Introduced by Dell Hymes in 1966 in contrast with
Chomsky’s term ‘linguistic competence’.
How to use language appropriately (context)
The ability to speak and understand language stems not
only from grammatical knowledge
Learning appropriate language through socialization in
language communities
Communicative competence has become highly
influential in the fields of education, sociology,
psychology.
In language teaching it has introduced a turn towards
communicative language teaching.
Assessment has also been influenced to reflect
communicative capacity.
The CEFR defines competences as the
complex of different kinds of knowledge
and skills people have to draw upon in
order to speak a language and
distinguishes between:
Deckarative Skills and Existential Ability to
knowledge know-how competence learn savoir-
savoir savoir-faire savoir-être apprendre
Language and
Knowledge of
Social skills Attitudes communication
the world
awareness
Sociocultural General
Vocational skills Values
knowledge phonetic skills
Intercultural Professional Motivation, Study and
awareness skills beliefs heuristic skills
Linguistic Sociolinguistic Pragmatic
competence competence competence
• Lexical • Linguistic markers for • Discourse
• Grammatical social relations • Functional:
• Semantic • Politness conventions schemata,
• Phonological • Popular expressions microfunctions and
• Orthographic macrofunctions
• Register
• Orthoepic • Dialect and accent
Pragmatic competences are concerned
with the user/learner’s knowledge of
the principles according to which
messages are:
organised, structured and
arranged (‘discourse competence’)
used to perform communicative
functions (‘functional competence’)
sequenced according to
interactional and transactional
schemata (‘design competence’).
The term ‘text’ is used to cover any piece of
language, whether a spoken utterance or a
piece of writing, which users/learners receive,
produce or exchange.
Texts have many different functions in social life
and result in corresponding differences in form
and substance.
Depending on the macrofunction they perform,
texts can be: descriptive, narrative, expository,
argumentative or instructive.
Traditional text typology (rhetorical):
Narration
Description
Exposition
Argumentation
Text typology (with a functional basis):
Narrative
Descriptive
Expository
Argumentative
Instructive
Werlich (1983)
Macro-genres are general semantic-
functional concept.
Expository texts identify and characterize
phenomena. They include text forms such as
definitions, explanations, summaries and
essays.
Exposition is a type of oral or written
communication that is used to explain
something, either by (i) presenting constituent
elements which can be synthesised into a
complex concept or (ii) those constituent
elements into which concepts can be
analysed.
The encoder informs – The decoder
comprehends
Expositions may be subjective (essay) or objective
(summary, explanation, definition)
Explanations may be analytical (starting from a
concept and then characterizing its parts; e.g.
definitions) or synthetic (recounting characteristics
and ending with an appropriate concept or
conclusion; e.g. summaries)
Expositions are characterized by state verbs and
epistemic modals (Pop music has a strong rhythmic
beat; Texts may consist of one or more sentences)
or by verbs indicating typical activities or qualities
(fruitflies feed on yeast)
Expository text:
Acanthus
A thistle-like plant (common to the warm
Mediterranean region) whose narrow and
pointed-lobed leaves, when stylized, form
the characteristic decoration of the
Corinthian and Composite Orders of
columns.
Expository essays
Aim: explanation of concepts, mental constructs, or
conceptions
Style:
Neutral: unmarked by any formal or informal linguistic
choice
Informal: marked by linguistic choices that reflect the
encoder’s easiness with the addressees 1st or 2nd
person p.o.v., simple vocab. and syntax, short sentence…
Formal: marked by linguistic choices that reflect the
encoder’s distance with the addressees a non-personal
or 1st person p.o.v., complex vocab., long sentences…
Definitions
Aim: explain how isolated words (terms or names)
are interrelated with mental concepts, using other
linguistic signs known by the addressee.
Style:
Short: linguistic signs are defined by listing a number of its
individual semantic components and relating these to a
more inclusive class term. They can include references to
illustrative examples.
Long: may point to the origin of a word in a specific
language community with references to meanings in other
languages (usually in a diachronic p.o.v.)
Interpretations
Aim: explain the conceptions which are
manifested in both fictional and non-fictional
texts literary and art criticism.
A text interpretation complements a given text
drawing upon knowledge of other texts and
knowledge of the sociocultural context.
Style
Formal or academical: non-personal 3rd person p.o.v.,
present tense, inductive or deductive expansion…
There are five types of expository text structures:
Sequence or time order (presents events: the French
Revolution)
Listing (explains the features of an object or event:
Acanthus)
Compare and Contrast (involves discussing similarities and
differences: electoral system in Spain and in the USA)
Cause and Effect (outlines reasons for events: Causes for
the recession)
Problem-Solution (discuss a problem and then suggest
possible solutions)
Proposition & Support (Persuasive): The author is often
trying to persuade readers that a problem exists or an
issue exists and must be dealt with in a specific manner.
The author will generally state a hypothesis and attempt
to make a logical argument about what is to be done.
Key words & phrases: because of, the result would be,
based on, the data shows
Sequence structure
first next
second until
third while
last soon
then after
at that time now
during immediately
finally
Listing structure
the following also
then in addition
another furthermore
finally likewise
besides as well as
several some
many a few
Compare and contrast structure
however even though
but on the contrary
yet otherwise
despite in comparison
still on the other hand
Cause and effect structure
for this reason thus
in order to as a result
because consequently
so that on account of
therefore accordingly
Problem-Solution structure
because
cause
since
as a result
so that
In the era of information (Internet),
understanding of expository texts is crucial.
The standardisation of reading tests –where
80% of the content is expository – makes it
necessary for students to be familiarised with
this type of text.
Many students experience problems
comprehending expository texts (oral and
written) require explicit and direct teaching
instruction
A good understanding of the structures of
expository texts = fewer comprehension
problems
Retelling as a way of teaching expository texts
(Moss, 2004): oral or written postreading recalls
during which students relate what they
remember from reading or listening to a
particular text holistic representation of
student understanding.
Explicit teaching of expository texts structures as
another way of improving their comprehension
and production (Dymock, 2005): how to organise
the material graphically
