Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects

English East India Company and Ghulab Singh, raja of Jammu

Disparate territories stripped by the company from the Sikh kingdom of Punjab were
cobbled together to bring into being this state- including Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh,
Hunza, Nagar and Gilgit.

Ranjit Singh was the builder of the powerful sikh kingdom. After his death in 1839, the
court at Lahore spiralled into a period of factional infighting (Ghulab Singh had two
brothers, Dhian Singh and Suchet Singh and one nephew Hira Singh who advanced and
received prestigious appointments after Ghulab was made the raja of Jammu in 1822.
After his death, the various social cleavages in the Sikh Kingdom caused by his policies
of inducting new recruits in the army and the ranks of the nobility now came out in the
open. The inauguration of Punjab’s new raja, Kharak Singh didn’t immediately lead to
the removal of Dogra rajas. Dhian Singh was finally assassinated in 1843 while Suchet
Singh was killed in a military engagement with his nephew Hira Singh in 1844. Ghulab
and Hira parted ways afterwards and Hira went so far as to threaten the invasion of
Jammu. The split between Sikh army and Hira led to the latters killing in December
1844…………..) The East India Company had to intervene because Lahore (the delicate
frontier between India and Pakistan. In neighboring Afghanistan, Dost Mohammad was
emir. He was never entirely disposed [incline (someone) towards a particular activity or
mood] towards the British, and he had even sought an alliance with Persia and Russia in
the past. Instability at Lahore triggered British Russian Phobia and a need to arrest a sikh
slide into anarchy became imperative[of vital importance; crucial]) was their only
guarantee against the ever looming threat of Russian advance. Earlier, Ranjit Singh and
the company had both found it mutually convenient to rien in their expansion. Through a
treaty of ‘perpetual friendship’ signed on 25th April 1809, they settled on river Sutlej
which separated Lahore’s influence from the company’s dominions. Company’s
intervention led to the first Anglo-Sikh war in 1845 in which the British allied with
Ghulab Singh which turned out to be of capital importance in turning the tide against the
Sikhs.

Ghulab Singh was born in 1792. By 1790, the political landscape of Punjab had once
again changed. Ranjit Singh of the Sukerchakia confederacy had emerged by
undercutting other confederacies to become the ruler of punjab. He sought to enlarge the
resource base of his government through further territorial expansion, and since moving
south of Sutlej meant to come in direct conflict with the company, Ranjit moved his
attention to the hills and by 1808 had incorporated Jammu into the Sikh kingdom. Ghulab
Singh understood that his best chance lay with the Sikh, so by 1808 he joined the Sikhs
and eventually rose into the ranks of sikh hierarchy by excelling in his missions.

Ghulab Singh’s expedition (a journey undertaken by a group of people with a particular

purpose, especially that of exploration, research, or war.) to Afghan-controlled Kashmir
in 1813 which means Kashmir was not yet under Sikh control. Jammu was incorporated
into Sikh kingdom in 1808 and Kashmir, as per records, in 1819. And Finally in 1822, he
was made the raja of Jammu with the signal honor of having his Sikh overlord personally
travel to Akhnoor (Jammu province) to preside over the coronation.

Henry Hardinge, governor general, gave a go ahead to the first Anglo-Sikh war in 1845
which the English won. Complete subsumption of the Sikh kingdom required greater
military thrust and more abundant financial resources that it could then muster.
Company’s aim was to maintain the Sikh Kingdom. The most expedient (of an action)
convenient and practical although possibly improper or immoral. "either side could
break the agreement if it were expedient to do so") way, they thought, was to break the
territorial integrity of Ranjit Singh’s domains and pass it on to reliable sources. Kashmir
was difficult to defend and precariously (insecurely, possible to fall or collapse) close to
the Russian empire.

Two interlinked treaties signed in 1846. The first was ‘the treaty of Lahore’ on 9 March
1846 with the Sikhs and the second was ‘the treaty of Amritser’ on 16 March 1846.

