Indian Languages except Dravidian Family.

All the Modern Indian Languages, like, Hindi, Marathi, Gujrati, Oriya, Bengali,
Sindhi, Maithili, Kashmiri, Assamese, Konkani, Rajsthani, Manipuri, Punjabi etc.,
have been enriched with the words of Sanskrit. Sanskrit has influenced other
languages also which have not originated from it, like Urdu and the Dravidian
languages like Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam.

Another Evidence of the influence of Sanskrit on the Modern Indian Languages is its
literary component. The Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the two oldest epics of Sanskrit
are the sources of many other literatures the Ramacaritamanasa in Hindi by
Tulasidas, the Adhyatmaramayana in Malayalam by Ramanuja Eutachh, the Kambaramayana
in Tamil by Kamban, the Mullaramayana in Telugu and the Krttibasaramayana on Bangla
by Krttivasab. The notable evidence of the influences of Sanskrit language on
modern Indian languages is the literary heritage of it.

Sanskrit and the Sciences

Astronomy

Mathematics

Chemistry

Architecture And Engineering

Medicine

Astronomy

Astronomy was called ‘Nakshatravidya’, ‘Jyotirvijnyanam’ or Jyotish in ancient

India. The word ‘Nakshatradrashta’ is used for an Astronomer in Shuklayajurveda
(30/10) and ‘Nakshatravidya’ for Astronomy in Chhandogya Upanishad (7/1/2).

The earliest references of Astronomy are found in the Rigveda. The Vedic Seers
always appreicated the appearance of the light in the sky. Many stars are mentioned
in Atharvaveda. We also find natural scientific observations regarding the course
of the planets. The Aitareya Brahmana (3/44) says that the sun actually neither
rises nor sets but through it’s revolution round the earth, causes day and night.

To perform the Vedic rituals and sacrifices, calculation of appropriate time was
necessary and this need introduced The Vedang - ‘Jyotish’ in the history of Indian
Astronomy.

‘Vedanga Jyotish’ of Lagadha the first treatise on Astronomy, contains two parts:
Arch Jyotish in 36 shlokas and Yajush Jyotish in 43 shlokas.

It is exclusively devoted to calculation of time. An attempt to cast a calander is

also found in this vedang.

‘Panchasiddhantika’ of Varahmihira mentions five siddhantas of earliar Astronomy in

which a complete system of Astronomy is presented. They are – Pitamaha siddhanta,
Vashistha siddhant, Paulisha siddhanta, Surya siddhanta and Romaka siddhanta.

Surya Siddhanta is the most prominent treatise of Siddhant period. According to the
introductory verses Surya the Sun God disclosed it to Asura Maya in the city of
Romaka. The cosmological timecycles and the Solar Planetary cycles are described
here. The average length of the Sideral year (the length of the Earth’s revolution
round the sun) is 365.2563627 days which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern
value of 365.2563627 days.

The following works and the authors have an eminent place in the history of
Astronomy:

Aryabhatiyam of Aryabhata also called the Arya siddhanta, consist of four parts –
the Dashagitika sutra, Ganita Pada, Kalkriyapada and Golapada. The first and second
part are related to Mathematics. The Third part, in 25 verses contains the basic
principals of astronomical time – calculations. The fourth part, in 50 verses deals
with the celestial sphere.

Arya Siddhanta of Aryabhata IInd, is a voluminous work on astronomy.

Brahma-sphuta-siddhant of Brahmagupta, treats the astronomy more elaborately and

more methodically.

Siddhantshiromani of Bhaskaracharya is divided into four parts – Lilavati, the

Bijganita, the Grahaganitadhyaya and the Goladhyaya. Goladhyaya contains a section,
in which difficult austronomico – mathematical problems are posed and solved. It
also deals with astronomical instruments and description of the seasons.

Rajmriganka of Bhoja

Bhasvati of Shatananda

Grahalaghava or the siddhantrahasya of Ganesha

Siddhantatattva viveka of Kamalakara

Karanapaddhati of Nilakantha somayaji.

The Indian Astronomy is closely associated with astrology. According to Varahmihira

there are three branches of jyotish shastra –

Tantra, the astronomic- mathematical branch, that is devoted to the calculative

astronomy;
Hora, that is devoted to casting of horoscopes and
Shakha or Samhita, that teaches the natural Astrology; the discipline about
forecasts that are deducible from natural incidents

Mathematics

‘Ganita’ the term used in Sanskrit for mathematics; is derived from the root
‘gana’, which means to count or to enumerate. Mathematics in India has been
cultivated in connection with Astronomy. Like the other streams of knowledge, the
early references of mathematics, are also found in the vedic literature. The word
‘Rashividya’ is used for mathematics in Chhandogya Upanishad (7.1.2). Some hymns of
Shuklayajureda reveal the knowledge of odd numbers and tables (18/24,25). The
Brahmana texts like ; ‘ekaya svaha, dvabhyam svaha, tribhyah svaha’ reflect the
vedic concept of arithmetical progressions. In Pingal sutra there is a discourse on
the calculation of squares and square roots.

The Indians; earlier than other nations; became familiar with the system of place
value of numerals. Undoubtedly the Europian system of enumeration is of Indian
origin. India is the birth place of several mathematical concepts including zero,
the decimal system, algebra, algorithm, square root and cube root etc. The origin
of calculus was in India, even more than three centuries before Leibnitz and Newton
introduced their own theorems.

The concept of zero, i.e. shunya, which means ‘void’, a figure to indicate the
absence of a position of number is virtually void. A round figure, symbol for zero,
i.e. ‘0’ had emerged to represent the philosophical concept of void.

Mathematics in India might have started more than five thousand years ago. Since
1000 B.C. almost for a period of two thousand years, many a number of mathematical
works were produced in India. Since the 5th centruay A.D., the method of graduated
calculation had been introduced in India. By that time, the geometric theories were
known to the Indians. We may see some displays of motifs on the walls of ancient
temples. Those motifs ideally reflect the patterns available in Indian
architecture, as we see the admixture of floral and wall pattern of geometric
method. These concepts, were collected and developed further by the mathematicians
like Aryabhata who flourished in the 5th Century A.D. His work Aryabhatiyam is
equally important for Mathematics and Astronomy. The first part of the book
explains the special system of writing numerals that was introduced by Aryabhata
alone. The Second part gives a small anthology of mathematical teachings of
Aryabhatta. He deals in his work with evolution and revolution, area and volumes,
progressions and algebraic identities.

