Aegean Breechcloths, Kilts, and the Keftiu Paintings

Author(s): Paul Rehak

Source: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 100, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pp. 35-51
Published by: Archaeological Institute of America
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 Aegean Breechcloths, Kilts, and the Keftiu Paintings
PAUL REHAK

Abstract corded in Egyptian tombs may reflect more the type

In discussions of Aegean costume, considerable at- of men the Egyptians saw than any political structures
tention has been paid to the change in the representa- that the garments might have represented*
tion of presumed Aegean natives (the Keftiu) in several
Egyptian tomb paintings of the 18th Dynasty. The earlier
tombs depict men wearing breechcloths with codpieces INTRODUCTION
and backflaps; the later tombs show men in kilts. The
It has often been observed that Aegean Bronze
date of this change has usually been thought to coin-
cide with a shift in power in the Aegean at the end of Age art consists primarily of images without texts.'
LM IB, from Minoans (with codpieces) to Mycenaeans Considerations of pose, jewelry, hairstyle, and cos-
(in kilts). tume thus become paramount in an attempt to de-
But both breechcloths and kilts are worn on Crete termine meaning in the representations of the hu-
at least from MM II times, and neither costume is gen-
man figure. Predictably, some of these areas like
erally worn by early Mycenaeans. Breechcloths with cod-
pieces characterize certain types of Minoan activity hairstyles and jewelry have received more attention
(hunting, farming, bull-leaping, and ritual performances), than others;2 perhaps most problematic is the issue
whereas shorts appear in early Mycenaean scenes of hunt- of Aegean costume, which has yet to be addressed
ing and fighting, replaced in LH IIIA-B frescoes by systematically as a reflection of gender, status, and
tunics; most Mycenaean representations of kilts are quite
late (LH IIIB). activity.3
Rather than an indication of ethnicity, differences One interesting and major problem of costume
in Aegean costume may refer to age, status, and activity, concerns the relationship between the breechcloth
and the change in costume of the Keftiu embassies re- and the kilt in a series of Egyptian paintings that

* I am
grateful to the following individuals for their help- scholars, most notably M.P. Nilsson, MMR2 7: "The evi-
ful comments: L. Bell, PP. Betancourt, E. Cline, L. Hitch- dence is purely archaeological, it has come down to us as
cock, C. Lilyquist, N. Marinatos, M.J. Mellink, S. Morris, a picture book without text, and our first concern is to
G. Nordquist,J. Rutter, C. Thomas, the two anonymous re- furnish a text to the pictures -namely, to interpret them."
viewers for AJA, and especially J.G. Younger. Versions of 2 On hairstyles, see E. Davis, "Youth and Age in the
this paper were presented at the Workshop on Ancient Thera Frescoes," AJA90 (1986) 399-406; and R. Koehl, "The
Societies, University of Chicago (11 October 1994) and cir- Chieftain Cup and a Minoan Rite of Passage,"JHS 106 (1986)
culated at the conference Ancient Near Eastern Textiles 99-110; D. Withee, "Physical Growth and Aging Character-
and Interregional Contacts in the Mid-Second Millennium istics Depicted in the Theran Frescoes," AJA 96 (1992) 336
B.C., Leiden (17-18 November 1994). (abstract). Much additional work remains to be done, espe-
The following abbreviations have been used: cially in view of the continuing publication of the Thera
frescoes that show new hairstyles: see illustrations in
Barber E.J.W.Barber, Prehistoric Textiles:TheDe- Doumas. For jewelry, see the useful catalogue and com-
velopment of Cloth in the Neolithic and ments byJ. Younger, "Representations of Minoan-Mycenaean
BronzeAges,with Special Referenceto the Jewelry,"in R. Laffineur andJ.L. Crowley eds., EIKQN:Aegean
Aegean (Princeton 1991). BronzeAgeIconography: Shapinga Methodology(Aegaeum8, 1992)
Buchholz and H.-G.Buchholz and V. Karageorghis, Pre- 257-93.
Karageorghis historic Greece and Cyprus (New York 3B. Jones, a student of G. Kopcke at the Institute of Fine
1973). Arts in New York, has just completed a dissertation (1995),
Doumas C. Doumas, The Wall-Paintings of Thera entitled Women'sCostume in the Aegean Bronze Age. See also
(Athens 1992). D. Kokkinidou and M. Nikolaidou, H apXazo),oyia Karl
Hood S. Hood, The Arts in Prehistoric Greece KOlVcoviK71 ravr6drpraropy ari7v aiyaiaKl
HIpoa•yyiseiq
(Harmondsworth 1978). 7cpoiaropia (Thessalonikipv,&ov:
1993). A. Alexandri at Cambridge
Immerwahr S. Immerwahr, Aegean Painting in the University has written a recent Ph.D. thesis on gender in
Bronze Age (University Park 1990). Minoan archaeology, and M. Lee at Bryn Mawr College
Marinatos 1960 S. Marinatos and M. Hirmer, Creteand an M.A. thesis on Semiotic Approaches to the Iconographyof
Mycenae (New York 1960). Genderin Minoan Neopalatial Bronze VotiveFigurines. A paper
Marinatos 1976 S. Marinatos and M. Hirmer, Kreta, Thera by P. Rehak on "The Construction of Gender in Late Bronze
und das mykenische Hellas, rev. ed. Aegean Art-A Prolegomenon" was presented at the Third
(Munich 1976). Australian Women in Archaeology Conference in Sydney,
IThis situation, of course, also occurs in regard to the Australia, on 5 February 1995, and at the meeting of the
art of other cultures and other times. For the Aegean, this Classical Association of the Middle West and South in
dictum has been voiced in various ways by a number of Omaha, Nebraska on 20 April 1995.
35
American Journal of Archaeology 100 (1996) 35-51

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 36 PAUL REHAK [AJA 100
seem to show Aegean natives, or Keftiu, in Theban the Aegean ca. 1450 B.C. from the Minoans, repre-
tombs of the first half of the 18th Dynasty.4 The sented by the figures with codpieces/backflaps, to
earlier paintings show individuals dressed in a styl- Mycenaeans, who are thought to be the individuals
ized version of the Minoan breechcloth with cod- wearing kilts.7
piece and backflap; the later paintings show Keftiu The problem is compounded by the fact that the
in kilts that resemble those in the Procession Fresco date of the Knossos Procession Fresco, and its kilts,
from the palace at Knossos. From an Aegean stand- is debatable. According to traditional (low) Aegean
point, the most important in the series of Egyptian chronology, a relatively firm Egyptian date of ca. 1450
paintings is that in the Tomb of Rekhmire, vizier from for the Keftiu paintings in the Tomb of Rekhmire
late in the reign of Tuthmosis III to early in the reign is thought to coincide with the end of the pottery
of Amenhotep II, ca. 1457/6-1438/33 B.C.5 There, a phases LM IB/LH IIA.8 And, since LM IB marks the
group of Keftiu (the first to be labeled as such in widespread destructions across the island of Crete
an Egyptian painting) was originally painted wear- that some have attributed to the actions of Myce-
ing codpieces with backflaps; after these figures had naean invaders, the change in costume in the Egyp-
already been completed, the garments were re- tian paintings could reflect changes in the balance
painted as kilts (fig. 1).6 The codpieces are visible of power between Crete and the mainland, if the
as pentimenti under the kilts. This change in costume change in costume is diagnostic.9
has long been thought to reflect a shift in power in Recently, however, the traditional dates associated

