TOPIC 37. LITERARY LANGUAGE. LITERARY GENRES.
LITERARY CRITICISM
1. INTRODUCTION
Literary works have been categorized since classical times
into general types. In literature, the broadest division is
between poetry, prose, and drama, each containing further
subdivisions, such as tragedy and comedy within the realm of
drama. Contemporary genres tend to be more specific in form
rather than universal, focusing on particular themes or settings
rather than overarching concept like tragedy and comedy.
There is a disagreement about the definition of specific
genres. Conventional definitions of genres typically revolve
around the idea that they consist of particular conventions of
content, such as themes or settings, and of form, including
structure and style, which are shared among texts. Genres often
overlap, and there are mixed genres where particular features
characteristic of a genre are not necessarily unique to it.
Contemporary theorists emphasize the importance of
intertextuality, following the idea developed by De Beaugrande
and Dressler (1981) regarding the definition of text, in other
words, seeing individual texts in relation to others. This
approach highlights the interconnectedness of literary works and
underscores the influence and dialogue between different texts
within and across genres.
2. LITERARY LANGUAGE
Literary language is that language which is used in
literary criticism and general discussion on some literary
works. English has been used as a literary language in countries
that were ruled by the British Empire such as India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Malaysia, Nigeria, etc. where English is official
language even today. Before the 18 th century the language of
literature was totally different from the language which was
used by the common man in spoken or written.
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So literature was not easy to understand for a common man.
Only highly qualified and educated people could enjoy the
reading of literature. So literature was far way from the reach
of the common people. Shakespeare’s language was not easy to
understand for commons Elizabethans. Similarly, Samuel Johnson’s
prose was not easy for common people because it was full rhetoric
with antecedent models in Greek and Latin. It was only Daniel
Dafoe (1660-1731) who wrote the major works of literature in the
ordinary English language.
Since then, the language of literature has changed a lot.
In the modern time we find literature written in the languages
which are really used by common people in their daily life. This
is the reason why literature has become popular in our time. Now
every literate person can enjoy the reading of literature of
their choice because it is written in the language which they
use in daily life. So nowadays literature has become close to
the people and so its readership has increased. On the part of
writers it has now become a style to write in ordinary and common
language.
3. LITERARY GENRES
Literature, as a reflection of human experience,
encompasses a vast array of genres, each with its unique
characteristics, themes, and conventions. From epic poetry to
experimental fiction, English literary genres offer a rich
tapestry of storytelling traditions that have evolved over
centuries.
The concept of literary genres has its roots in ancient
Greece, where scholars like Aristotle classified literature into
categories such as epic, tragedy, and comedy. These early
classifications laid the groundwork for the development of
literary traditions that would shape the course of Western
literature. In medieval English, genres such as epic poetry,
romance, and allegory flourished, providing audiences with
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narratives that combined elements of myth, legend, and moral
instruction.
The Renaissance period witnessed a flowering of literary
genres, as writers embraced humanism and experimentation in form
and content. Playwrights like William Shakespeare mastered the
art of tragedy, comedy and history, producing timeless works
such as Hamlet (1603), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1605), and
Henry V (1599). Meanwhile, the rise of the novel as a literary
form in the 18th century marked a significant shift in literary
culture, as writers like Daniel Dafoe, Samuel Richardson, and
Jane Austen pioneered new ways of storytelling and character
development.
Key literary genres are addressed in the paragraphs below:
Poetry, characterized by its use of language, rhythm, and
imagery, is one of the oldest and most enduring literary genres.
From the epic poetry of Homer’s The Illiad and The Odyssey to
the lyrical verse of poets like William Wordsworth, Emily
Dickinson, and Langston Hughes, poetry encompasses a wide range
of forms and styles. Whether exploring themes of love, nature,
politics, or spirituality, poets use language as a tool for
self-expression and reflection, inviting readers to engage with
the beauty and complexity of the human experience.
Prose fiction, including the novel and short story, has
emerged as one of the dominant literary genres in the modern
era. Novels like Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, Moby-Dick
by Herman Melville, and To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
transport readers to different worlds, immersing them in the
lives and struggles of fictional characters. Short stories, with
their brevity and conciseness, offer snapshots of human
experience, exploring themes of identity, alienation, and
transformation in a compact narrative form.
Drama, encompassing plays and theatrical performances, has
been a central aspect of literary and cultural expression for
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millennia. From the classical tragedies of Sophocles and
Euripides to the modernist experiments of playwrights like
Samuel Beckett and Harold Pinter, drama offers a platform for
exploring the human condition through dialogue, action, and
spectacle. Whether staged in ancient amphitheatres or
contemporary theatres, plays engage audiences in thought-
provoking narratives that challenge assumptions and provoke
emotions.
Nonfiction encompasses a wide range of literary genres,
including autobiography, biography, essays and journalism. From
the confessional memoirs of writers like Maya Angelou and Frank
McCourt to the investigative journalism of muckrakers like Upton
Sinclair and Ida B. Wells, nonfiction offers readers insights
into real-life events, personalities, and social issues. Essays,
with their blend of personal reflection and critical analysis,
provide a forum for writers to explore ideas and perspectives
on topics ranging from politics and culture to art and
philosophy.