Brahmagupta’s work ‘Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta’ covers very briefly the arithmetical

operations, square and cube roots, interest, progressions, geometry and simple
algebraic identities.

Bhaskaracharya the great astronomer, enjoys high reputation as a mathematician

also. His work Lilavati, in which a lovely maiden is addressed and problems set to
her, is a famous book on mathematics. The second book Bijaganita, is the fullest
and most systematic account of Indian algebra

Ganitasarasangraha of Mahaviracharya, Trishati of Shridhara, Bijaganita of Narayan

are some prominent Sanskrit treatises on Indian Mathematics.

Chemistry

Chemistry is the branch of science, which deals with the study of elements of
organic as well as inorganic nature. In India the knowledge of chemistry was
current since the Vedic era, praising Agni (The fire), as we see in the first sukta
of the Rigveda. It is believed that the basic idea of smelting reached India since
the Rigvedic period. Metallurgy, one of the main branches of chemistry has remained
as the central key to all the civilizations from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

Ancient India\'s advanced chemical science was distinct feature in the Vedic
contents like the Brahmanas. The chemical action was known as the pakaprakriya. The
science of chemistry, due to its Vedic antiquity might have been first recognized
in India, as a separate discipline. Alchemy and the science of medicine gave rise
to the study of chemistry in India. The ancient masters as mentioned in connection
with chemistry are: Patanjali,Bhavya Dattadeva, Vyadi, Svacchanda, Damodara,
Vasudeva, Caraka, Sushruta, Harita and Vagbhata. Ancient Sanskrit documents about
the advanced chemical science find the expression in activities like distillation
of perfumes and fragrant ointments. It is also found in activities like
manufacturing of dyes and chemical preparation of pigments and colours and
polishing of mirrors. In India itself, certain objects testify to the high level of
metallurgy.

There are around fifty Sanskrit works in original found on chemistry. A few of them
are as follows:

The Rasaratnakara Author: Nagarjun —8th century A.D.

The Rasarajamriganka Author: Bhoja —11th century A.D.

The Rasendracudamani Author: Somadeva —12th century A.D.

The Rasaprakasa-sudhakara Author: Yasodhara —13th century A.D.

The Rasasara Author: Govindacarya —14th century A.D.

The Rasarajalaksmi Author: Vishnudeva —14th century A.D.

The Sharngadharasamhita Author: Sharngadhara —14th century A.D.

The Rasendrasarasangraha Author: Gopalakrishna —14th Century A.D.

The Arkaprakasha by Ravana; Arka is the Sanskritized form of the Persian word arrak
meaning tincture. Distillation of liquor is mentioned in the Sanskrit work called
Madirarnava.

The Carakasamhita mentions about the Ancient Indians who knew how to prepare
sulphuric acid, nitric acid, the oxides of copper tin and zinc, the sulphate of
copper, zinc and iron and the carbonates of lead and iron. The weapons mentioned in
the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were actually the products of Chemistry.

Indian chemists knew the production of gunpowder and it was called as aurbagni,
which was attributed to Aurba, the preceptor of Sagara. The work called
Niticintamani discusses about the ingredients and power of fire of Aurba. It says;
" combining burnt wood, saltpeter and sulphur by parts gradually lessened, a
terrible fire is produced by which even water and others are burnt."

Architecture And Engineering

Architecture the Vastu vidya or Sthapatya is one of the basic Arts of ancient
India. The word ‘vastu’ is derived from ‘vas’ to ‘reside’. Thus ‘vastu’ denotes all
sorts of buildings – religious, residential and military like – Prasada, mandapa,
sabha, shala, prapa, ranga, skandhawara and fort. It also implies town planning,
planning of commercial cities, laying out gardens, making roads, bridges, dams,
tanks etc. Thus architecture includes the complete science of Civil Engineering.

There are innumerable references in Rigveda which indicate a very advanced

Vastushilpa in Rigvedic age. The Vedic deities Mitra and Varuna are described as
residing in a great palace with thousand pillars and thousand gates.

The chief development of the Indian Architecture centres round the Hindu Temple.
Specimen of different styles of Temple Architecture particularly, the Northern and
Dravidian are found in the two parts of India, north and south. The Temple
Architecture reflects the spiritual ideals of India. Temples are the abode of gods
and goddesses on earth.

The main Sanskrit treatises on Architecture are the Mayamata, Manasara, Vishvakarma
- VastuShastra, Samaranganasutradhara, Aparajita - Priccha, Manasollasa,
Prasadamandana, Shilparatnam etc.

Mechanical Engineering is known as ‘Yantra Vidya’ in Sanskrit Shastras. There are

many references in Sanskrit literature which speak of the mechanical skills of
Indians. The samarangana-sutradhara describes three classes of yantras (i) yana
yantra – conveyances like vimanas and chariots, (ii) udakayantra – water machines –
variyantra and dharayantra, (iii) sangramayantra – like Agneyastra, Varunastra,
bhushundi, shataghni and sahasraghni etc.

Medicine

Indian the medical science is popularly known as ‘Ayurveda’ which means ‘the Veda
for lengthening of the span of life’. The beginning of Medical Science goes back to
the age of Vedas. The Vedic Indians, who wanted to live for hundred full years with
prosperity and good health, developed a holistic approach in the field of
healthcare and medical systems, which emphasizes the physical, mental, intellectual
and spiritual aspects of a human being.

‘Bhaishajya-suktani’ of Atharvaveda reveal the knowledge of medical science in

ancient India. Atanomy, embryology and hygiene were also known from the Vedic
times.

Ayurveda is considered as an ‘Upanga’ (subsidiary) to the Atharvaveda. It is

inclusive of Achar (the life style), vichar (the thinking process) and ahar (the
dietetics).

Ayurveda is divided into eight main branches such as : shalya –tantra (major
surgery), shalakyatantra (minor surgery), kaya chikitsa (treatment of diseases of
the body), bhutavidya (demonology), kumarbhritya (paediatrics), agad
tantra(toxicology), rasayana (elixir) and vajikaran (aphrodisiaca).

Physiology, Pathology, Materia-Medica, therapeutics, Pediatrics, Hygiene,

Dietetics, the science of pulse, veterinary science, the treatments of elephants
horses, cattle, ornithology etc. were the different branches of Ayurveda developed
in ancient India.

Atreya, Harita, Kashyapa, Agnivesha, Bhela and jivaka are the ancient scholars, who
are named by traditions.