4The bibliography on the Keftiu is now immense. See (New York 1943; repr. 1973). On Egyptian chronology for
esp. PM 11.2, 736-48; H.J. Kantor, "The Aegean and the the New Kingdom, see esp. W.C. Hayes, CAH3 II.1, 315-22;
Orient in the Second Millennium B.C.,"AJA 51 (1947) 1-103, E. Hornung, Untersuchungenzur Chronologieund Geschichte
esp. 41-49; A. Furumark, "The Settlement at Ialysos and des neuen Reiches (Wiesbaden 1964); K.A. Kitchen, "The
Aegean History ca. 1550-1400 B.C.," OpArch 6 (1950) Basics of Egyptian Chronology in Relation to the Bronze
150-271; J. Vercoutter, L'Egypteet le mondeigien prihellinique Age," in P. Astr6m ed., High, Middle or Low?Acts of an Inter-
(Cairo 1956); W.S. Smith, Interconnectionsin the Ancient Near national Colloquiumon AbsoluteChronologyHeld at the Univer-
East (New Haven 1965) 33-35, figs. 90-92; W. Helck, Die sity of Gothenburg20-22 August19871 (G6teborg 1987) 37-55.
Beziehungen Agyptens und Vorderasienszur Agdiis(Darmstadt 6 Smith (supra n. 4) 85; Wachsmann (supra n. 4) 37,
1979);J. Strange, Caphtor/Keftiu:A New Investigation (Leiden 44-45.
1980); I. Str6m, "Aspects of Minoan Relations, LM I-II," 7 Smith (supra n. 4) 33: "These were surely Cretans in
in R. Hagg and N. Marinatos eds., The Minoan Thalassocracy: the Chapel of Senmut at the time of Hatshepsut, but pos-
Myth and Reality (Stockholm 1984) 191-94; E. and Y. Sa- sibly Minoans mingled with some Mycenaeans in the paint-
kellarakis, "The Keftiu and the Minoan Thalassocracy," in ings of User, Rekhmira and Menkheperraseneb in the fol-
Minoan Thalassocracy 197-203; S. Wachsmann, The Aegeans lowing reign of Tuthmosis III." Immerwahr 172 notes that
in the Theban Tombs(Louvain 1987); Immerwahr 89-90; P.W. the date of the Procession Fresco at Knossos "should be
Haider, in figyptischen Diensten zwischen ca. 1550 after [the] change to [the] new style of kilt in [the] Tomb
und 1200 "Agfier
vor Chr.,"Laverna 1 (1990) 18-49; E. Cline, Orien- of Rekhmire and progressive Mycenaean influence" (cf. her
talia in the Late Bronze Age Aegean:A Catalogue and Analysis comments on 89). Cameron was emphatic that kilts (which
of Tradeand Contacts between the Aegean and Egypt, Anatolia he termed "culottes") represent Mycenaeans: M.A.S. Cam-
and the Near East (Diss. Univ. of Penn. 1991) esp. 37-53; eron, A General Study of Minoan Frescoeswith Particular Ref-
Cline, "Contact, Trade or Colonization? Egypt and the Ae- erence to Unpublished Wall Paintings from Knossos (Diss. Univ.
gean in the 14th-13th Centuries B.C.," Minos 25-26 of Newcastle upon Tyne 1974) 612-52, esp. 633-41 and n.
(1990-1991) 7-36; Cline, Sailing the Wine-DarkSea: Interna- 66 (useful summary of opinions pro and contra). I am grate-
tional Tradeand the Bronze Age Aegean (BAR-IS 591, Oxford ful to the British School at Athens for allowing me to cite
1994); Barber 330-40. The recent discovery of Minoan- Cameron's comments.
inspired wall paintings at the Hyksos site of Tell el-Dab'a 8 On the relevant pottery styles, see P.P.Betancourt, The
in the Nile Delta is raising interesting new questions about
History of Minoan Pottery(Princeton 1985) 137-48; P. Mount-
Aegean/Egyptian contacts at a slightly earlier period. As joy, Mycenaean DecoratedPottery:A Guide to Its Identification
part of the symposium "The Minoans in Egypt," held in (SIMA 73, G6teborg 1986) 17-36.
Chicago in February 1993, E. Davis delivered a paper, "Evi- 9S. Hood, "Warlike Destruction in Crete c. 1450 B.C.,"
dence of Minoan Colonies in the East," which dealt with
Flexrpayypuva roy E'AeOvoi~qKptro;loylKo6 JvveSpiov (Hera-
the Keftiu. The Metropolitan Museum of Art also spon- klion 1985) 170-78. But cf. W.-D. Niemeier, "Mycenaean
sored a relevant symposium on 3 November 1993: Trade, Knossos and the Age of Linear B,"SMEA 23 (1982) 219-88;
Power, and Cultural Exchange: Hyksos Egypt and the East- Niemeier, "The Character of the Knossian Palace Society
ern Mediterranean World, 1800-1500 B.C.Several costumes in the Second Half of the 15th c. B.C.,"in O. Krzyszkowska
appear in the Tell el-Dab'a paintings, including a man in and L. Nixon eds., Minoan Society.Proceedingsof the Cambridge
a white kilt published by N. Marinatos as "aMinoan priest":
Colloquium 1981 (Bristol 1983) 217-36; H.W. Catling, Some
see Pharaonen undfremde Dynastien im Dunkel, catalogue of Problems in AegeanPrehistoryca. 1450-1380 B.C.A LectureDe-
an exhibition held in Vienna, 8 September-23 October livered at New College,Oxford,on 5 May 1987 (14thJ.L. Myres
1994, 203 cat. no. 227. Memorial Lecture, Oxford 1989).
5N. de Garis Davies, The Tombof Rekh-mi-Reat Thebes
I-II

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1996] AEGEAN BREECHCLOTHS, KILTS, AND THE KEFTIU PAINTINGS 37

Fig. 1. Keftiu in the Tomb of Rekhmire,Thebes. Paintingby N. de GarisDavies. (Photo courtesy

Metropolitan Museum of Art)

with the Aegean pottery chronology have been chal- which she takes to indicate a progressive "Myce-
lenged (see table 1),10 and according to a revised naeanization" of motifs, since they do not appear
chronology Egyptian paintings datable to ca. 1450 on clothing or pots before then.'2
in absolute terms would coincide with the pottery The precise date of the Mycenaean presence at
phases LM/LH IIIA:1." As if to support the corre- Knossos is still controversial, however. Some have
lation between the date of the Rekhmire murals and argued that their arrival at the end of the LM IB pot-
Aegean LM IIIA:1, Barber has recently noted affin- tery phase caused the widespread destruction of ad-
ities between the designs on the later Keftiu kilts ministrative centers outside of Knossos, which alone
and LM IIIA pottery patterns at Knossos, patterns survived. Others have argued that the Cretan destruc-

10 PP.
Betancourt, "Datingthe Aegean Bronze Age with PP.Betancourt,"HighChronologyor LowChronology:The
Radiocarbon;'Archaeometry 29 (1987)45-49; but cf. P.War- Archaeological Evidence,"in D.A.Hardyand A.C.Renfrew
ren, "AbsoluteDating of the Aegean Late Bronze Age," eds., Theraand the Aegean WorldIII.1 (London 1990) 19-23.
Archaeometry 29 (1987)205-11, and PP.Betancourtand H.N. 11Betancourt 1987 (supra n. 10) 47.
Michael,"Datingthe Aegean Late Bronze Age with Radio- 12E.J.W.Barber,"LateBronze Age Kilts and the Recon-
carbon: Addendum,"Archaeometry 29 (1987) 212-13; M.J. struction of Aegean Textile Connections,"AJA97 (1993)
Aitken et al.,"TheThera Eruption:Continuing Discussion 350 (abstract).Interesting in this connection is a seated
of the Dating,"Archaeometry 30 (1988) 165-82; J. Muhly, ithyphallic faience figurine perhaps of Second Interme-
"Egypt,the Aegean, and Late Bronze Age Chronology in diate Period date from Egypt who wears a kilt patterned
the EasternMediterranean:A ReviewArticle,"JMA 4 (1991) with running spirals in strips:E. Riefstahl, "AnEnigmatic
235-47, with response by S. Manning, 248-62; P. Warren Faience Figure," Miscellanea Wilbouriana 1 (Brooklyn 1972)
and V. Hankey, AegeanBronzeAge Chronology(Bristol 1989); 137-43. I thank L. Bell for calling this to my attention.

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38 PAUL REHAK [AJA 100
Table 1. Aegean and Egyptian Chronology
Calendar
Years
B.C. New Aegean Chronology Old Aegean Chronology Egypt
1700 LM/LH I (1700-1610) MHI/MM Hyksos

1650

Thera eruption ca. 1625

LM IBILH IIA
1600 (1610-1550)
18th Dynasty
Kamose (1578-1570)
Ahmose (1570-1546)

1550 LM II/LH IIB LM/LH I Amenhotep I (1546-1526/5)

(1550-1490) (1550-1500)

Thutmosis I (1525-1512)
Thera eruption ca. 1500 Thutmosis II (1512-1504)
1500 LM IBILH IIA Hatshepsut (1504-1482)
LM/LH IIIA (1500-1450)
(1490-1365)
Thutmosis III (1482-1450)
Rekhmire paintings
1450 LM II/LH IIB Amenhotep II (1450-1425)
(1450-1400)

Thutmosis IV (1425-1417)
Amenhotep III (1417-1379)
1400 LM/LH IIIA
(1400-1300)
Akhenaten (1379-1363)

LM/LH IIIB Tutankhamen (1361-1352)

1350 (1365-1200) Ay (1352-1348)
Horemheb (1348-1320)

19th Dynasty

1300 LM/LH IIIB

(1300-1200)

1250

1200 LM/LH IIIC LM/LH IIIC

(1200-1100) (1200-1100)
New Aegean chronology after P.P. Betancourt, Archaeometry29 (1987) 45-49. Egyptian chronology after
W.C. Hayes, CAH3 II.1 (1973) 819.

tions are the result of internal conflict, and perhaps in this case, the arrival of the Mycenaeans might be
signal a Knossian takeover of the rest of the island; as late as LM IIIA:2.'3