Fantasy and science fiction, characterised by their
imaginative worlds, speculative premises, and fantastical
elements, have captivated readers for centuries. From the epic
fantasies of J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings and George
R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire to the futuristic visions
of H.G. Wells’ The War of the Worlds and Margaret Atwood’s The
Handmaid’s Tale, these genres push the boundaries of imagination
and challenge readers to reconsider their assumptions about
reality and human nature.
4. LITERARY CRITICISM
Literary criticism, as the evaluation and interpretation
of literary works, has been a cornerstone of literary discourse
since the emergences of literature itself. The history of
English literary criticism is a rich tapestry woven with diverse
perspectives, evolving methodologies, and dynamic thinkers. From
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ancient roots to modern theories, this section embarks on a
journey through the ages, exploring the evolution of English
literary criticism.
The origins of English literary criticism can be traced
back to ancient civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Egypt,
Greece, and Rome. In these societies, literary texts were often
analysed for their moral, philosophical, and aesthetic
significance. The Greek philosopher Plato, in his dialogues such
as The Republic and Ion, discussed the role of poetry in society
and its potential to corrupt of enlighten the soul. Aristotle,
Plato’s student, formulated theories of drama and poetry in his
seminal work Poetics, establishing principles of plot,
character, and catharsis that would influence literary criticism
for centuries.
During the Middle Ages, literary criticism in England was
largely theological and moralistic, with scholars interpreting
texts through the lens of Christian doctrine. The rise of
humanism during the Renaissance saw a revival of interst in
classical literature and a shift towards secular literary
criticism. Figures like Sir Philip Sidney, in his Defense of
Poesy, advocated for the value of literature as a source of
moral instruction and aesthetic pleasure, laying the groundwork
for a more secular approach to criticism.
The 17th and 18th centuries witnessed the dominance of
neoclassical literary criticism, which emphasized order, reason,
and imitation of classical models. Critics such as John Dryden
and Samuel Johnson upheld classical standards of clarity,
decorum, and verisimilitude in literature. However, with the
advent of the Romantic movement in the late 18 th century, there
was a reaction against the rigid formalism of neoclassicism.
Romantic critics like William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge championed the individual imagination, emotion, and
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the sublime in literature, challenging established literary
norms and paving the way for new modes of literary expression.
The Victorian Era saw a proliferation of literary criticism
alongside the burgeoning literary production of the period.
Critics like Matthew Arnold sought to elevate literature to the
status of a moral and spiritual guide for society, advocating
for a disinterested pursuit of “the best that has been thought
and said”. Meanwhile, the rise of literary realism led to the
emergence of critics such as John Ruskin and Walter Pater, who
emphasized the importance of detailed observation and
psychological insight in literature.
The early 20th century witnessed the rise of modernism,
characterized by experimentation, fragmentation, and a rejection
of traditional forms. Influential modernist critics like T.S.
Eliot and Ezra Pound reshaped literary discourse with their
theories of impersonality, tradition, and the objective
correlative. Concurrently, the New Criticism movement emerged
in the mid-20th century, focusing on close reading and formal
analysis of texts while eschewing extratextual considerations
such as authorial intention and historical context. Figures like
Chauth Brooks and John Crowe Ransom promoted the idea of the
“intentional fallacy” and the “affective fallacy,” arguing that
the meaning of a text should be derived solely from its internal
structure and language.
The latter half of the 20 th century saw the proliferation
of post-structuralist and postmodernist approaches to literary
criticism, which challenged the idea of stable meaning and
questioned the authority of the author. Influential theorists
like Roland Barthes and Jacques Derrida deconstructed
traditional notions of language, meaning, and identity,
emphasizing the role of language as a system of signs and the
impossibility of fixed interpretations. Meanwhile, feminist
critics like Simone de Beauvoir and Judith Butler examined
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literature through the lens of gender and power, exposing the
patriarchal biases embedded in literary texts and the canon.
In the 21st century, English literary criticism continues
to evolve in response to changing cultural, technological, and
geopolitical landscapes. Critics explore a diverse array of
perspectives, including postcolonialism, ecocriticism, queer
theory, and critical race theory, among others. Digital
humanities and computational approaches have also emerged as
influential methodologies, enabling scholars to analyse large
corpora of texts and uncover hidden patterns and connection.
5. CONCLUSION AND TEACHING IMPLICATIONS
It is not an easy task for teachers to include literary
concepts like the ones developed in this essay in an EFL
classroom, not to mention historical periods that even though
can be considered of great importance due to cultural
implications are hard to introduce in a syllabus aimed to
teenagers.
The legal framework that establishes the curriculum for
Secondary and Post-Obligatory levels, namely Royal Decree
217/2022, 29 March, Royal Decree 243/2022, 5 April, at national
level and Decrees 65 and 64/2022, 20 July, at regional level,
take into account this issue and set up contents to deal with
literary and cultural aspects since very early stages of their
secondary education. Although there are many different ways to
deal with/work with texts, literary texts, teachers have to
ponder their options regarding their students’ English level,
skills and interests, among other things.
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. An introduction to
literature, criticIsm and theory. Routledge, 2023
- Leitch, Vincent B., et al., eds. The Norton anthology of theory
and criticism. WWW Norton & Company, 2018
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- Tyson, Lois. Using critical theory: How to read and write
about literature. Routledge, 2020