The earliest work on the Indian medicine is the Charakasamhita of Charaka in the
first century A.D. It consists of eight chapters:

Sutrasthan, that in general describes means of healing, diet, duities of a

physician etc.
Nidansthan, on the eight principal ailments

Vimansthan, on tastes, food, general pathology, and medical stadium

Sharirsthana, on anatomy and embryology

Indriyasthan, on diagnosis and prognosis

Chikitsasthan, on special therapy

Kalp and

Siddhant sthan, on general therapy.

Charaka, Sushruta and Vagbhata are prominent contributors to the Ayurvedic

Literautre. Sushrutasamhita, of Sushruta, Ashtangsangraha of Vagbhata, Madhavanidan
of Madhava, Ayurvedadipika of chakrapanidatta are some other important works in
this field.

Ayurveda has a well developed school of surgery. Sushruta was most probably the
first surgeon in the world to deal systematically, exhaustively and elaborately
with the entire subject of surgery including gynaecology, obstetrics, eye-diseases,
plastic surgery, artificial limbs etc. Surgical instruments are also described, 101
kinds of blunt instruments and 21kinds of sharp instruments. Vagbhata had
classified diseases into seven distinct groups. He has given a complete list of
various diseases. He has enlisted 94 eye diseases, 29 ear disorders, 18 diseases
related to nose and 75 diseases related to mouth cavity.

Sanskrit and Metaphysical Subjects

Philosophy

a. What is Metaphysics?

Metaphysics is the science that investigates into the first principles of nature
and thought. It is that part of philosophy, which is concerned with the study of
things and their ultimate causes and their underlying but unseen nature, often
called philosophy. Philosophy is the study of the nature of knowledge. Philosophy
is a covered system of thoughts, backed by logic as reason and arguments and
manifests itself as a cream or essence of spirituality.

b. Metaphysical subjects in Sanskrit:

In Sanskrit literature the branch of Metaphysics is called darshana, i.e. sight or

vision. The vision of real nature of the substance may be called philosophy.

b.i. The schools of philosophy in Sanskrit:

The philosophy in Sanskrit is divided into two broad groups: the school of Astika
(theist) and the school of Nastika (atheist). The Astika system is one, which
accepts the authority of the Vedas. They are six in number: i.e. Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. On the contrary another system
called Nastika Darsana does not believe in the authority of the Vedas. It has also
three main groups – Buddhism, Jainisam and Charvak philosophy.
 b ii. The School of Astika Darsana

1. Nyaya and Vaisheshika Systems:

In the school of Astika Philosophy, the first twin systems are the Nyaya and the
Vaisheshika systems. The two systems are allied together. The Vaisheshika system
outlines the scheme of the ontological categories and describes their nature, the
origination and the dissolution of the world. The Nyaya System examines the logical
explanation, apparatus of human knowledge, the criterion of truth and falsehood,
the nature and function of knowledge, its instruments, their limits defects and
problems relating to the validity or knowledge. Rishi Gautam wrote the famous
Nyayasutra on which an excellent commentary was written by Vatsyayan followed by
many othrs. The initiator of Vaisheshika darshan was Kanada whose Vaisheshika
sutras were followed by many other explanatory works like Bhasha – Parichcheda by
Vishwanatha.

2. Sankhya System:
The Sankhya System is considered to be the oldest Indian Philosophical system.
There are references to this system in the Upanishads, the Gita, and the
Mahabharata. The word Sankhya has two meanings; the knowledge and number. Maharshi
Kapila is the originator of the system. The two important source books for the
system are Isvara Krishna\'s Sankhyakarika and the Vachaspati’s -Tattva- Kaumudi.
This system contains elaborate discussions on Purush and Prakriti.

3. The Yoga System:

Amongst all the systems of Astika school, the Yoga System of Maharshi Patanjali is
the most widely known and popularly appreciated system of thought. The system of
Yoga is a psychosomatic process for training the mind and keeping the body under
control. The source and significantly single inspiration for Indian psychology is
the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The date assigned to Patanjali is the second century
B.C. The Yoga system is considered to be complementary to the Sankhya. If Sankhya
is the theory; yoga is its practical side. The Yoga System enables one to realize
kaivalya (liberation), i.e., his true nature.

4. The Mimamsa System:

Among the philosophical systems, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta are exclusively based
on the authority of the Vedas. The word Mimamsa means an enquiry. This system holds
that the Vedas issue commands and have ritual actions for the purport. This also
prescribes certain actions and prohibits certain others. The prime purport of the
Vedas is to command duties and prohibit some acts. It is a list of do’s and
don\'ts. The System is pragmatic in approach.

5. The Vedanta System:

What is living and vital in Indian Philosophy today is the Vedanta system in its
various forms. The Vedanta is the crowning edifice of all the systems. The other
philosophical systems are mainly studied as accessories to the study of Vedanta and
not as ends in themselves. There are different branches of Vedanta which have grown
from the interpretation of the triple text: (i) the Upanishads, (ii) the Gita,
(iii) the Vedantasutras. All the commentators claim alike that the systems of
philosophy, they have built, are in complete accord with the total unitary import
of the three texts, that these texts should have lent themselves to a variety of
interpretations even contradictory to one another, is the most amazing nature of
these scriptures and their inexhaustible significance. The branches of this system
are, the system of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism) of Shankara, the system of Dvaita
Vedanta (dualism) of Madhva, the Dvaitadvaita Vedanta of Nimbarkacharya and
Vishistadvaita (qualified non-dualism) of Ramanujacharya.

b.iii. The Nastika Darhsanas

 1. The Charvaka System:
The Charvaka School of Philosophy represents the Indian Pattern of atheism and
materialism. It is not a dogmatic statement of opinions. It is an argued and
reasoned system of materialism. It has a special attraction and glamour for those
who believe in uninhibited sensuous living. The superficially reflective and sense
-bound vision of man easily accepts the Charvaka philosophy. Scientific empiricism
and hedonistic ethics are the foundations of the system.

2. The System of Buddhism:

The sayings of Buddhas were gathered into three baskets (pitakas), namely (i)
Abhidhammapitaka, (ii) Vinayapitaka and (iii) Suttapitaka. The Abhidhammapitaka
sets forth the metaphysical views of the Buddha, the Vinayapitaka sets fourth the
rules of discipline i.e., the Sadhana aspects of the religion. Suttas contain the
stories, parables and the teachings. They are the utterances of Buddha himself.