A Tale of Two Treaties: Separating Jammu and

Kashmir from Lahore
“Carving out territorially distinct political entities from regions that had formerly been
integrated, albeit loosely, within one symbolic system of layered and hierarchical
sovereignty, required more skill with the knife than it possessed.”

Albiet means though “he was making progress, albeit rather slowly”
Exercise entailed (need, required, demand, call for)

Necessitated (to make something necessary) the unraveling (Investigate and solve or
explain (something complicated or puzzling) ‘they were attempting to unravel the cause
of death’) of an intricate (Very complicated or detailed) pattern

Unraveling also means undo (twisted, knitted, or woven threads).

Intermeshing ( 'Of two or more things' mesh with one another // two teams were
brought together and compelled to intermesh) authority

“And ensured the persistence of Lahore as a significant extra-territorial arena from which
the Dogra would continue to derive their legitimacy to rule over J&K”

Porous (not retentive or secure) political boundaries

Retentive means (of a person's memory) effective in retaining facts and impressions.‘he
had a highly retentive memory and was an accomplished speaker’
Retain means continue to have (something); keep possession of
absorb or continue to hold (a substance)
"limestone is known to retain water"

Political retreats (retreat has many good meanings, check lexico)

the political imbrication (overlapping) of Lahore

Intertwined nature (Intertwine: Twist or twine together. with object ‘a net made of
cotton intertwined with other natural fibres // Connect or link (two or more things)
closely.
Both tendencies are closely intertwined but they often contradict each other.’ )

“To sever the two territories”

Sever: 1: Divide by cutting or slicing, especially suddenly and forcibly.
‘the head was severed from the body’

2: Put an end to (a connection or relationship); break off.‘the notice itself may be

sufficient to sever the joint tenancy’

Tenancy means possession of land or property as a tenant and tenant means a person who
occupies land or property rented from a landlord.
Repudiated: Refuse to accept; reject.
‘she has repudiated policies associated with previous party leaders’

Deny the truth or validity of.

‘the minister repudiated allegations of human rights abuses’

Exonerate his government's policy

exonerate means (of an official body) absolve (someone) from blame for a fault or
wrongdoing.
release someone from (a duty or obligation).

Absolve: declare (someone) free from guilt, obligation, or punishment. ‘The pardon
absolved them of any crime’

“Article 8 of the Amritsar engagement made Ghulab Singh’s accession to

sovereignty conditional upon his respecting various ‘Articles of Agreement’
concluded between the company and Lahore on 11 March 1846.”

Through these articles, the British had undertaken to ‘respect the bona fide’ rights
of those jagirdars appointed by the sikhs in territories now ceded to the company.

Company’s obligation towards sikh-appointed jagirdars within them also devolved

upon him.

Wittingly or otherwise, the result of this provision of the Treaty of Amritsar was to
situate the first Dogra ruler as a ‘successor’ to the Sikhs in Kashmir rather than as
an originally independent sovereign.

At the pinnacle of hierarchy (pinnacle means the most successful point; the
culmination. "he had reached the pinnacle of his career")

Unqualified boon (a thing that is helpful or beneficial. "the route will be a boon to
many travelers")

Concomitant allegiances (naturally accompanying or associated. "she loved travel, with

all its concomitant worries"
a phenomenon that naturally accompanies or follows something. "he sought
promotion without the necessary concomitant of hard work")

By which the speed of sovereignty and the networks of patronage embodied by it often
extended the influence of various layers of power-holders into each other’s territories.

Diligently: In a way that shows care and conscientiousness in one's work or duties. ‘he
spends his nights diligently working on his dissertation’

Devolved upon time (having had power transferred or delegated to a lower level,
especially from central government to local or regional administration.)
If power or authority is devolved, it has been passed to somebody else who has less
power “devolved responsibility”

Wittingly (Done in full awareness or consciousness; deliberate. 'The top bankers and
their top legal firms are all part of a very deliberate and witting money laundering
apparatus.’