13See, e.g., Niemeier (supra n. 9); E. Hallager, M. Field-Notes of the South-East Area of the West Wing (Louvain
Vlasakis, and B.P. Hallager, "New Linear B Tablets from 1990); cf. objections in a review by M. Popham, JHS 113
Khania," Kadmos 31 (1992) 61-87, with further references. (1993) 174-78. For a recent summary of the evidence, see
J. Driessen argues that the Knossos Chariot Tablets belong E. Cline, "A Wrinkle in Time: Orientalia and the Myce-
to a relatively early (LM II-IIIA) Mycenaean archive in the naean Occupation of Crete," forthcoming in a Festschrift
palace, in which case the Mycenaeans would have had to for Martha R. Bell. I am grateful to the author for an ad-
arrive at the end of LM IB: An Early Destruction in the Myce- vance copy of this paper.
naean Palace at Knossos:A New Interpretationof the Excavation

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1996] AEGEAN BREECHCLOTHS, KILTS, AND THE KEFTIU PAINTINGS 39
This article instead reexamines the central assump- trations of the Minoan loincloth for men along the
tion: do codpieces/backflaps indicate Minoans and lines proposed by Sapouna-Sakellarakis.17
do kilts indicate Mycenaeans? The evidence, as we Some criticisms of the existing studies can be
shall see, does not support this cultural distinction; raised, however. For example, many of the proposed
kilts are neither a cultural nor a chronological in- reconstructions of garments involve implausibly elab-
dicator, and therefore the significance of the change orate patterns of cutting and stitching. These ignore
in the Rekhmire paintings must be sought elsewhere. the common-sense supposition that Bronze Age cos-
This particular issue is important, however, because tumes were probably as simple as their successors
it unites the threads of a number of recent discus- in the Archaic and Classical periods in Greece, which
sions of wider scope, only one of which is the debate consisted primarily of squares and rectangles of woven
over the old and new chronology and its implications cloth, simply draped and seldom cut, even when they
for the arrival of Mycenaeans on Crete. In addition, were elaborately dyed and embroidered.18
the construction of ethnicity around costume is just A more practical approach to Aegean clothing was
beginning to be addressed for the Aegean world it- outlined by Barber in Prehistoric Textiles,'9 based
self, as well as its construction by an Other (in this on archaeological and ethnographic observations
case, the Egyptians). Our conclusion that a change about cloth production and the techniques for cre-
in Egyptian artists' depiction of costume implies a ating patterns. But further analysis of the actual
change in ethnicity is grounded in faulty assump- costumes is needed, along the lines of Morgan's care-
tions. Moreover, these questions are part of a much ful study of male costumes that appear in the Minia-
larger, ongoing discussion about the nature and de- ture Fresco from the West House at Akrotiri20 and
gree of east-west trade and cultural interaction in Verlinden's description of the clothing worn by
the Bronze Age.14 bronze figurines.21
The lack of consistent terminology for male cloth-
APPROACHES AND TERMINOLOGY
ing styles is a large part of the problem, especially
Despite the importance of clothing as a reflection since the term r6(iga tends to include several differ-
of society, no comprehensive study of Minoan and ent types of hip-covering garment. For the purposes
Mycenaean costumes has yet appeared. In a contri- of this study, I shall define the costumes in question
bution to the series Archaeologia Homerica, Marinatos in simple terms (fig. 2). After nudity, which can itself
addressed the area of dress, hair, and beard styles be considered a costume,22 the simplest Aegean
in 1967.15 Sapouna-Sakellarakis subsequently pro- male clothing costume is the belt worn around the
duced a more useful catalogue of Minoan costumes waist.23 To this belt can be attached a breechcloth24
in 1971,16 in which she assembles an impressive draped between the legs and secured in the front
body of evidence. In 1988, Giesecke published illus- and back. At the front of the body, one end of the

14E.g., M. Bernal, Black Athena. The Afroasiatic Roots of Greek Art (Ithaca 1986).
Classical Civilization I-II (New Brunswick, N.J. 1987, 1991); 19Barber 311-57.
various authors in Arethusa Special Issue (Fall 1989); J.D. 2oL. Morgan, The Miniature Wall Paintings of Thera: A
Muhly, "Black Athena vs. Traditional Scholarship,"JMA 3 Study in Aegean Culture and Iconography (Cambridge 1988)
(1990) 83-110. A panel on Black Athena was presented at 93-98.
the meeting of the American Historical Association in 21 C. Verlinden, Les statuettes
anthropomorphescritoises en
Chicago on 6-9January 1995; papers forthcoming in The bronze et en plomb, du IIF millinaire au VIje siecle av. J.C.
History Teacher(I thank C. Thomas and E. Cline for this (Louvain-la-Neuve 1984) 98-104.
information). 22L. Bonfante, "Nudity as a Costume in Classical Art,"
15 S. Marinatos,
Kleidung, Haar- und Barttracht (ArchHom AJA 93 (1989) 543-70. Cf. the West House fisherboys from
I, A-B, G6ttingen 1967). This excursus includes post-Bronze Akrotiri on Thera: Mar'inatos 1976, col. pl. XXIV; Doumas
Age material, and does not include a detailed catalogue pls. 18-19. The tiny floating male figures in a LH IIIB fresco
of representations. from the "Shrine" at Mycenae also appear to be nude: P.
16E. Sapouna-Sakellarakis, To Rehak, "Tradition and Innovation in the Fresco from Room
pvwtoKcdv do)pa(Athens
1971). 31 in the'Cult Center' at Mycenae," in Laffineur and Crow-
17H.-E. Giesecke, "Kretische Schurze," OpAth 17 (1988) ley (supra n. 2) 48-49. There are also nude figures on the
91-98. silver Siege Rhyton (infra n. 34).
18 This
approach was followed in a little-noted article 23See, e.g., the boxing boys from Akrotiri on Thera:
byJ.L. Myres, "Minoan Dress," Man 50 (1950) 1-6. For later Marinatos 1976, col. pl. XXXVIII; Immerwahr 185-86 Ak
Greek costumes, see M.Bieber, Griechische
Kleidung(Berlin no. 4; Doumas pl. 78. Cf. the pugilist on a sealing from
1928); D.J.Symons, CostumeofAncient Greece(London 1987); the Knossos Temple Repositories: PM III, 504 fig. 349.
A. Pekridou-Gorecki, Mode im antiken Griechenland(Munich 24Despite its lack of elegance, the term breechcloth
1989); G. Losfeld, Essai sur le costumegrec (Paris 1991); and seems preferable to loincloth, which implies to some a cloth
the practical diagrams in S. Woodford, An Introduction to wrapped around the thighs, a costume defined here as a kilt.

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40 PAUL REHAK [AJA 100

'-I.

A ~
ill

B
g 6

E F G

Fig. 2. Diagram of Aegean male costumes: A) belt with breechcloth; B) backflap

and frontflap; C) belt with codpiece; D) breechcloth with rigid codpiece; E-F) kilt;
and G) shorts. (P. Rehak)

breechcloth is secured by the belt to create the fabric passed under, then over, the belt to fall outside, it
codpiece 25 that supports the genitals. In this simple creates afrontflap.26 At the back, the other end of the
form, the belt with breechcloth/codpiece could be breechcloth can be similarly passed over the belt to
used as underwear and was probably worn under create a backflapthat covers the buttocks (fig. 2B).27
other garments (fig. 2A, C). While the backflap of the breechcloth in some rep-
When the front end of the breechcloth is first resentations is patterned like cloth, in others there

25 Technically, a
codpiece is "an often ornamented flap (supra n. 21) 189 no. 30, pl. 14; Hood 113 fig. 97.
or bag concealing an opening in the front of men's 27 A
good example of the codpiece with backflap occurs
breeches7 according to Webster'sThirdInternationalDictionary on the male figure (a god or a ruler?) on the Master Im-
(1986). A simple codpiece, apparently without front or pression from Khania: Khania Museum 1563: CMSV Suppl.
backflap, is worn by the male offering-bearers on a stone 1A, no. 142. I am grateful to E. Hallager for allowing me
relief vessel fragment found south of the Knossos palace: to examine the sealing in 1993. A possible late represen-
Heraklion Museum 426: PM 11.2, 752 and fig. 486; III, 65 tation of the codpiece/backflap is worn by black-skinned
fig. 37; Smith (supra n. 4) fig. 93 (this fragment probably individuals on one of the frescoes from the Pylos Palace:
does not belong to the same vessel as the fragment restored M. Lang, The Palace of Nestor at Pylos II: The Frescoes(Prince-
above in Smith's drawing); P. Warren, Minoan Stone Vases ton 1969) 94 no. 59 H nws, pls. 44, 129D. Lang rightly calls
(Cambridge 1969) 85, pl. P 474; B. Kaiser, Untersuchungen attention to the resemblance between the belt of this figure
zum minoischen Relief (Bonn 1976) 14 Knossos 5. and the kilted cupbearer from Knossos, but the costume of
26E.g., on a bronze
figurine from Tylissos: Verlinden the black men otherwise resembles the Minoan breechcloth.