3. The system of Jainism:

Jainism is an independent non-Vedic school of philosophy originating from the views
of some twenty-three saints before Mahavira. The 23rd is Parsvanatha and the first
is Rishsabhadeva. The saints who had the spiritual experience and could attain
kaivalyaajnana are called Tirthankaras. They are worshipped by the Jains. Its
literature is in ardhamagadhi and Sanskrit. The special features of the Jainism are
logic and ethics. The Jaina conception of Reality is not like that of the
Buddhists, nor like the unchanging Brahman of the Advaita. It admits both,
permanence and change. It is a complex concept. Their classification of
philosophical categories goes into two broad divisions: non-spirit (ajiva) and,
spirit (jiva). The souls are infinite in number. Their essential properties are
omniscience and blissfulness. They are eternal. The second category of reality is
non-spirit (ajiva). This category comprises time, akasa (space) and matter. All
these items have no consciousness.

Sanskrit and Humanities

History

Political Economy

Law (Dharamashastra)

History

History is the discipline that studies the chronological record of events. In

Sanskrit it is known by the name of Itihasa which means ‘Iti +Ha+As i.e. it was
definitely like this.

The recording of History in Sanskrit starts from the Vedas which contain a list of
teachers. The documents, biographies, artifacts, currencies etc. are the main
sources of History.

Though innumerable books are of historical value but four of them deserve special
mention. They are Harshacharitam, Navsahasankcharitam, Vikramankadevacharitam and
Rajtarangini.

The Harshacharita of Banabhatta is the first historical Kavya written in prose in

7th Century A.D. It has eight chapters called ‘Uchchhavas’. In the first three
chapters the poet has given autobiographical account of himself. This kavya gives
insight into the administration and reign of king Harshavardhan who ruled from 606-
647 AD the Historical details given in Harshacharita are similar to those of Hieun
Tsang, a Chinese travellor.

Navsahasankcharita is the record historical Kavya written by Padmagupta in 1005 AD.

Navsashasankcharita was the nick name of King Sindhuraja the younger brother of
King Munja.

Written in 18 cantos, it relates the winning of Shashiprabha, the daughter of Naga

King by Sindhuraja or Navasahsank. In the 12th canto all the former kings of
Parmara dynasty have been mentioned in chronological order. These have been
confirmed by the records inscribed on inscriptions.

The Vikramankdevacharitam written by a Kashmiri Poet Bilhana in 1085 AD delineates

the history of Chalukya Kings. The birth of the founder of Chalukya Dynasty has
been traced from the chuluk (kamandala) of Brahma.

The Kavya gives the life of Vikramaditya VI who ruled from 1076 -1127 AD the
historical description of the Chalukya Kings given by the poet was proved by many
other Chalukya inscriptions also.

The most important work written on History in Sanskrit literature is the

Rajatarangini of Kalhana. It was completed by the poet in 1148 AD after a long
research. 7826 verses have been divided into eight books called ‘Tarangas’.
Rajtarangini itself means ‘the river of kings’. In this, the poet has tried to
trace the history of Kashmir starting from very ancient time upto 12th Cent. AD. It
starts with the description of the kings of Govinda Dynasty. The first date
mentioned here is 813-814 AD.

Starting from here upto 1150 AD all the facts given are historical.

Like a true historian the poet has not hesitated in penning down even the tyrannies
and the atrocities of his pattron King Harsha of Kashmir.

The Rajtarangini can be called a historical Kavya in the true sense.

Political Economy

It is a branch of social science which later developed into economics but in India
it means the theories and the manuals taken together that deal with practical life,
domestic economy , administration and particularly politics.

KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASTRA

Kautilya’s Arthashastra in 15 Adkikaranas and 180 Prakaranas, represents an

important tradition in Indian intellectual history. This valuable work was
apparently composed and written somewhere around 320 B.C. since Kautilya is
regarded as the master teacher Chanakya – the strategist, responsible for the rise
of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty. Kautilya laid the first
cornerstones of the Indian state. The text is mainly in prose form but intermingled
with aphorisms and rhythmic verses, Kautilya’s saintly king provides a model of
Vedic political leadership. His Arthashastra gives us a sense of early thought on
realism in domestic policy and in international relations. He emphasizes the
importance of Artha – i.e. the material wellbeing as the gateway to Dharma -the
basis of Kingdom. Kautilya refers to the Vedas, Manu, various systems of Philosophy
and to tribal and republican politics. Kautilya has a conception of distributive
justice under the umbrella of a political community. He speaks of state as a
creator of order out of anarchy. He lays special emphasis on moral goals. He shows
a great commitment to political economy and public administration, encouraging
activity and productivity. Without productivity in agriculture, other functions can
begin to crumble. The Agricultural division of labour is complemented with
manufacturing and the work of skilled artisans. His conception of work ethics
includes quality control by the state and punishment of dishonesty and theft.
Consumer protection measures are described in great details. The State governed
standards should govern fraud in materials, their production and in office
transactions. Kautilya goes far beyond in developing an extensive theory of
international relations. The three components of power – enthusiasm, military might
and the power of counsel are mentioned in ascending order of importance.

His description of elaborate administrative machinery is superb. National

administration is divided into thirty four departments, each with a chief and an
appropriate number of subordinates. Forestry, mining, mint, state trading, weights
and measures, surveying, shipping, passports, textiles, jails and other major
functions are minutely discussed alongwith job descriptions and qualifications.
There are long lists of administrative procedures, codes of ethics and sanctions
for stealing gems from the treasury, if found guilty the sanction is death.
Kautilya also outlines a system of jurisprudence including codification of
offences, role of judges, a policy manual for prisons and rules of evidence and
other procedures.

The study of Kautilya can add a lot to cross cultural Intellectual history and
early political realism in diplomacy.

Even the great Sanskrit poets like Bhasa, Kalidasa, Banabhatta, Vishnusharma etc.
have paid their respects to Kautilya and Arthashastra.

The Nitisara of Kamandaka written in about 700 A.D. is based on Arthashastra. It is

in the form of poetry and is in 20 cantos. It preaches about morality and describes
policy also.

Nitivakyamrita of Somadevasuri throws light on the duties of Kings. Nitirantnakara

of Chandreswara, Shukraniti of Shukra also deserve special mention.