(of a person) conscious or aware of the full facts of a situation.

‘a witting accomplice’) or otherwise

The deleterious (Causing harm or damage.

‘divorce is assumed to have deleterious effects on children’

harmful and damaging

the deleterious effect of stress on health)

Skewed association ( skewed means not balanced; not in a straight or level position)

Delimited (delimit something to decide what the limits of something are) dominions
(sovereignty or control- man's attempt to establish dominion over nature.
2. (Usually dominions) The territory of a sovereign or government. 'the roman
dominions'
Gusto (enjoyment and enthusiasm in doing something 'Hawkins tucked into his
breakfast with gusto') in exercise of dividing tracts, haggling (to argue with somebody in
order to reach an agreement, especially about the price of something
haggle over/about something I left him in the market haggling over the price of a shirt
haggle with somebody over/about something We spent a long time haggling with the
authorities over our visas.
haggle something You can sometimes haggle a good discount.
haggle something down (to something) I managed to haggle the price down to
something more reasonable) vigorously (in a way that is very active, determined or full
of energy. ‘She shook her head vigorously; The accusation was vigorously
denied.) over those considered economically and strategically vital

despite evidence calling into question the efficacy (The ability to produce a desired or
intended result ‘Blood tests may be needed periodically to monitor the treatment and its
efficacy’) of such a policy

through a sleight of hand (The use of dexterity or cunning, especially so as to

deceive.‘except by sleight of logic, the two positions cannot be harmonized’

Phrase: sleight of hand

Manual dexterity, typically in performing conjuring tricks.

‘a nifty bit of sleight of hand got the ashtray into the correct position’

Skilful deception.

‘this is financial sleight of hand of the worst sort’)

Tracts: an area of land, typically a large one. 'Large tracts of natural forests'
An immediately large extent of something. 'Higher oil prices are damaging vast tracts
of economy'

working on a contingency basis

contingency means a future event or circumstance which is possible but cannot be
predicted with certainty. "a detailed contract which attempts to provide for all possible
contingencies"
a provision for a possible event or circumstance
an incidental expense

if this is dismissed as the nostalgic reminiscing of an aging sovereign

being a lineal descendant of the sixth sikh guru
Splendor : Great and impressive beauty, things that are very beautiful and impressive.
splendid is verb form of splendor
a splendid view of windsor castle

Demarcating sovereignty (set the boundaries or limits of. "plots of land demarcated by
barbed wire"
separate or distinguish from. "art was being demarcated from the more objective
science"

Conversely: in a contrasting or opposite way —used to introduce a statement that

contrasts with a previous statement or presents a differing interpretation or possibility

Lahore was liquidated as an ‘independent’ political center not long after, in1849,
when the East India Company finally took over the direct administration of the
Punjab.

Gulab Singh died in 1857.

Bolster their legitimacy (support or strengthen. "the fall in interest rates is starting to
bolster confidence")

The Social Structure of Kashmir

Retain: something to keep something; to continue to have something
SYNONYM is preserve
to retain your independence
He struggled to retain control of the situation.
The house retains much of its original charm.
She retained her tennis title for the third year.

in an unparalleled degree of hindu-muslim amity (a friendly relationship between people

or countries) considered by many to be the basis for a unique tradition of regional
solidarity

Communal concord: concord (with somebody) (formal) peace and agreement

SYNONYM is harmony
living in concord with neighboring states

Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a specific social group, religious

denomination, caste, or ethnic group, rejecting those from others as unsuitable for
marriage or other close personal relationships.

Most accounts assert that the Hindus of Kashmir were represented by the single caste of
the Kashmiri pandits (Brahmans), a result of the gradual conversion to Islam, beggining
in the fourteenth century, of the other castes. Yet even this group was subdivided into at
least two endogamous subcastes: the Gors and the Karkuns. (The word Gor is derived
from the Sanskrit Guru and Karkun is the Persian word for civil servants, revenue
collectors, etc. A third much smaller category of Kashmiri Brahmins, present only in the
towns of the valley. was called buher, employed mostly as grocers and confectioners.
pandits neither inter-married nor interdinned with them, also denying them access to the
temple.