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1996] AEGEAN BREECHCLOTHS, KILTS, AND THE KEFTIU PAINTINGS 41
is a rigid codpiece that stands away from the body ish bath-towel (fig. 2E, F), sometimes secured by a
and has a sharp outline,28 probably indicating that belt. Presumably, the vertical edges of the kilt were
it is a separate piece of metal or leather worn either fastened at the hip, but in other instances the kilt
inside the cloth codpiece or over it, and acting like is fastened in front. In the latter case, one or both
a modern athletic "cup,"which protects the genitals edges may be shown as slightly pendant, and in some
during active sports (fig. 2D). Both red-skinned male representations this vertical hem was evidently deco-
and white-skinned female bull-leapers wear this de- rated with elaborate tassels, as shown in the Knossos
vice29- an interesting example of Aegean costume Procession Fresco.31
that is not sex-specific, though it clearly emphasizes Some Minoan and Mycenaean representations of
an aspect of male, not female, physiognomy. (The hunting and fighting show men wearing a type of
long hair of both male and female bull-leapers, by garment conventionally referred to as shorts with a
contrast, recalls a female characteristic, and these distinctive split between the legs and a surface dec-
adolescent youths may represent gender-neutral oration of diagonal lines,32 like a short version of
who have not arrived yet at their sexually modern women's culottes (fig. 2G). These shorts may
nattSdt
specific and differentiated adult state.) have been made of leather as well as of cloth, and
The breechcloth thus may be worn in several differ- could conceivably be worn over the simple breech-
ent ways, but it essentially serves the function of mod- cloth, like the leather chaps worn by cowboys. In this
ern underwear: it covers, protects, and supports. It case, shorts may represent a heavy form of kilt ap-
can be worn in any situation,30 and is de rigueur for propriate for rigorous activities, and not short pants
active sports like bull-leaping. encasing each leg. On the gold Danicourt ring, a pair
A kilt, by contrast, is simply a rectangular piece of men fighting lions have shorts with tassels like
of cloth worn around the waist, draped rather like those attached to some kilts.33
a Scottish kilt (though without the pleats) or a Turk- Other garments evidently worn both by Minoans

28For a fresco fragment with part of a patterned ings.N. Marinatoshas suggested,incorrectlyin my opinion,
backflap and decorated belt, see PM 11.2,751 fig. 485. The that the red/male and white/female color convention
most detailed example of the rigid codpiece is the man does not hold: "The Bull as an Adversary:Some Observa-
on the "quiet"Vapheio Cup,Athens National Museum 1759, tions on Bull-Hunting and Bull-Leaping,"Ariadne5 (1989)
but the men on the "violent"cup (Athens N.M. 1758) wear 23-32.
the same costume. See E. Davis,"TheVapheio Cups - One 30 E.g.,by the spectators in the Sacred Grove and Dance
Minoanand One Mycenaean?" ArtB56 (1974)472-87; Davis, Fresco from Knossos: PM III, col. pl. XVIII; Immerwahr
The VapheioCups and Aegean Gold and Silver Ware (New York 173 Kn no. 16, pl. 23.
1977) 1-50, 256-57 no. 103, fig. 10;A. Xenaki-Sakellariou, 31PM II.2, 725-26,
fig. 453.
"AvafTrniroiTou &pyaornpiouTOv Xpuoov Ku7itXXG)vTou 32The term "shorts"is used here instead of "breeches"
Baqcto6,"ArchEph1991, 45-64. For illustrations see also (short trousers that cover the hips and thighs) in order
Marinatos 1960, pl. 182 (below), 184; Marinatos 1976, pl. to avoid confusion with the term breechcloth. Examples
204 (below), 206. The same costume is worn by men and include the warriors on the silver Battle Krater from SG
women in the Knossos ToreadorFrescoes (infra n. 29). For IV: Athens N.M. 605-607: A. Sakellariou, "Un cratere
bronze figurines with this type of codpiece, see Buchholz d'argent avec scene de bataille provenant de la IVeme
and Karageorghis pl. 1,230; Verlinden (supra n. 21) pls. tombe de Mycenes," in Atti e memorie del 10 congresso inter-
9, 10, 12;E. Sapouna-Sakellaraki,"MuKqvatfKi 1aotKi ot nazionaledi micenologia(Rome 1968) 262-65; "Un cratere
AaKwvia,"in O. Palagia and W.Coulson eds., Sculpturefrom d'argent avec scene de bataille provenant de la IVeme
ArcadiaandLaconia(Oxbow Monographs30, Oxford 1993) tombe de l'acropole de Mycenes,"AntK 17 (1974) 3-20; Davis
137 and figs. 1-3. A unique bronze figure found in Laconia 1977 (supra n. 28) 222-27 no. 86, figs. 176-78. Figures on
(138 and figs. 4-5) combines the belt and codpiece with seals include CMSI, nos. 9, 12, 16.Cf. also the men fighting
an unusual garment that covers the upper hips. lions on seals found at Kakovatos(PM IV.2,463 fig. 387;
29E.g., on the LM II-IIIA Toreador
panels from the CMSXI, no. 208) and the LM I Khania sealing with a re-
Knossos palace: Marinatos 1960, col. pl. XVII; Marinatos lated composition (CMSV Suppl. 1A, no. 135). The odd
1976,col. pl. XVII;Immerwahr175 Kn no. 23. This costume, shorts and short tunic on an inlaid dagger blade recently
incidentally, has been misunderstood on one of the new on the art market raise doubts about its authenticity: for
Tell el-Dab'a frescoes, adding to an already long list of illustrations see A.R. Giumlia-Mais and PT. Craddock,
peculiarities and making it unlikely that this was painted "Corinthium aes.Das schwarzeGold der Alchimisten,"AntW
by a Minoan artist:for illustration, see O.T.P.K.
Dickinson, 24 (1993) 20 fig. 9, 21 fig. 10.
TheAegeanBronzeAge (Cambridge 1994) 246-47, fig. 7.1. 33CMSXI, no. 272.
More caution needs to be used in assessing these paint-

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42 PAUL REHAK [AJA 100

Fig. 3. Diagram of short and long tunic. (P. Rehak)

and Mycenaeans include the short tunic34 and long costume. Most representations of Aegean men and
5
tunic (fig. 3), which probably consisted of two or women show them barefoot. Exceptions are some
three rectangles of cloth sewn together along their figures in ritual scenes,37 and the male and female
vertical edges, sometimes with sleeves added, which participants in bull-sports. These individuals wear
could be slipped on over the head. This garment cor- a low sandal with a pointed toe and strips of cloth
responds closely to the chiton (Xt'bv) of historical or leather that are wrapped around the calves. A
Greek times. three-dimensional sandal of this type, carved in ivory,
Any of these costumes could be augmented by the was found at Knossos.38
addition of a larger rectangle of cloth or animal skin
for a cloak, made with or without sleeves. There re- CRETAN KILTS
main some rarely represented specialized forms of Kilts in Aegean art span a wide chronological
cloaks that may indicate special functions; but these range, from MM II to at least LM IIIA/LH IIIB. The
need to be treated in depth elsewhere, along with earliest securely dated examples occur in the Proto-
other unique Aegean garments that are difficult to palatial period, on some of the terracotta figurines
analyze.:36 from the peak sanctuary at Petsofas in east Crete.39
Finally, footgear can be considered an element of Another kilted figure appears on a gold hilt-guard

34The earliest example of which I am aware 12-14 H 5.

appears
on the LH I silver Siege Rhyton from SG IV at Mycenae: 36 E.g., the so-called "priest robe"with diagonal bands
Athens N.M. 477, 504: Smith (supra n. 4) 66-67, fig. 85; (several examples illustrated in PM IV.2, figs. 341-43, 348),
A. Sakellariou, "La scene du 'siege' sur le rhyton d'argent and the scalloped and fringed "cuirass."For a useful be-
de Mycenes d'apres une nouvelle reconstitution," RA 1975, ginning, see Nilsson (supra n. 1) passim, and for recent
195-208; Davis 1977 (supra n. 28) 227-30 no. 87, figs. 179-80. discussion, P. Rehak, "The Aegean 'Priest' on CMS I 223,"
Cf. the falling warrior in a tunic from the megaron fresco Kadmos 33 (1984) 76-84. Another garment is the so-called
of the Mycenae palace: PM III, 86 fig. 48e; Immerwahr 192 "hide skirt," which is worn by men and women on the Ayia
My no. 11. Cf. Lang (supra n. 27) 68 no. 16 H 43 (hunter TriadhaSarcophagus,and by severalfigures in the Knossos
with deer), 70-71 no. 21 H 48 (men with dogs), 73 no. 26 Procession Fresco. This "hide skirt" is different from the
H 64 (charioteers). The short tunic is still being worn in hide cloaks worn by the Pylos "Tarzans":Lang (supra n.
LH IIIC, as on the Warrior Vase from Mycenae: Marinatos 27) 71-72 no. 22 H 64, pls. 16, 117A,M.
1960, pls. 232-33; Marinatos 1976, pls. 256-57. 37E.g., the gold ring from the Vapheio tholos: Athens
5Among the early examples are figures on the Knossos N.M. 1801: CMS I, no. 219.
Procession Fresco and the Ayia Triadha Sarcophagus. It
38PM 11.2, 727 fig. 455.
is common in the LH IIIB frescoes from the vestibule
9 Sapouna-Sakellarakis(supra n. 16) pls. 60, y, 7a, 15.
(room 5) at Pylos: Lang (supra n. 27) 66-68 nos. 7-10 H 5,