Law (Dharamashastra)

The law in Sanskrit is known by the name of Dharmashastra i.e. the science of
ordinance but the scope of Dharmashastra is more extensive than what is denoted by
‘law’. Dharma can be defined as ordinance, duty, right, justice, morality, virtue,
religion, good actions etc. Kalpasutras are the Primary source of ‘dharma’. These
‘Dharmashastras’ contain rules of conduct and rituals, duties of people at various
stages of life. They discuss purification rites, forms of hospitality, daily
oblations and judicial matters.

After Dharmashastra, smrities define ‘dharma’. Although there is mention of

eighteen smrities yet Manusmriti compiled by Manu in about 200-300 BC is the most
authentic and popular. It has 2694 verses divided into twelve chapters. It deals
with various topics such as cosmogony, dharma, initiation and Vedic study, the
eight forms of marriage, hospitality, dietary, law, rights and duties of four
castes and four stages of life (varnashramas) etc. Its influence has been enormous.
Medhatithi Govindraja and Kulluka Bhatta wrote their commentaries on Manusmriti
which are very popular.

After Manusmriti comes the Yajnavalkya Smriti. It is related to the Paraskara

Grihya Sutra of white (Shukla) Yajurveda. It has 1013 verses which have been
distributed under the three headings of good conduct (achara), Law (vyavahara) and
Repentence (pryashchitta). As compared to Manusmriti it is more progressive in
thoughts and has been written in more systematic manner. Of all the commentaries,
the commentary of Vignaneshwara written by the name of Mitakshara became more
accepted.
Besides these two smrities, the smritis of Narada, Brihaspati, Ushna, Harita,
Katyayana, Parashara, Gautama etc. are also well-known. The Mahabharata is one of
the accepted texts of Dharmashastra. It is to be noted that the Smriti texts have
been binding the Indians together till date.

Sanskrit and Religion

Buddhism

Buddhism arose in 6th century B.C. in the wake of the Upanishadic speculation. Its
originator Gautama Buddha was one of religious ferment. He was largely influenced
by the liberal thinking of the Upanishadic sages, the prevailing ideas of knowledge
and Yoga practices, leading to mental concentration, the theory of Karman and the
Value of a mendicant life. Karman or one\'s own deeds influence the destiny of a
being, but he denied the authority of the Vedas and Vedic sacrifices. From his
spiritual experience, Buddha became convinced of the four noble truths, that there
is suffering (Duhkha), that it has a cause (Samudaya), that it can be suppressed
(Nirodha) and that there is a way to accomplish this (Marga). He accepts that birth
is painful, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful, union with the
unpleasant and separation from the pleasant and dissatisfaction are painful. There
is sorrow because all things are transient. They vanish as soon as they occur.
Ignorance is the main cause, out of which false desire springs. When knowledge is
attained, suffering ends. Life is nothing but a series of manifestations of
becoming and destruction. There is nothing that is permanent.

That which breaks the series of sufferings is called eightfold path (Astangamarga)
or middle path (Madhyamamarga). They are Samyagdrishti, Samyaksankalpa, Samyagvak,
Samyakkarma, Samyakajiva, Samyag-vyayama, Samyaksmriti and Samyaksamadhi. The
oldest of all the Buddhist literatures are Tripitakas (the Collection of Three
Baskets). The Tripitakas consist of the Vinayapitaka, the Suttapitaka and the
Abhidhammapitaka. The Vinayapitaka includes the Suttavibhaga, the Khandhakas and
the Parivaras. The Suttapitaka consists the Digghanikya, the Majjhimanikaya, the
Samyuttanikaya, the Anguttaranikaya and the Khuddakanikaya.

The Abhidhammapitaka has seven books, The Dhammasangani, the Vibhanga, the
Dhatukatha, the Puggalapannatti, the Katthavatthu, the Yamaka and the Patthana.
Other books are Milindapanha, The Mahavastu, the Lalitvistara etc.

Jainism

Jainism is closely associated with the name of Mahavira. Jainas regard him as the
24th in the long line of Tirthankaras and the Jina. Jainism is, therefore, the
religion of those who aim at conquering the Karman—rebirth—cycle under the guiding
influence of the lives and teachings of the Tirthankaras as systematized by
Mahavira Jina.

In Jainism, there are two main streams, Digambara (Space clothed) and Svetambara
(clothed in white). Mahvira\'s community has remained a well- knit organization
comprising four Tirthas (orders) called Muni (monks), Sadhvi (nuns) Sravaka
(Laymen) and Sarvika (Lay Women).

According to Jainism the universe is made of four living (jiva) and five non-living
(ajiva) kinds of substances. They all are eternal and uncreated. Karman is the link
between Jiva, and Ajiva. Accumulated Karman follows the soul after death through
all its transmigrations. To achieve liberation from them, two tactics should be
employed. The first is to check the inflow of new Karman (Samvara). The second is
to cause Karman from past to fall off (Nirjara). This is achieved through
mortification. Twelve types of such austerities (tapas) are usually recommended.
When the soul is completely purged of all burdens, it takes the form of straight
line and then develops into its natural form, obtains perfection and puts an end to
all the miseries.

The Jiva ascends to that Nirvana (liberation) by ladder of fourteen steps. The five
great rules of conduct are Ahimsa, (Non Violence), Satya (Truth), Asteya (not to
steel), Brahmacharya (celibacy)and Aparigrarha (non worldly possessions). The three
restraints (three Guptis) are Manogupti (control of mind), Vacanagupti (control of
speech), Kayagupti (control of bodily Movements) and ten pious duties are also the
part of Jainism. Dravyasangraha, Nayachakra etc. are the source books of Jainism.

Sanskrit and the Arts

Theatre

Dance

Music

Sculpture

Theatre

Prosperity of Sanskrit related theatre is unmatched for its creatively written

plays and disciplinary science of Art of Theatrical performance.

Accomplished dramatist Bhasa wrote 13 plays among them the Svapnavasavadatta, the
Pratijnayaugandharayana, and the Pratimanataka are well-known, Abhijnanasakuntala
of Kalidasa is a much celebrated work and is in UNESCO’S world heritage.
Mricchakatika of Sudraka is regarded as the most important play of world literature
by international critics. Bhavabhuti\'s Uttararamacharitam is known for its all
inclusiveness of tragic sentiment Karuna. The Mudraraksasa of Vishakhadatta is a
great drama of political intrigue, in which, interest in the action never ceases,
Ratnavali of Harsha and the Venisamhara of Bhattanarayana are inexhaustible mines
of illustrations of the theories of dramaturgy. The above-mentioned works are a few
to be named. There is a long list of Sanskrit plays, which can provide subjects or
plots with varied aura and spectra of senses.