Among muslims, the natives of Kashmir, the shaikhs, were also internally differentiated
along lines determined predominantly by their occupation. These shaiks included the
zamindars (agriculturalists) on the one hand, and the nangars (the non-agriculturalists or
artisans) on the other.

Shiaism was introduced into the valley by Shams-ud-din-Iraqi as early as in 1450. never
gained much ground in the valley and was concentrated most heavily in the Zadibal
quarter of Srinagar and were primarily engaged in the shawl-weaving and paper mache
industries.
Neither the Hindus nor the Muslims of Kashmir formed homogenous social entities. For
both groups the notion of Zat or Kram, evoking the concept of birth into a common clan
group, was a decisive factor in specifying and living out their identities. Hindus and
similarly Muslims of Kashmir placed informal restrictions, not sanctioned by their faith
but prevalent in custom, on intermarraige between zats and krams.

Homogenous: consisting of things or people that are all the same or all of the same
type
a homogeneous group/mixture/population
a culturally homogeneous society
Old people are not a homogeneous group, as some people seem to think

There was ritual and economic interdependence between muslims and pandits.
Panoply: a large and impressive number or collection of something
SYNONYM array
The government has promised a whole panoply of social and economic improvements.
In absence of the full panoply of jatis that characterized Hindu society elsewhere, the
pandits, whose caste status excluded them from either manual labour or work deemed
polluting, relied heavily on Muslim specialist groups for the provision of essential
services and liturgical goods. ( footnote on page 40)

Analogue: A person or thing seen as comparable to another. (Synonym is equivalent)

Indispensable: too important to be without (synonym is essential)
Cars have become an indispensable part of our lives.
indispensable to somebody/something- She made herself indispensable to the
department.
indispensable for something/for doing something- A good dictionary is indispensable
for learning a foreign language.
Acquiescence: The reluctant acceptance of something without protest.
the fact of being willing to do what somebody wants and to accept their opinions, even if
you are not sure that they are right
(There was general acquiescence in the UN sanctions.)

Asymmetrical: Having parts or aspects that are not equal or equivalent; unequal.
‘the asymmetrical relationship between a landlord and a tenant’
Plausible: (of an argument or statement) seeming reasonable or probable. ‘a plausible
explanation’
1.1(of a person) skilled at producing persuasive arguments, especially ones intended to
deceive. ‘a plausible liar’
What made Kashmir social structure so singular was the pattern of interaction between
the Hindus and Muslims deriving from the Valley’s Hindus consisting solely of the
Brahman caste (this forced a relationship of ritual and economic interdependence
between Kashmir Pandits and Muslims.
Muslim groups functioned as ‘caste analogues’ and were indispensable for the
maintenance of their ritual purity as Brahmans.
For Muslims, this was traditional economic transaction (vital tie)
Interaction between two communities was marked by an asymmetrical pattern of
dependence: Muslims could not refuse services.Although certainly reliant in critical ways
on Muslim service groups, what cannot be ignored is the capacity of the Kashmiri Pandits
to extract such services.
All this because, Dogra rulers , looking for allies within Kashmiri society, drew primarily
on the Pandits. This enhanced the power of the latter, dominant in the administrative
structure of the state and especially its revenue department.

Lawrence wrote of less than perfect Muslims who, despite 500 years of conversion, were
still ‘Hindus at heart’ and so presumably less prone to the supposed fanaticism of their
Islamic brethren elsewhere. The Pandits for their part, through Brahmans, were depicted
as less scrupulous ((of a person or process) careful, thorough, and extremely attentive
to details. "the research has been carried out with scrupulous attention to detail" 1.1:
very concerned to avoid doing wrong. "she's too scrupulous to have an affair with a
married man") in the maintenance of their rituals of Purity and pollution than their more
‘rigid’ counterparts in Hindustan and so more willing to interact with Muslims in a series
of common rites and cultural practices.