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1996] AEGEAN BREECHCLOTHS, KILTS, AND THE KEFTIU PAINTINGS 43

this individual has sometimes been identified as an

acrobat or bull-leaper,42 he lacks the codpiece and
the shoes with pointed tips and leggings normally
worn by the latter. Thus his identity and role remain
unknown.
A related costume appears on a problematic gold
pendant from the Aigina Treasure roughly datable
between 1700 and 1500 B.C.43In the center of the
pendant, a Master of Animals grasps a pair of an-
tithetic ducks by the necks. The surface of his kilt
is plain, while the tassel down the front is shown
as a single vertical band, its surface divided into seg-
ments by vertical and horizontal lines that perhaps
represent beadwork. This garment with its peculiar
tassel is reminiscent of Egyptian costume, perhaps
filtered through Syrian eyes, and may not be repre-
sentative of typical Aegean garb.
Another possible kilt is worn by two individuals
on the faience plaques from the Town Mosaic found
Fig. 4. Mallia hilt guard. (P. Rehak after Marinatos 1960, in the Knossos palace.44 Like the Aigina pendant,
pl. 69) these plaques have proved difficult to date. Evans con-
sidered the Town Mosaic to date to the protopalatial
for a sword from an MM II context, discovered in period (MM II),45 though most scholars would now
1936 in the palace at Mallia (fig. 4).40 The sword was assign it to the beginning of the neopalatial era (MM
found in a room under a neopalatial polythyron at III).46In either case, the thighs appear to be covered,
the northwest corner of the palace, and should not making this costume different from the breechcloth
be confused with the other group of protopalatial with front or backflap.
weapons found in the west wing,41 which included One individual on the Harvester Vase found at
a crystal-pommeled sword and dagger, and the well- Ayia Triadha also wears a kilt that has not hitherto
known stone leopard-axe. On the gold hilt-guard, the been generally recognized: the plump man shaking
elongated figure of a youth with a coiffure of short, the sistrum (fig. 5).47Like other stone relief vessels,
curly hair curves around the surface of the circular the manufacture of the Harvester Vase is dated by
plate. He wears a relatively long patterned kilt with Warren between MM III and LM I; the Harvester Vase
a tight belt and a triple tassel at the front. Although was found in the LM IB destruction debris in room

4) E
Chapouthier, "Deux epees d'apparat decouvertes molean Museum 1938.955)wear codpieces/backflaps and
en 1936 au palais de Mallia,"EtCret5 (Paris1938);0. Pelon, have plumes decorating their heads, but they lack foot-
"L'epeeAl'acrobatet la chronologiemaliote,"BCH106 (1982) wear:V.E.G.Kenna,CretanSeals(Oxford 1960) 118 no. 204;
165-90; "L'epee t I'acrobatet la chronologie maliote (II)," Hood 228 fig. 231.
BCH 107 (1983) 679-703; "L'acrobatde Malia et I'art de 4 R.
Higgins, "TheAegina TreasureReconsidered,"BSA
l'epoque protopalatiale en Crete,"in P. Darcque and J.-C. 52 (1957) 42-57; C. Hopkins, "The Aegina Treasure,"AJA
Poursat eds., L'iconographieminoenne.Actes de la TableRonde 66 (1962) 182-84; R. Higgins, Minoan and Mycenaean Art
d'Athenes (21-22 avril 1983) (BCH Suppl. 11, Paris 1985) (London 1967) 45 col. fig. 40; Hood 197, 196 fig. 193; C.
35-39; 0. Pelon, E. Andersen, and M. Schmidt, Guidede Gates, "Iconographyat the Crossroads:The Aigina Trea-
Malia. Le palais et la necropolede Chrysolakkos(Sites et monu- sure,"Aegaeum3 (1989) 215-25, esp. 218-21; R. Higgins, The
ments9, Paris 1992) 36, 37 figs. 15, 16; Marinatos 1960, pl. Aegina Treasure:An ArchaeologicalMystery(London 1979); R.
69; Marinatos 1976, pl. 69. The short hairstyle need not Higg and Y. Lindau, "The Minoan 'Snake-Frame'Recon-
"suggesta foreigner rather than a Cretan,"implied in Hood sidered," OpAth15 (1984) 73.
174and fig. 71 (drawing);Barber319,320 fig. 15.5(drawing). 44PM I, 301-14, esp. 309 fig. 228p, t; K. Foster,Aegean
41J. Charbonneaux, "Troisarmes d'apparat du palais Faience of the Bronze Age (New Haven 1979) 102, figs. 33, 35;
de Mallia (Crete),"MonPiot28 (1925-1926) 1-18; O. Pelon, Buchholz and Karageorghispl. 1,305.
"Publicationd'un palais minoen: Elements pour une chro- 45PM I, 301-302.
nologie,"Ieirpayptva (supra n. 9) 275-83; Hood 173-74, 46Immerwahr 68-70.
figs. 169-70. For the leopard axe, see Marinatos 1960, pl. 47Heraklion Museum 184: Warren (supra n. 25) 88;
68; Buchholz and Karageorghis pl. 232; Marinatos 1976, Marinatos1960,pl. 104 (below);Kaiser(supra n. 25) 24-25
pl. 68. Hagia Triada 1; Marinatos 1976,pl. 104 (below);Buchholz
42The acrobats on a cushion seal from Knossos and Karageorghis pl. 1,165.
(Ash-

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44 PAUL REHAK [AJA 100

Fig. 5. HarvesterVase. (Photo J.G. Younger)

4 of the villa, where it may have fallen from an upper

floor.48 A total of 27 men are shown in the proces-
sion around the vase: most of these wear breechcloths
that include codpieces and backflaps, but long cloaks Fig. 6. Knossos Procession Fresco.(P.Rehak after PM 11.2,
envelop the three tall singers with open mouths, and suppl. pl. XXVII)
the "leader" wears a long robe with a scalloped sur-
face and a fringed hem.49 The kilt of the plump originally lined both side walls of the west entrance
sistrum-player represents a fourth distinct costume passage in the Knossos palace (fig. 6).52 Evans ar-
on the vessel, and his ample proportions are similar gued somewhat tentatively that these paintings
to those of a kilted figure from Akrotiri, discussed followed a LM IA destruction but were modeled
below.51o on a preexisting cycle of decoration.53 Subsequently,
Another kilt has been reported among the three- Cameron, Immerwahr, and others have dated these
dimensional carved ivories found along the Royal murals to a later stage in the life of the palace after
Road at Knossos in a LM IB destruction level.51Both a probable Mycenaean takeover of Crete at the end
it and the kilt on the Harvester Vase are important of LM IB. The Procession Fresco would then date
indicators that this garment was being worn by Mi- to LM II-IIIA, but might still reflect an earlier Minoan
noans before the widespread Cretan destructions processional scheme.54 There is, however, no strati-
that signal the end of the neopalatial period and graphic evidence for dating the paintings, and stylis-
before the traditional LM II-IIIA date of the Knos- tic chronologies for dating paintings are notoriously
sos Procession Fresco. insecure.55 Moreover, the presence of kilts in the
The most elaborate kilts in Minoan art appear on painting was one of the factors that originally led
the life-sized figures of the Procession Fresco, which Evans and others to propose a date after the Cretan

On the dating of relief vessels, see Warren(supra n.