As a disciplinary science of stagecraft, Sanskrit keeps inexhaustible treasury of

dramaturgical works, whose exploitation for the present day theatre is yet to be
made. The Natyashastra of Bharata is encyclopaedic in its content. Other than this,
relevant parts of Puranas, the Natyasarvasvadipika of Adi Bharata, the
Abhinayadarpana and the Bharatarnava of Nandikesvara, the Dasharupaka of
Dhananjaya, the Natyadarpana of Ramachandra and Gunachandra, etc., are a few
dramaturgical works to be named here. These treatises discuss minutest of the
details and throw light on remotest of areas.

As far as present day scenario is concerned, Sanskrit theatre is living and

vibrant. Sanskrit plays are staged in national and International drama festivals
and competitions. Annual drama competitions of Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, New
Delhi, Kalidasa Academy, Ujjain, and Delhi Sanskrit Akademi are famous ones.
Koodiyattam—the age old ritualistic Sanskrit theatre of Kerala is recognized by
UNESCO, as one of the masterpieces of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity.
The above mentioned is a very short account of the potentialities of the Sanskrit
drama and dramaturgy, which, if explored thoroughly, can infuse excellence in
modern day theatre and cinema of the Globe.

Dance

Dance or Dancing is for the creation of rasa (sentiment) through particular

suggestions, by suitable movements of different parts of the body, as per the
tradition of Sanskrit. There are three main components, Natya, Nritta and Nritya,
which together with their subsidiaries make up the classical dance. Natya is the
dramatic element of a stage performance. Nritta is the rythmic movement of body in
dance. It virtualizes and reproduces beat (tala) and rythm (laya) by means of
abstract gestures of the body and hands and extensive and precise use of footwork.
On the otherside, Nritya is that element of dance which suggests rasa (sentiment)
and bhava (mood), conveyed by facial expressions and appropriate gestures. The
object of both, Nritta and Nritya, is to depict ideas, themes, moods and sentiments
by using abhinaya (acting). The practice of abhinaya involves four techniques;
angika (of gestures), vachika (of speech), sattvika (representation of feelings),
and aharya (of costumes, makeup etc).

In Sanskrit, many treatises on art of dancing are available. The Natyashastra of

Bharata and the Abhinayadarpana of Nandikesvara have been authoritative sources of
instruction for Indian classical dances. The Dasharupaka of Dhananjaya, the
Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva, the Sangitaraja of Kumbhakarna, the Nrityanirnaya
of Pundarika Vitthala, the Nrityaratnavali of Jayasenapati, the Sangitasaramrita of
Tulajaraja, the Balaramabharata of Balaramavarman, etc. are few other works from a
long list of rich treatises on the art of dance in Sanskrit.

At present, all the chief schools of Classical dance in India are based essentially
upon the Natyashastra. The Bharatanatyam, which means dance according to the
principles of Bharata, follows most closely the Natyashastra. Kuchipudi, Kathakali,
Mohiniattam, Manipuri, Odissi, etc. accept the Natyashastra as their authority.
Apart from art and technique of dance, Sanskrit has been the main source of stories
and subject matter of dance-dramas. Stories from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and
the Puranas have been most sought after themes for Indian classical dances.
Yakshagana, a dance-drama of Mysore, has about fifty plays based on both the great
epics of Sanskrit for its subject matter. Rasalila of Brija and Manipuri dance of
Manipur owes much to the Bhagavata Purana and the Gitagovinda. The Gitagovinda of
Jayadeva was composed for dancing and its verses and themes are amply used in
Indian classical dances. Thus, Sanskrit is the most important source of technique
and subject-matter for Indian Classical dances.

Music

In Sanskrit, music is called gana, giti or sangita. The later Sanskrit treatises on
music, explained sangita as the combination actually trio of vocal music,
instrumental music, and dance (gita, vadya and nritya). On the ground of reality,
all the three arts are independent of each other, but in spite of their
independence gana subordinates vadya, and vadya subordinates nritya. So, vocal
aspect (Gita) is predominant. Gana or gita originates with the succession of tones
that produce agreeable and pleasing sensations. Musical sound is impregnated with
divine lustre (lavanya), aesthetic sentiment (rasa) and mood (bhava). Melody or
melodic form (raga) is soul of music. Sangita is accompanied by pathya or sahitya
(text part)

A Brief History
The association of Indian Music with Sanskrit is as old as Sanskrit itself. In the
Vedic age, the Samagana method of chanting Vedic verses was in practice. The
Samaganas were possessed of different numbers of notes, registers, metres and
literary compositions (sahitya). Musicological rules and other relevant details
about Samagana are spread all over in different Pratishakhyas, Sikshas and other
Sanskrit texts of that age. In the Classical period, Gandharva type of music, was
evolved which was a kind of stage song or Natyadharmigiti, possessed of svara, tala
and pada. Afterwards, Bharata systematized the form and system of Music in the
Natyashastra. The genuine type of raga came into being, with ten determining
characteristics (dashalakshanas) and psychological values, with the new names of
gitiraga and gramaraga. Jatis are the forerunners of ragas or the parent ragas,
which gave birth to all Classical ragas and formalized deshiragas. After Bharata,
Kohala, Matanga and other Sanskrit Musicologists made their contributions and
hundreds and thousands of ragas developed with their new and novel themes and
forms. The ancient gramas were gradually replaced by murcchanas (groupings of
upward and downward notes). In the 15th and 16th century A.D., musicologists like—
Lochana, Ramamatya etc. represented new trends in music.