Kashmiri religious landscape

‘Many sacred sites at which Muslims and Pandits worshiped together, even if in their
own idiom. One such was the imprint of a foot at Fatehpura that Muslims revered as the
holy Prophet’s footprint and the Hindus as the mark of Vishnu.
Monolithic nationalism (a form of extreme patriotism and nationalism, a fervent faith
in national excellence and glory.), pejorative communalism trapped in Political
procedure and academic explanation
The history of Kashmir challenges such dichotomies (the division of two things that are
completely different: I try to examine the dichotomy between what people think they
are and what they do.)
Religion and region were important ingredients of a Kashmiri sense of self
Kashmir captive to narratives that originated elsewhere and with agendas that were extra-
Kashmiri
The Treaty of Amritsar and Vacating Power in
Kashmir
Power at all levels was held by mutual recognition and this pattern of mutuality protected
against the complete subsumption of the rights of subordinate levels.
An important dimension in giving symbolic content to this relationship (mutual
relationship) in pre-colonial India was the symbolic act of gifting and receiving Nazar
(gold coins) or Peshkash (valuables such as horses) from a subordinate. According to
Bernard Cohn, these acts of presentations, especially the gifting of a Khillat, were key
components of political relations founded on the idea that the king stood for a ‘system of
rule of which he is the incarnation incorporating into his body… the persons of those who
share his rule.’ The giving of these honors in person carried special significance because
the ‘hand of the giver left its “essence” on the robe’
‘Political allegiance’ ‘enactment of political relations’ ‘metropolis’
Replete: filled or well - supplied with something. ‘Sensational popular fiction, replete
with adultery and sudden death’
‘Fluid politics’ something that is unstable or subject to change can be described as
fluid. The fluid political situation in a particular country makes it unsafe to travel there
with the constant possibility of a violent uprising.
Forge: create something strong, enduring, or successful ‘the 2 women forged a close
bond’ ‘the forging of alliances, an essential component of political functioning’
Resumption: the action of beginning something again after a pause or interruption
‘With peace came the resumption of foreign imports’
‘Khanqah sufi hospice’
‘Officiants of the shrine’
Intercession: the action of intervening on behalf of another/ ‘he only escaped ruin by
the intercession of his peers with the king’

The degree of authority and right of independent action allowed to subordinate levels of
power was considerable prior to the Treaty of Amritsar. Thus, jagirdars were allowed
their own rights of alienation from Jagir’s income, placing them at the center of a
network of authority and patronage echoing the position of the Maharaja himself.

Pander to somebody/something: to do or provide exactly what a person or group wants,

especially when it is not acceptable, reasonable, or approved of, usually in order to get
some personal advantage (political leaders almost inevitably pander to big business)
Preposterous: contrary to reason or common sense; utterly absurd or ridiculous ‘a
preposterous suggestion’
‘British arbitrator’ arbitrator means an independent person or body officially appointed
to settle a dispute. “The facts of the case are put to an independent arbitrator”
The word unrelenting usually describes a person who is stubborn and persistent in his
efforts. An unrelenting person may also be unforgiving, such as a judge who will give
the harshest sentence regardless of the sob story the person on trial tells him.
Unrelenting can also refer to non-human actions, like the unrelenting wind that finally
led to a cancelation of your outdoor sailing competition or the unrelenting noise of the
party that kept you awake all night.

Venerated means regarded with great respect; revered.

Cultivated means refined and well educated ‘he was a remarkably cultivated and
educated man’ it also means civilized

Razdan fully understood the new game afoot. ‘In preparation or progress; happening or
beginning to happen.