48 66 fig. 49 (cupbearer); S. Peterson, WallPainting in theAegean
25) 174-75. On the villa, see also L. Banti, E Halbherr,and Bronze Age: The Procession Fresco (Diss. Univ. of Minnesota
E. Stefani, Haghia Triada nel periodo tardopalaziale (ASAtene 1981);Immerwahr 85-89, 174-75 Kn no. 22; C. Boulotis,
55, n.s. 39, 1980);L.V.Watrous,"AyiaTriada:A New Perspec- "Nochmalszum Prozessionsfreskovon Knossos:Palastund
tive on the Minoan Villa,"AJA88 (1984) 123-34, esp. 127. Darbringung von Prestige-Objekten,"in R. Hagg and N.
49Marinatos 1960, pl. 103; Marinatos 1976, pl. 103. For Marinatos eds., The Function of the Minoan Palaces (Stock-
discussion, see MMR2160-63. holm 1987) 145-55. Cf. comments by H~igg,"PictorialPro-
50J.G. Younger notes that plumpness is used for some grammes in Minoan Palaces and Villas?"in Darcque and
musicians in the Near East to suggestthat they are eunuchs Poursat (supra n. 40) 209-17.
53PM 11.2, 679-84.
(personal communication).
51 AR 1957, 22; Hood 119. 54Immerwahr 174-75.
II.2, 704-36, suppl. pl. XXVII figs. 20-22; Mari-
52 PM 55Noted by C.W.Hawke-Smith,"The Knossos Frescoes:
natos 1960, col. pl. XV (cupbearer);Cameron (supra n. 7) A Revised Chronology," BSA 71 (1976) 65-76.
pls. 7A,8-11; Marinatos1976,col. pl. XV (cupbearer);Hood

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1996] AEGEAN BREECHCLOTHS, KILTS, AND THE KEFTIU PAINTINGS 45

destructions! Recently, Davis has suggested that the

paintings might be datable to LM IB on the basis
of the vessel forms carried by some of the individ-
uals in the procession.56 This interpretation repre-
sents a compromise between the views of Evans, on
the one hand, and Cameron and Immerwahr, on the
other. But in any case, the date of the Procession
Fresco cannot be considered secure.
Three important aspects of the Procession Fresco
deserve particular emphasis here. First, not all the
men in the procession wear kilts: some men (indi-
cated by their red feet) are clad instead in long tunics
with patterned hems.57 Second, the status of some
of the men with kilts is emphasized by the presence
of blue (silver?) anklets; the famous kilted cupbearer
illustrated in all the handbooks, whose legs are not
preserved, wears bracelets, armbands, and a sealstone
bracelet at his left wrist.58 Finally, the kilts carry
elaborate patterns of interlocking designs that are
distinctly different from the linear banded designs
represented on the kilts of the Egyptian Keftiu
paintings;59 perhaps these two types of kilts need
to be more clearly distinguished than they have been
previously.
At least one individual on the LM IIIA Ayia Triadha
Sarcophagus, another work dated primarily on sty-
listic grounds, also wears a kilt that descends to a Fig. 7. Captain of the Blacks. (P.Rehak after PM 11.2,pl.
XIII)
point in front like the Procession Fresco costumes.61
He occurs in the upper register of one short end An apparent kilt of slightly different shape ap-
of the sarcophagus, above the zone containing two pears on the LM II-IIIA fresco fragments found near
women in a chariot drawn by agrimia. Although not the House of the Frescoes outside the palace at
well preserved, he evidently belongs to another pro- Knossos, a composition that Evans called "The Cap-
cession of figures since the feet of another man are tain of the Blacks" (fig. 7).62 The Captain himself
preserved behind him at the right. Kilts are not worn, wears a yellow kilt with a black and white checked
however, by the men on the long sides of the sar- hem and a tight belt. One of the more scantily pre-
cophagus who appear in the bull-sacrifice scene or served black figures behind him wears a light blue
in the libation to an armless, footless figure, perhaps kilt with a black and yellow checked hem. The edges
the deceased individual or a statue. In both of those of the kilt form a V-shaped point between the legs
scenes, men wear either short skirts, evidently of hide, of the Captain, perhaps a frontal rendering of the
with a pendant triangular flap or "tail" at the back, design seen in profile on the Procession Fresco and
or a long tunic. It may be significant that all three Ayia Triadha Sarcophagus. But this costume lacks
male costumes on the sarcophagus-kilt, hide skirt, elaborate surface patterns.
and long tunic-also occur on the Knossos Proces- Several other Cretan representations include
sion Fresco.61 costumes that somewhat resemble kilts, but are

56 E. Davis, "The
Cycladic Style of the Thera Frescoes," 41, Goteborg 1974); Hood 70 fig. 54; Cameron (supra n. 7)
in Hardy and Renfrew (supra n. 10) 214-27, esp. 214. pls. 12B, 151; Immerwahr 180-81 AT no. 2.
57PM II.2, suppl. pl. XXV, figs. 1-5. 61 For the
probable appearance of a hide skirt in the
58 See the comments by J.G.Younger,"Non-Sphragistic Procession Fresco, see Boulotis (supra n. 52) 149 figs. 4a
Uses of Minoan-Mycenaean Sealstones and Rings," Kadmos and 4b; PM 11.2 suppl. pl. XXVI fig. 18.
16 (1977) 141-59. 62 PM II.2, 755-57, col.
pl. XIII; IV.2, 886 fig. 869; Buch-
59Noted in Barber 336-38. holz and Karageorghis pl. 1,051; Cameron (supra n. 7) pl.
6o C. Long, The Ayia Triadha Sarcophagus:A Study of Late 12A; Immerwahr 96, 176 Kn no. 27.
Minoan and Myceanean Funerary Practices and Beliefs (SIMA

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46 PAUL REHAK [AJA 100

problematic for one reason or another. The youths

on the Ayia Triadha Chieftain Cup wear garments
with codpieces that curve too high over the thigh
to be proper kilts, but some of the fabric appears to
be draped around the hips in a manner different
from the breechcloth.63 A similarly ambiguous cos-
tume appears on a Minoan cushion seal found on
Naxos showing a man with a spear, saluting a palm
tree over a low table with an array of cult equip-
ment.64 It may be significant that one of the youths
on the Chieftain Cup and the man on the sealstone
are both performing the "commanding gesture" of
brandishing a spear or scepter. Finally, a LM III
bronze figurine found near Rethymnon seems to
combine the kilt with the codpiece, perhaps indi-
cating a late misunderstanding or conflation of both
garments.65
CYCLADIC KILTS
Kilts are also worn by individuals in Cycladic rep-
resentations. On a painted pottery stand (contem-
porary with MC III) from Phylakopi on Melos, a row
of men appear in kilts, each man holding a fish in
each hand (fig. 8).66 These individuals can be com-
pared to processional figures like those in the fres-
coes, but their pose and gesture with the fish recall
those of the nude "fisherboys" on paintings from the
West House at Akrotiri on Thera.67 The men on the
Phylakopi stand, however, may represent the earli-
est painted representations of kilts in the Aegean (ca.
1700-1600 B.C.).
Kilts also appear at least four times in the LM IA
Thera frescoes. In the Miniature Fresco from the West
House, a man on one of the ships wears a white kilt
with black borders,68 in contrast to most of the
Fig. 8. Phylakopi pottery stand. (P. Rehak after GreekArt
other individuals who wear long cloaks or codpieces of the AegeanIslands [New York 1977] 69 fig. 23)
with backflaps.69
In Xeste 3, a building where women's activities ap- of various ages holding cloth and several metal ves-
pear prominently in the fresco decoration, one small sels;7? the latter association recalls the figures with
room (3b) near the lustral basin shows men and boys vessels from the Knossos Procession Fresco. One of

6"Heraklion Museum 341: Warren (supra n. 25) 37, pl. Phylakopi in Melos (BSA Suppl. Paper 4, London 1904) 123-
P 197; Kaiser (supra n. 25) 28-29 Hagia Triada 3. For il- 25, pl. XXII; Buchholz and Karageorghis pl. 863; Metro-
lustrations, see Marinatos 1960, pls. 100, 102; Marinatos politan Museum of Art, GreekArt of the AegeanIslands (New
1976, pls. 100, 102; Hood pl. 1,166a,b. An examination of York 1977) 69 no. 23. The kilts are hard to distinguish
the cup byJ.G.Youngerand myself in the summer of 1993 in modern photographs, but show clearly in the original
suggests that the cup may be unfinished; we thank P. Gal- publication.
anakiof the HeraklionMuseumfor assistingus in the study. 67Supra n. 20.
For interpretation, see Koehl (supra n. 2). 68Doumas pl. 40 (detail). The artist has
neglected to
64 C. Kardara, Ax•obpara Ndcov (Athens 1977) pl. 6; paint the legs of this figure, so he appears to float.
CMSV,no. 608. Cf. the pose of the man on an ivory plaque 69For a discussion of male costumes in the West House
from the Artemision deposit on Delos: Buchholz and Miniature Fresco, see Morgan (supra n. 20) 93-98.
Karageorghis pl. 1,289. 70 Doumas pls. 109-15. On the use of the building, see
65Marinatos 1960,
pl. 121; Marinatos 1976, pl. 125. N. Marinatos, Art and Religion in Thera:Reconstructinga Bronze
66Athens N.M. 5782:
T.D. Atkinson et al., Excavations at Age Society (Athens 1984) 61-84.