Murcchanas, as generators or determining factors of ragas appeared with a new

nomenclature of mela or thata. Method of classification of ragas changed from raga-
ragini-putra- vargikarana into janya-janaka or genus- species(cause-effect) method,
and most of the ragas appeared with their, new tonal forms. Approximately at the
same time, Pandita Damodara, etc., presented Ragamurtis (visual pictures) and
Dhyanamantras (poetical descriptions and contemplative compositions) of ragas and
raginis for their better appreciation and intuitive perception. In 17th-18th
centuries, Abohala, Shrinivasa, etc. altered the total bases (Svarasthana) in
relation to the microtones (shrutis). Thus, by this way, Sanskrit musicologists
produced volumes of authoritative works on Indian music and shaped both Hindustani
and Karnataka (Carnatic) Music to their present-day-status. Contribution of
Sanskrit towards Indian Music is great. This contributory association can generally
be understood from two points of view—
i. Sahitya or Pathya (Literary compositions or texts) for music and ii. Sanskrit
treatises on Musicology.

i. Sahitya or Pathya: Sanskrit was a medium of Music from the very ancient
time. It formed the text part (sahitya) of Vedic music samagana. The Ramayana was
itself a Geyakavya. In the Mahabharata and the Puranas, we find many references of
music with marga or deshi type of songs with Sanskrit text parts. Many gatha-ganas
of the Buddhist text Lalitavistara are in Sanskrit pathya. Musicological works in
Sanskrit are full of different types of songs with Sanskrit pathya. Classical
Sanskrit Literature comprises many references of music with Sanskrit pathya.
Sanskrit hymnal literature (stotrasahitya) and many other gathas are Sanskrit
pathyas. Padagitis of Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda and Lilashuka-Bilvamangala’s
Srikirshnakarnamrita and many other songs are in Sanskrit. Legendary vocalists of
present age, like M.S. Subbulakshmi, Pandit Jasrraja and many others have used
Sanskrit pathya for their musical renderings.

ii. Sanskrit Treatises on Musicology: Most of the authoritative works on

Indian Music are in Sanskrit. Different Siksha, Pratishakhya and other Vedic Texts
related to Samagana, the Natyashastra of Bharata, the Bharatarnava of
Nandikeshvara, the Brihaddesi of Matanga, the Naradiya Siksa and the
Sangitamakaranda of Narada, the Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva, the Ragatarangini
of Lochana, the Svaramelakalanidhi of Ramamatya, the Sadragachandrodaya, the
Ragamala, and the Ragamanjari of Pundarika Vitthala, the Ragavibodha of Somanatha,
the Sangitadarpana of Damodara, the Caturdandiprakshika of Venkata makhi, the
Sangitaparijata of Ahobala, the Ragatattvavibodha of Shrinivasa, the
Sangitasaramirta of Tulajaraja, are few a from a very long list of Sanskrit
treatises on Musicology

Sculpture

The sculpture or the Taksanashilpa is the allied Science of Architecture and other
cognate Arts. It is derived from the word “Sculp” or “Taksa” which means to “carve”
or to “engrave”. The heavenly architect “Tvashta” was the mythical originator of
this Art.

Sculpture in Sanskrit literature may be seen in making images of deities, in

decoration of the temples, in making thrones (sinhasanas), royal umbrellas,
chariots, couches (paryanka) kalpavriksas (the ornamental trees) beautifully
decorated with creepers) colourful jewels, ornaments and garlands.

Iconography or pratima vijnyana is an important branch of sculpture. Pauranic

religion, Agams and Tantras, Buddhism and Jainism gave encouragement to this art.
The images may be classified into nine broad divisions:(i) Trimurti (Tri-image),
(II) Vaishnava, (iii) Shaiva, (iv) Shakt, (v) Saurya, (vi) Bauddha, (vii) Jain,
(viii) Yaksha and (ix) Shalbhanjaka (images).

Eight types of materials were used in making images – the clay, wood, stone,
metals, precious stones, ivory and mixed substances.

The images were made according to pratima laksan shastras, Mayamata, Mansara,
Samaranganasutradhar, Hayashirsha – Pancharatna, kashyapasamhita,
vishnudharmottarpurana (chitra sutra) Brihat Samhita etc. are some prominent
treatises on sculpture.

Sanskrit hymns and Subhashitas

The land of Bharata is called Deva-bhu and Sanskrit language – a devine language.
There is an undercurrent of spirituality in the entire Sanskrit literature, which
is primarily based on the achievement of the four-fold objectives called
Purushartha – chatushtayam i.e. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. Hence there is
hardly any work which may be found lacking in the usage of excellent effective
sayings, but from ancient times, specific works have been written by poets and
scholars to compose beautiful collections of good saying only in order to inculcate
moral values in the coming generations. Some of the ancient works in this direction
are Raja-niti Samuchchaya, Chanakya-Niti-Darpanam, Nitisara, Niti-Pradeep etc.

Later on, in modern times, efforts have been made to collect such sayings from the
entire ocean of Sanskrit literature. Subhashita-ratna-bhandagara is one such
popular collection. There is one more Subhashita Sangraha in a number of volumes by
Ludwig. Sanskrit Academy has published seventen volumes of Sukti samgraha which
contain subhashitas from vedic hymns, puranas, epics, Jain and Bauddha granthas,
Mahakavyas, works on various sciences and poetics etc. Prof. Satya Vrata Shastri’s
Subhashita Sahasri contains 1000 verses collected subjectwise from various sources.
Kapil Deva Dvivedi’s Sukti Sangraha is also very popular. Some private publishers
have also come forward to bring out very useful works. Manjula Manjusha and Shiksha
Sukti sangraha published by Nita Prakashan, Sanskrit Sukti Sindhu by Madan Lal
Verma are excellent efforts in this direction.

Sanskrit works like Panchatantra, Hitopadesha, Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata,

Bhartihari’s Nitishatakam are excellent encyclopaedias of subhashitas.

Great Personalities

From The West

Contribution To Vedic Literature

Sanskrit is considered to be the richest language in the world, due to its literary
contents. Some Western scholars may be put on the first rank, to bring it into the
light of the world, who translated Sanskrit texts in various foreign languages.

Contributions to Vedic Literature:

Fredric Rozane, was a German Scholar, who edited and translated some parts of the
Rigveda into German in 1830.

S.A. Longlois, of France, translated the whole text of the Rigveda into French,
which was published in Paris, during 1848-51.

Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900) lived in England, sacrificed his own life in the
study of the Vedas, and edited the whole Rigveda with its Sayanabhashya that was
published by East-India Company. He published his "Vedic Hymns" on famous Suktas of
the Rigveda, under the Sacred Books of the East.

Theodar Benfey (1909-81), translated 130 Suktas of Ist Mandala of the Rigveda into
German. He also translated the whole text of the Kauthuma Shakha in German that was
published with illustrations and lexicons in the year 1848.

Hermann Grassman (1809-77), was a German Scholar, who made a poetic translation of
the Rigveda and a Lexicon of the Rigveda in German titled, Worterbruchzum Rgveda.