If the Kashmiri Pandits were a minority in the valley, their small number was triumphed
by their influence. This was due to their long tradition of literacy and so their
indispensability to the administration of any regime in power in Kashmir.
Indispensability means absolutely necessary.
Unyielding means (of a mass or structure) not giving way to pressure; hard or solid. ‘The
Atlantic hurled its waves at the unyielding rocks’
(of a person or their behavior) unlikely to be swayed; resolute ‘his unyielding faith’

Sheikh Imam-ud-din was the last Sikh appointed governor in Kashmir who had refused to
relinquish power in the immediate aftermath of the Treaty of Amritsar.

Submission had always been the first step towards ‘incorporation’

As Dirks has suggested in pre-colonial India ‘giving land away was not really giving it
away as much as it was incorporating new people into the moral-political economy in
which the king was at the center. From this perspective, Gulab Singh wished to flex some
muscle and assert the primacy of the new maharaja as the sole source of such grants.
Previous arrangements of power were, figuratively speaking, lapsed and what was sought
to be asserting was that their continuation was only at the pleasure of Gulab Singh. All
attending loyalty and gratitude were now owed to him. For any new sovereign an
important point to make clear.

If one may think, what made British pressure on Gulab Singh to avoid alienating all
jagirdars in Kashmir was informed by their concerns for maintaining stability in this
newly integrated territory which shared such sensitive ‘international’ frontiers.
Tenuous: very weak or slight
Ignominious: Deserving or causing public disgrace or shame/ Disgraceful ‘it is terrible
novel and deserves to die an ignominious death’
Potents: having great power, influence, or effect. ‘Thrones were potent symbols of
authority’

Menace: a threat or danger

But sought systematically to divest localized niches of power of their former effective
authority/// divest means to deprive someone of (power, right, or possessions) 1.2: rid
oneself of (a business interest, an investment (the government’s policy of divesting
itself of state holdings)
Pugnacious: eager or quick to argue or fight ‘his public statements became increasingly
pugnacious’
Immortalize: to give everlasting fame, to cause someone to be remembered for a very
long time
Any display of bellicosity was to be put down in Kashmir ‘ bellicosity means an
inclination to fight or quarrel’
Launched a vigorous assault on dacoits ‘vigorous means strong, healthy and full of
energy’

Naqshbandhi’s were a prominent family in Kashmir. What of others? When Lieutenant

R.G Taylor, assistant to the Resident in Lahore, arrived in Kashmir in 1847, he was asked
four questions by the inhabitants: first, ;whether the British were the heirs to Kashmir’;
second, ‘whether he (Taylor) had full powers to do what (he) liked’; third, whether in the
case of complaint he would ‘interfere authoritatively to procure redress or only
intercede’; fourth, whether he would ‘save anyone who had complained from subsequent
ill-treatment by the Maharaja or his official.
Page 60; reread
With ‘representative’ power vacating from the valley, all that remained were lambs
meekly awaiting their shearing.

Kashmir As Treasury, Kashmir As Workshop

On assuming power, the flustered Maharaja ‘gazing at the Valley from a hill’ was said to
have noted ‘that one part was mountain, one part under water, while the remaining third
was in the hands of Jagirdars’.
Kashmir had long been envisioned as the endowment from which sinecures were
awarded to all the loyal servants of either Kabul, under Afghan rule, or Lahore under
Sikh rule.
Envision: Imagine as a future possibility; visualize.
‘She envisioned the admiring glances of guests seeing her home’
Endow: Provide with a quality, ability, or asset
‘He was endowed with tremendous physical strength’
‘The country is well endowed with mineral resources’
1.1: be endowed: (informal) have breasts or a penis of a specified size. ‘I had two friends
who were both better endowed than me’
‘Even more objectionable are his mostly gratuitous description of generously endowed
women’
Sinecure: a position requiring little or no work but giving the holder status or financial
benefit. ‘Political positions must not be treated as sinecures’

The opulent resources of Kashmir

Opulent means ostentatiously costly and luxurious
1.1: wealthy ‘his more opulent tenants’
Ostentatiously means in a pretentious or showy way designed to impress. ‘She was
known for dressing ostentatiously in designer clothes’
‘Despite their wealth, they chose not to live ostentatiously.’