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1996] AEGEAN BREECHCLOTHS, KILTS, AND THE KEFTIU PAINTINGS 47

Fig. 9. Kilted man from Xeste 3, Akrotiri. (P.Rehak after

Doumas pl. 114)

the Akrotiri panels shows a plump seated man who

wears a cream-colored kilt that appears to be rolled
at the waist rather than belted separately; a diagonal Fig. 10. Kilted man from Xeste 4, Akrotiri. (P.Rehak after
black band runs along one thigh (fig. 9).71 He holds Doumas pl. 138)
a metal hydria that has good parallels in vessels dis-
covered on Crete,72 Thera,7" and in the Mycenae of these individuals are shown ascending alongside
Shaft Graves.74His plumpness, however, is reminis- a staircase (fig. 10), and their kilts are elaborately
cent of the man with the sistrum on the Harvester decorated with running spirals and other designs
Vase. Recently, Marinatos has identified the painted in red, blue, and black, perhaps indicating that they
hydria as a container for water75 though wine is an are of higher status than the seated and standing
equally good possibility, especially in a scene that men in Xeste 3 with the plain white or cream kilts.
may have religious associations. Another life-sized Further observations about these figures must await
man who wears a white kilt reportedly decorated the full publication of the building, but it is impor-
a wall of the entrance vestibule (room 5) in Xeste tant to note that the men from Xeste 4 prove that
3, but only one indistinct illustration of this figure painted processions of figures wearing kilts already
has been published.76 existed beforethe end of LM IA, earlier than any of
In a neighboring building, Xeste 4, several men the dates proposed for the Knossos Procession
are represented who wear patterned kilts.77 Some Fresco. There is a noticeable increase in the com-

71Doumas pls. 110, 114. 74Matthius (supra n. 72) pls. 26-28: Athens N.M. 604:
72J. and E. Sakellarakis,Archanes(Athens 1991) 84 fig. bronze hydria from SG IV.
61 (from Tholos A at Archanes Phourni). For other ex- 75N. Marinatos, Minoan Religion: Ritual, Image, and Sym-
amples from Crete, see H. Matthiius,Die Bronzegefiife
der bol (Columbia, S.C. 1993) 210.
kretisch-mykenischenKultur (Prdhistorische Bronzefunde II.1, 76TheraVII (Athens 1976) 25, pl. 39a (there are two bent
1980) pl. 25.210-12. legs moving left, below a white kilt); Immerwahr 188, un-
7 Matthiius
(supra n. 72) pl. 25.215: Athens N.M. BE catalogued no. 11.
1974.46 (Akrotiri). 77Doumas pl. 138.

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48 PAUL REHAK [AJA 100

Fig. 11. Silver battle krater,Shaft Grave IV. (After A. Sakellariou, in AntK 17 [1974] 5, fig. la)

plexity of fabric patterns from the kilts of Xeste 4 non-Aegean, or at least non-Minoan, the Ayia Triadha
to those of the Procession Fresco to those of the seal impression suggests that the crouching archer
Keftiu paintings. in shorts is an established artistic toposin neopalatial
Crete. Similar shorts are worn by the men on the
MAINLAND MALE COSTUMES silver Battle Krater from SG IV (fig. 11),82 which
Interestingly, however, there seem to be almost no Davis considers a Minoan work created for a Myce-
early Mycenaean representations from the mainland naean patron,"3 in contrast to Sakellariou and Ver-
of men wearing the kilt, except perhaps for the man meule, who argue in favor of Mycenaean manufac-
standing at a shrine on a gold ring from Mycenae, ture. All the male figures on the famous niello Lion
but he is followed by an agrimi, a ferile goat indige- Hunt dagger from SG IV also wear shorts.84 Surpris-
nous to Crete.78 ingly, the silver Siege Rhyton, contemporary with
On several gold cushion seals and rings from the these other works, is of little help here for all of its
Mycenae Shaft Graves, men appear to wear a type figures appear nude except for one man who wears
of shorts79 that is also attested on Crete in scenes a tunic and helmet.85
of hunting and warfare, like the tiny figure of a By contrast, the two gold cups from the LH IIA
crouching bearded archer on a fragment of a stone (LM IB) cist in the Vapheio tholos show men wear-
relief vessel found at Knossos.s8 A similarly clad ing breechcloths with rigid codpieces with backflaps
crouching beardless archer was engraved on a lentoid (see above, fig. 2D).86 Although Davis has argued in-
used to impress sealings, nodules, and a roundel at geniously that one cup is of Minoan manufacture
Ayia Triadha.81 While the bearded archer on the and the other Mycenaean, it is important to note that
stone vase fragment has sometimes been considered both cups clearly reflect the bull iconography asso-

7 Athens N.M.3148:CMSI, no. 119.Nothing in the tech- holz and Karageorghispl. 682. On the niello technique,
nique precludes a Cretan manufacture for this ring, ac- see discussion in Davis 1977 (supra n. 28) 215-20; cf. R.
cording to J.G. Younger (personal communication). Laffineur,"L'incrustationa l'6poque mycenienne,"AntCl
79Supra n. 32. 43 (1974) 5-37, esp. 7 no. 1; A. Xenaki-Sakellariouand
soHeraklion Museum 257:Warren(supra n. 25) 85, 177, C. Chatzilou, Peinture en metal a l'poque mycenienne(Athens
181; Kaiser (supra n. 25) 12-13 Knossos 3; Buchholz and 1989).
85
Karageorghis pl. 1,164. Supra n. 34.
81 E.
Hallager, L. Godart, and J.-P.Olivier, "Larondelle 86Supra n. 28. For a good general discussion of the
en lineaire A d'HaghiaTriada Wc 3024 (HM 1110),"BCH tomb and its contents, see E. Vermeule,Greecein theBronze
113 (1989) 431-37, 433 fig. 5 (drawing). Age, rev. ed. (Chicago 1972) 127-30. Cf. also I. Kilian-
82Supra n. 32. Dirlmeier,"DasKuppelgrabvon Vapheio.Die Beigabenaus-
83Davis 1977 (supra n. 28) 225-27. stattungin der Steinkiste.Untersuchungenzur Sozialstruk-
X4Athens N.M. 394: Marinatos 1960, col. pls. XXV- tur in spiithelladischer Zeit,"JRGZM34 (1987) 197-212.
XXVI;Marinatos1976,col. pls. XLIXcenter,L below;Buch-

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 1996] AEGEAN BREECHCLOTHS, KILTS, AND THE KEFTIU PAINTINGS 49

Fig. 12. Kilted men, Pylos palace vestibule. (P. Rehak after M. Lang, ThePalaceof Nestor
at Pylos II: The Frescoes [Princeton 1969] pl. N)

ciated with neopalatial and Knossos alone of breechcloths with codpieces/backflaps along with
of all the major CretanKnossos--
centers.87 Thus it is likely shorts as costumes, but may have understood the
that both cups reflect Minoan compositions, regard- former as a costume associated only with bull-sports
less of who actually made them. The tremendous or religious activities.
interest of the early Mycenaeans in the sport of bull- Kilts appear subsequently on the mainland only
leaping is underscored by the presence of two gold for offering-bearers in the LH IIIB frescoes from the
amygdaloid seals with bulls in tholos 2 at Routsi near vestibule (room 5) of the Pylos palace (fig. 12),9"and
Pylos.XX for some of the combatants in frescoes from room
The man on the gold (Minoan) cult ring found 64.94 Although the vestibule fragments were heavily
on the floor of the Vapheio tholos also wears a cod- burnt, they show individuals in a (religious?) pro-
piece,"9 as do the bull-leapers on frescoes found on cession95 that recalls the Knossos Procession Fresco
the mainland at Mycenae,90 Pylos,91 and Tiryns.92 and the figures on the Ayia Triadha Sarcophagus.
Thus, it is clear that the early Mycenaeans were aware The depiction of the pointed hem between the legs,

7 On the cups, see supra n. 28. The Knossian connec- von Mykene,"CMSSuppl. 0 (Berlin 1984) 115-32.
tions of bull-imagerywere discussed in three papers at the 9oW. Lamb, "Frescoes from the Ramp House," BSA 24
1994 Heidelberg conference: R. Laffineur and W.-D.Nie- (1919-1921) 192-93, col. pl. VII.4;Immerwahr 190 My no.
meier eds., POLITEIA: Society and State in the Aegean Bronze 1;M.C.Shaw,"ABull-LeapingScene in a Fresco from Myce-
Age(Aegaeum 12, 1995):P.Rehak,"The Use and Destruction nae: A New Reconstruction,"AJA99 (1995) 343 (abstract).
of Minoan Stone Bull'sHead Rhyta"(435-60);J.G.Younger, 91Lang (supra n. 27) 77 no. 36 H 105, pls. 24, 116, 124,
"Bronze Age Representations of Aegean Bull-Games,III" C; Hood 78 fig. 59; Immerwahr 196 Py No. 1.
(507-45); B. and E. Hallager,"TheKnossian Bull - Political 92Athens N.M. 1595: Immerwahr 202 Ti no. 1. Immer-
Propaganda in Neopalatial Crete"(547-56). wahrsuggestsa date of LH IIIB(?),which seems rather late.
8 Athens N.M. 8324, 8330: CMSI, nos. 274, 283. These 9 Lang
(supra n. 27) 64-65 no. 5 H 5, pls. 3-6, N, 119;
are the only two gold amygdaloid seals known from the Immerwahr 197 Py no. 8.
94Lang (supra n. 27) 74 no. 28 h 64,
Aegean. pls. 20, 123; 72-73
89Athens N.M. 1801: CMS I, no. 219. Cf. the man with no. 24 H 64, pls. 118, 124.
the codpiece/backflapon a gold ring from grave91 at Myce- 95L. McCallum, Decorative
Program in the Mycenaean
nae:Athens N.M.3179:CMSI, no. 126.Cf.J.A.Sakellarakis, PalaceofPylos:TheMegaronFrescoes(Diss. Univ. of Penn. 1987).
"Die Chronologie der Siegelringe und Siegel aus Grab 91