Alfred Ludwig (1832-1911), belonged to Germany, was a Professor of Sanskrit in the

University of Prague. He prepared the German translation of the Rigveda, titled Der
Rigveda with 230 important Suktas of the Atharvaveda translated into Germany.

Harace Hymen Wilson of 19th Century A.D. belonged to England and lived in India for
a long time. He edited and translated the text of the Rigveda with the Sayana
Bhashya into English.

R.T.H. Griffith 1828-1906, was the first and the last after H. H. Wilson, who
translated the whole text of the Rigveda into English. He has also published his
poetic translation of the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.

A.Weber 1805-1901, was very famous among those who contributed to Vedic literature.
He was a French Missionary. He translated the Shukla Yajurveda Samhita\'s Ninth and
Tenth Chapters into Latin and its 16th chapter into German. He also translated the
Atharvaveda into German, published under the title Indische Studien.

A.B. Keith, was the student of McDonnell, who translated the Taittiriya Samhita
into English, that was published under the Harward Oriental Series in 1914 in
America.

Contribution Of Other Western Scholars

Sir William Jones (1746-94 A.D.), British scholar and founder of Royal Asiatic
Society, famous institution involved in Indological studies, admired the theme,
form, power and beauty of Sanskrit Language and stressed its affinity to Greek and
Latin. He translated the Shakuntala in English, the Manusmriti in English and
German, and edited the Ritusamhara, which was his first printed work in Sanskrit.

Charles Wilkins (1750-1836), a British scholar translated Hitopadesha and the

Bhagavadgita in English. His translation of the Bhagavadgita (London 1785), was
first Sanskrit book to be directly translated into an European language. For his
book \'Sanskrit Grammar\' (1808), Sanskrit type was used for the first time in
Europe, a type that the author himself had made. The Shakuntala episode of the
Mahabharata (1793) was also his work.

H.T. Colebrooke, a French Scholar (1765-1837) who edited and/or translated. The
Shakuntala (1830) the Amarushataka (1831). The Hitopadesa (1804), the Amarakosa
(1808), the Shatakatraya of Bhartrihari (1804), Samkhyakarika of Ishvarakrishna
(1837) and two treatises on Hindu law of inheritance (1810). His work on algebra
with arithmetic and mensuration based on Sanskrit works of Brahmagupta and Bhaskara
preceded by a dissertation on the state of science as known to Hindus was published
in 1917 in London. His Digest of the Hindu Law on Contracts and Recessions (1997-
98) was a translation of composition, prepared by native scholars, on the law of
succession and contract, from the Indian law books. He also wrote the \'Grammar of
the Sanskrit Language\' (1805).

A.W.V. Schlegel (1767-1845), a German scholar, founded a periodical \'Indische

Bibliothek\' (First Vol. appeared in 1823). He contributed the Ramayana, the
Hitopadesha and also first critical edition of the Bhagavadgita with Latin
translations (1823).

Max Muller (1823-1900) a German scholar, was associated with The Sacred Books of
the East Series. He translated Upanisads and Apastamba-Sutras in English, and
edited the Rigveda with Commentary of Sayana (6 Vols.) He also edited the
Hitopadesa, the Meghaduta (1847), the Rigveda Pratishakhya (1859-69) with German
translations. He wrote many books on Philosophy, Grammar and History related to
Sanskrit.

Monier Williams (1819-89) a British scholar wrote An Elementary Grammar of the

Sanskrit language (1846), A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language, A Sanskrit
Manual for Composition (1862) and composed English- Sanskrit (1851) and Sanskrit-
English (1872) Dictionaries. He edited and translated the Shakuntala (1856), the
Vikramorvashiyam, the Nalopakhyanam (1879) and wrote many other books like the
Hinduism (1877) and the Indian Wisdom (1878).

William Dawight Whitney (1827-94), an American scholar , edited the Atharvaveda

(1856) and wrote the Sanskrit Grammar (1879) and The Roots, Verb-forms and Primary
Derivations of Sanskrit language (1885). He edited the Atharvaveda Pratishakhya
(1862) and the Taittiriya Pratishakhya, with commentary and translation. He also
edited and translated the Surya Siddhanta, a treatise on Astronomy and Astrology
and produced the Oriental and Linguistic Studies in two volumes (1873-74).

Thus Spake

“Samskrit language, as has been universally recognized by those competent to form a

judgment, is one of the most magnificent, the most perfect, the most prominent and
wonderfully sufficient literary instrument developed by the human mind.”

- Sri Aurobindo

“Without the study of Samskrit one cannot become a true Indian and a true learned
man.”
- Mahatma Gandhi

“If I was asked what is the greatest treasure which India possesses and what is her
finest heritage, I would answer unhesitatingly that it is the Samskrit language and
literature and all that it contains. This is a magnificent inheritance and so long
as this endures and influences the life of our people, so long will the basic
genius of India continue. If our race forgot the Buddha, the Upanishads and the
great epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), India would cease to be India .”

- Jawaharlal Nehru

“Samskrit has moulded the minds of our people to the extent to which they
themselves are not conscious. Samskrit literature is national in one sense, but its
purpose has been universal. That was why it commanded the attention of people who
were not followers of a particular culture.”

- Dr. S. Radhakrishnan

“The language of Samskrit is of a wonderful structure, more perfect than Greek,

more copious than Latin and more exquisitely refined than either. Human life would
not be sufficient to make oneself acquainted with any considerable part of Hindu
literature.”

- Sir William Jones

Samskrit was at one time the only language of the world. It is more perfect and
copious than Greek and Latin.”

- Prof. Bopp

“Samskrit is the origin of modern languages of Europe .”

- Mr Bubois

Samskrit is the unsurpassed zenith in the whole development of languages yet known
to us.”

- Wilhelm von Humboldt

“The intellectual debt of Europe to Samskrit literature has been undeniably great.
It may perhaps become greater still in the years that are to come. We (Europeans)
are still behind the making even our alphabet a perfect one.”

- Prof. Macdonell
“Samskrit is the greatest language of the world.”

- Max Muller

“ India was the motherland of our race and Samskrit the mother of Europe ’s
languages…Mother India is in many ways the mother of us all.”

- Will Durant

“If Samskrit would be divorced from the everyday life of the masses of this
country, a light would be gone from the life of the people and the distinctive
features of Hindu culture which have won for it an honoured place in world-thought
would soon be affected to be great disadvantage and loss both of India and of the
world.”

- Sir Mirza Ismail