Rapacity means aggressive greed.

Avarice means extreme greed for wealth or material gain.
Shali (un-winnowed rice) is the staple crop of Kashmir
Impost means a tax or similar other compulsory payment
Monopolize means (of an organization or group) obtain exclusive possession or control
of (a trade, commodity, or service)
‘They instituted press censorship and monopolized the means of communication’
1.1: have or take the greatest share of. ‘The bigger clubs monopolize the most profitable
sponsorships and TV deals’
1.2: Get or keep exclusively to oneself.
‘Sophie monopolized the guest of honor for most of the evening’
Corce: persuade (an unwilling person) to do something by using force or threats ‘ he was
coerced into giving evidence’
1.1: obtain (something) from someone by using force or threats ‘their confessions were
allegedly coerced by torture’

The Search for Legitimacy: Gulab Singh as Rajput

Ruler
‘Evidence for the natural proclivity’
Proclivity means a tendency to choose or do something regularly; an inclination or
predisposition towards a particular thing. "a proclivity for hard work"

‘Internal bickering’
Bicker means argue about petty and trivial matters. "couples who bicker over who gets
what from the divorce"
Self-referentially: Referring to oneself or itself: The biographer's account of the poet's life
was surprisingly self-referential

Averring: gerund or present participle: averring

state or assert to be the case. "he averred that he was innocent of the allegations"

Predatory: (of an animal) preying naturally on others. "predatory species of shark"

seeking to exploit others. "new laws have been passed designed to crack down on
predatory lenders"

Oriental despotism: A particularly oppressive form of despotic government, thought

historically to be characteristic of Asian politics, especially those of the Ottoman and
Chinese Empires

Emulate: match or surpass (a person or achievement), typically by imitation. "most rulers

wished to emulate Alexander the Great"
imitate. "hers is not a hairstyle I wish to emulate"

Disseminations means the action or fact of spreading something, especially information,

widely. "the dissemination of public information"

‘Had remained isolated from trends diluting their ancient faiths and cultures’

‘Pristine Hindu India’

in its original condition; unspoilt. "pristine copies of an early magazine"
clean and fresh as if new; spotless. "a pristine white shirt"

‘Venerated as divine’
‘Hermetically sealed and virginal domain’
Hermetically means in a way that is completely airtight. "hermetically sealed windows
help to keep out cold air"
in a way that is insulated or protected from outside influences. "hermetically sealed lives
cut off from society"

‘Forming the substratum of popular culture’

Substratum means a foundation or basis of something. "there is a broad substratum of
truth in her story"

‘Confirmed their affinities’

Affinity means a natural liking for and understanding of someone or something. "he had
a special affinity with horses"
Verve means enthusiasm or vigor, as in literary or artistic work; spirit: ‘Her latest novel
lacks verve’.

‘Spiritual disquisition’
Disquition means a long or elaborate essay or discussion on a particular subject. "nothing
can kill a radio show quicker than a disquisition on intertextual analysis"
‘Pivotal figure’
Pivotal means of crucial importance in relation to the development or success of
something else. "Japan's pivotal role in the world economy"

The Consolidation of Dogra Legitimacy in Kashmir

Consolidation means strengthening/ action or process of making something stronger or
more solid/ into a single more effective or coherent whole

Tentative means not certain or fixed; provisional

No matter how widely the net of legitimacy was cast, it still excluded the majority of the
subjects of the valley of Kashmir who happened to be Muslims.
‘Marginalization of kashmiri muslims’

‘Paramount relations’ paramount means more important than anything else; supreme
‘The interests of the child are of paramount importance’

‘Mutiny/rebellion of 1857’
Responsible for precipitating the rebellion of the previous year. ‘Precipitating means
cause (an event or situation, typically one that is undesirable) to happen suddenly,
unexpectedly, or prematurely’.