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50 PAUL REHAK [AJA 100
however, resembles that of the kilts in the Captain erally replaced by tunics. Tunics - short and long-
of the Blacks composition from Knossos. may be appropriate for a wide variety of activities,
and could conceivably represent ordinary "everyday
CONCLUSION
wear" for the Minoans, whom we are accustomed to
Although more examples could be added, this see mostly in extraordinary circumstances in fres-
brief survey of the evidence should make it clear that coes, glyptic, and on stone and metal vases.
the kilt was worn by men in some situations on Crete Comparatively few Aegean objects depict more
over a wide chronological span, from at least MM than one type of male costume, and more attention
II to LM IIIA, and on the mainland by several in- should be paid to these works. The Ayia Triadha Har-
dividuals in the LH IIIB Pylos frescoes. The garment vester Vase is unusual in showing breechcloths, two
by itself is thus not a good chronological indicator types of cloak (plain and scalloped), and a kilt. The
when it appears in some of the later Keftiu paint- somewhat later Knossos Procession Fresco and the
ings. All the Aegean evidence suggests that the kilt Ayia Triadha Sarcophagus depict long tunics, kilts,
should identify islanders from the Cyclades or from and hide skirts. One musician on the sarcophagus
Crete, not Mycenaeans. even wears a short, calf-length tunic.
At the same time, the highly detailed surface pat- In addition, the kilt is not restricted to Crete, since
terns of the kilts on the hilt-guard of the Mallia sword, it is represented on works from at least two Cycladic
the Knossos Procession Fresco, and the Xeste 4 stair- islands, Thera and Melos, early in the Late Bronze
case figures are probably indicators of the high status Age. There is no evidence from the mainland, how-
of these individuals, in contrast to the plain kilts ever, to suggest that the kilt is ever a standard Myce-
of the plump seated man from Xeste 3 and the naean costume. There, shorts are the rule for the
sistrum-shaker on the Harvester Vase, both of whom early Mycenaean (Shaft Grave) era, superseded by
also lack the jewelry that is another mark of impor- short or long tunics in the later wall paintings from
tance.96 Thus, surface decoration of textiles may not Pylos"'1 and in pictorial vase paintings from the
be a significant chronological indicator either, but Argolid.101
rather an indicator of status. These observations bring us back to the starting
I would suggest that differences in Aegean costume point for this paper: the change from codpieces/
largely reflect the roles or spheres of activity of in- backflaps to kilts in the tomb paintings of Rekhmire
dividuals, and possibly their ages as well, with the and later 18th Dynasty Egyptian nobles at Thebes.
breechcloth with codpiece/backflap denoting intense This has been regarded as a simple problem, but
physical activity of youths and adolescents (harvest- obviously it is not. The change in costume obviously
ing, bull-leaping, agonistic combats) and the simple meant something of significance to the painters of
breechcloth in worship (since it is worn by compa- the Egyptian tombs, since in the case of the Rekhmire
rably posed figures of votaries in bronze97 and in friezes the artists deliberately reworked murals that
glyptic98), while for mature men simple kilts might were essentially complete. One possible explanation
indicate a "low level management" (the sistrum player, is that the change from codpieces to kilts could reflect
hydria-holder) and patterned kilts might indicate a basic change in the status or age group of Aegean
men of higher status (the Knossos Procession Fresco, men that composed the embassies to Egypt.
including the cupbearer with his sealstone bracelet). A second explanation is more complex. It has long
Shorts are confined, as far as I can tell, to LM/LH been noted that many of the Keftiu paintings in the
I-II scenes of battle or hunting but appear in Mi- Theban tombs copy or select from an existing pic-
noan99 as well as Mycenaean depictions; in the later torial model, perhaps inspired initially by a single,
Mycenaean frescoes of LH IIIA-B date they are gen- major deputation from the Aegean to Egypt early

96Younger
(supra n. 2). that there were Mycenaeans at Thera, and a LM I Warrior
97E.g., a bronze from Tylissos: Buchholz and Kara- Grave has been found at Poros near Heraklion: P. Metaxa-
georghis pl. 1,226a-b. Muhly, Aaevr6'q rdcpo;aro H6po HparKeiov (Athens 1992).
98 As on the well-known"Motheron the Mountain"seal- 100See examples in Lang (supra n. 27) cited in ns. 34
ings from Knossos:PM 11.2,809 fig. 528; IV.2,608 fig. 597 and 35.
A e; M. Gill, "The Knossos Sealings: Provenanceand Iden- 101E.g., the Warrior Vase from Mycenae, supra n. 34. Cf.
tification," BSA 60 (1965) 71 M 1-5, pl. 11. the late painted stela from Mycenae, which may be by the
99E.g., the Khania sealing (supra n. 32), which comes same hand as the vase: Buchholz and Karageorghis pl. 1,071;
from a LMI context before the period of majorMycenaean Immerwahr 149-50.
influence on Crete,though severalscholars have suggested

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1996] AEGEAN BREECHCLOTHS, KILTS, AND THE KEFTIU PAINTINGS 51
in the 18th Dynasty, perhaps during the reign of about changes in political structures in the Aegean,
Hatshepsut.'02 A major change in costume could regardless of whether one follows the traditional
then be an indication that another important visit Aegean chronology or adopts the higher one that
took place at the time that Rekhmire's tomb was still has been proposed recently. Thus, the notion--
being prepared, and that the costumes of this new implicit or explicit- that the codpieces in the Keftiu
group of visitors inspired a change in the basic paintings indicate Cretans, and that kilts indicate
Egyptian conception of how the Keftiu dressed. Ex- Mycenaean natives must be abandoned. Clearly,
changes of various sorts between the Aegean and though, differences among Aegean costumes were
Egypt may have been much more common than we significant, and changes among them were observed
now suppose. Later in the 18th Dynasty there is evi- and noted even outside the Minoan and Mycenaean
dence for a reciprocal Egyptian embassy to Crete worlds.'15 The meaning of Aegean costumes is still
and the mainland under Amenhotep III, which left an area where we have much to investigate and learn.
physical traces in the archaeological record at Myce-
nae,'3" as well as the further possibility that warriors DEPARTMENT OF CLASSICAL STUDIES
from the Aegean actually served in Egypt shortly LOYOLA UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
thereafter, in the reign of Akhenaten.'04 6525 NORTH SHERIDAN ROAD
But the alteration of codpieces to kilts in the The- CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60626
ban tomb paintings cannot be used to support ideas PREHAK@ORION.IT.LUC.EDU

1"2"Wachsmann (supra n. 4) for discussion of the helmets: R.B. Parkinson and L. Schofield, "Akhenaten's
possible role of copybooks in the transmission of images. Army?"EgyptianArchaeology 3 (1993) 34-35; Schofield and
"'0E.g., a series of faience plaques of the type used in Parkinson,"OfHelmets and Heretics:A Possible Egyptian
Egypt for foundation deposits. See E. Cline, "Amenhotep Representation of MycenaeanWarriorson a Papyrusfrom
III and the Aegean: A Reassessment of Egypto-AegeanRe- el-Amarna,"BSA89 (1994) 157-70 and color frontispiece.
lations in the 14th Century B.C.,"Orientalia56 (1987) 1-36; Note, however,that the helmeted men also wear Egyptian
cf. Cline,"MonkeyBusiness in the Bronze Age Aegean:The loincloths, not Aegean costumes; furthermore, L. Morgan
Amenhotep II Faience Figurines at Mycenae and Tiryns," has argued that boars' tusk helmets cannot be used to dis-
BSA 86 (1991) 29-42. tinguish Mycenaeansfrom Minoans (supra n. 20) 109-15.
104An illustrated papyrus from Amarna in the British 105W.Helck, "DieAgypter und die Fremden,"Spaeculum
Museum showswarriors,some wearingzoned (boars'tusk?) 15 (1964) 103-10.

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