Proclamation means a public or official announcement dealing with a matter of great

importance
A clear declaration of something

‘Indian spirit of factionalism’

‘In princely India, however, religion was deemed to form the bedrock of political and
social functioning’ bedrock means the fundamental principles on which something is
based ‘honesty is the bedrock of a good relationship’

‘Religious-mindedness was an Indian peculiarity’

Quagmire means an awkward, complex, or hazardous situation.

Obscurantist means a person who deliberately prevent the facts or full details of
something from becoming ‘political obscurantists’

Fanatic means filled with or expressing excessive zeal, especially for an extreme
religious or political cause.

‘Discourage persecution by expostulation and indirects influence’

Expostulation means to express strong disapproval or disagreement.

‘Princely India was gradually transformed into a stereotyped traditional India’

‘Precepts of their several religions’

Magnanimity means generous or forgiving, especially towards a rival or less powerful

person.

Entreaty means an earnest or humble request ‘his supervisors have ignored his entreaties’

The Imperial Assemblage of 1877 and Religious

Princes
In1877, an imperial assemblage was held in Delhi to celebrate the assumption of the title
‘Empress of India’ by Victoria.
The reference point was still the rebellion of 1857. The celebration was to be ‘a festival
of peace’ not a paean of triumph' following a suitably long period of amnesia after which
the princess…..

‘Live in a state of chronic hostility’

Cursory: hasty and therefore not thorough or detailed. "a cursory glance at the figures"

Maharaja Gulab Singh a ‘Hindu Ruler’

Dar-ul-Islam: a land in which Islam could be publicly practised.

Thus, while Ranjit Singh, in consolidating his power, had made the obligatory references
to the Sikh Khalsa, the founding guru of the faith (Nanak), and the holy scripture (the
Granth), he also extended his sovereignty over the Muslims of the Punjab by patronizing,
rather than extirpating, their religious leaders and learned men. There seemed to be no
difficulty in reconciling two visions of the Sikh kingdom; as the political expression of
the sovereignty of the Sikh panth as well as Dar-ul-Islam, a land in which Islam could be
publicly practises. Nevertheless, the precedence (the condition of being considered
important than someone or something else; priority in importance, order, or rank) of the
Sikh faith was clearly asserted in that Muslim practices such as cattle slaughter,
considered irreconcilable with Sikh worship, were prohibited as was the calling of the
Azan from mosques in the Sikh sacred centre of Amritser.

In a world of imbricated (overlapping) sovereignties, control by a political overlord was

transitory (not permanent) unless it could rely on the allegiance of the regional lords and
their capacity to make their own local arrangements and compromises to incorporate
distant peripheries into the center. Conversely, a regional raja's success in a locality
rested on his ability to reflect the glory of his overlord and this was achieved partly by his
replicating his political master's system of incorporation.
By replicating (make an exact copy of; reproduce) his political master’s system of
incorporation

Idiosyncrasy: a mode of behavior or way of thought peculiar to an individual.

‘One of his little idiosyncrasies was always preferring to be in the car first’
(a distinctive or peculiar feature or characteristic of a place or thing)

Piety: the quality of being religious or reverent ‘act of piety and charity’

Substantiation means substantiate which means provide evidence to support or prove the
truth of ‘they had found voting to substantiate the allegations

“In fits and starts”

Flux(mass noun) means continuous change ‘since the fall of the wall Berlin has been a
city in flux’

Antagonize: cause (someone) to become hostile or angry

Tread

‘To allow it was considered an abdication of sovereignty since it was viewed, almost
uniformly, as a clear contravention (an action which offends against a law, treaty, or
other ruling) of Hindu or Sikh religious beliefs

Hamper means hinder or impede the movement or progress of

Morbid consequences
Inclemency

Adherents of faith

Phrases: insofar as ( to the extent that)

The slipshod quality of the repairs

Bespoke

Indifferent: lack of interest, concern or sympathy

Emancipation: The fact or process of being set free from legal, social or political
restrictions, liberation ‘the social and political emancipation of women’
The freeing of someone from slavery ‘the early struggle emancipation from slavery’