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PERSONAL IDENTITY

• “Establishment of individuality of a person”.

• May be;

o Complete iden=ty.

o Incomplete iden=ty.

COMPLETE IDENTITY/ABSOLUTE IDENTIFICATION: Absolute fixa=on of individuality of a person

when person is known by his name and complete address (by NIC).

PARTIAL / INCOMPLETE IDENTITY: In certain circumstances only age, sex etc can be established
called as par=al iden=ty.

MEDICOLEGAL ASPECTS:

• IN LIVING – in civil cases, iden=fica=on is required in;

o Marriage.

o Pension.

o Disputed sex.

o Inheritance.

o Insurance.

o Vo=ng right.

o Passport.

• IN DEAD – iden=fica=on is required;

o In cases of fire, explosion and accidents.

o When unknown body is found.

o In cases of decomposed bodies, mu=lated body or skeletal remains.

CORPUS DELICITI:

Means body of offense or body of crime.

In case of homicide, it includes.

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• Posi=ve iden=fica=on of dead body.

• Proof of its death by criminal act of accused.

NATIONAL IDENTITY CARD: contains;

• Facial photograph.

• Iden=ty marks like mole, scar.

• Signature.

• Thumb impression.

• Address.

When NIC not available, difficulty arises in cases:

• Vic=m of traffic accident.

• Lost memory pa=ent.

• Wanted criminals.

• Abscounding soldiers.

• Mixed up babies in maternity ward.

• Cases of impersona=on (concealed iden=ty of sex).

METHODS OF DETERMINATION OF PERSONAL IDENTITY:

There are three methods.

• 3rd party method.

• Subjec=ve method.

• Objec=ve method.

1. 3rd party method:


most commonly used;

Two principal par=es;

a. Examiner (1st party).

b. Examinee (2nd party).

Rela=ve /friend – 3rd party. Note his

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a. Name, NIC number.

b. Rela=onship with examinee.

2. Subjec=ve method:

a. When 3rd party is not available – morphological data of examinee is collected.

b. Morphological data collected from;

i. Physical characters of body i.e, facial features.

ii. Belongings of examinee.

c. At =me of medicolegal examina=on, clue/characters recorded in fullest detail


Corpse/dead body is present as a whole.

d. Personal iden=ty can be classified as;

i. Anatomical.

ii. Physiological.

iii. Pathological.

iv. Gene=cs.

i. Anatomical parameters.

a. Primary data – present at =me of birth.

b. Secondary data – develop/appear subsequently at various stages of life like secondary

sexual characteris=cs and degenera=ve changes.

ii. Physiological parameters:


Gait, voice, tone, manner of speech.

iii. Pathological parameters:


About disease like eczema, scars, calcified fibroid.

iv. Gene=c parameters:


Blood groups, barr bodies (sex chromosomes have barr bodies which help in determina=on of
sex).

3. Objec=ve method:

We have only fragmentary remains of dead body and belongings;
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a. U=liza=on of morphological data and belongings data.

b. Useful in cases of decomposed and mu=lated bodies.

c. Remains are sorted to separate biological and non-biological materials.

i. Non-biological materials – clothes, belongings.

ii. Biological stains/traces – body fluids, =ssues.

PARAMETERS OF IDENTIFICATION:

• Age.

• Sex.

• Race.

• Anthropometry (ber=llon’s system).

• Iden=ty marks (congenital or acquired).

• Dental data.

• Hair.

• Eyes.

• Dactylography.

• Blood component.

• Diseases.

• Possession.

• Photographs.

a. Those present in a body as a whole:

i. Age.

ii. Sex.

iii. Weight.

iv. Height.

v. Stature.
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b. Those present on various parts of body.

i. Face.

ii. Shape of eyes.

iii. Nose.

iv. Lips.

v. Chin.

vi. Cheeks.

vii. Hands.

viii.Feet.

MEDICOLEGAL DICTUM:

At least two important marks of iden=fica=on must be noted.

When no dis=nct mark is available, lef thumb impression may be taken.

LOCARD introduced concept of use of trace evidence as means of personal iden=ty.

LOCARD EXCHANGE PRINICPLE:

It states that;

• Every contact leaves a trace.

• Exchange of trace is a two way process.

TRACE EVIDENCE:

• It is material lef on scene or body of a vic=m or assailant which subsequently helps in

iden=fica=on of source from where it has originated.

• Like biological or non-biological material.

BERTILION SYSTEM (ANTHROPOMETRY):

Principle:

• Measurements of various parts of human body do not alter afer adult age (21 years).
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• No two persons show same measurements in all respects.


System involves registra=on of characteris=cs under three heads viz.

o Descrip=ve data – Such as color of iris and hair, complexion and shape of nose, ears, chin
etc.

o Bodily marks – Such as moles, scars, tahoo marks etc.

o Body measurements – Eleven in number, pertaining to certain body parts.

▪ Photographs of full face and right profile.

FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY:

Defini=on:

‘It is a branch of forensic medicine and in interest of jus=ce deals with proper examina=on,
handling and presenta=on of dental evidence in court of law’.

FEATURES WHICH CAN BE ESTABLISHED BY DENTAL EXAMINATION:

• Age.

• Sex.

• Race.

• Blood group (from saliva).

• Economic status.

• Occupa=on.

• Use of specific medicine.

• General facial characteris=cs.

Stage of tooth development has two periods:

• Pre natal period.

• Post-natal period.

Pre-natal period:

• Calcifica=on of tooth starts in incisors at =ps of milky teeth at 5th month of intra-uterine phase.

• At =me of birth, calcifica=on occurs.

o Incisors 2/3

o Canines ½
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o Molars =p

AGE:

• Erup=on of temporary and permanent teeth.

• Gustafson’s criteria.

Two sets of teeth:

• Temporary or deciduous or milk teeth.

• Permanent teeth.

Temporary/deciduous Milk teeth:

These are 20 in number including (in each jaw).

• Incisors 4

• Canines 2

• Molars 4

Permanent teeth:

These are 32 in number including (in each jaw);

• Incisors 4

• Canines 2

• Pre-molars 4

successional teeth/succedaneous teeth (replace temporary teeth).

• Molars 6

Superadded teeth (behind temporary teeth).

TEMPORARY TEETH PERMANENT TEETH

Small, narrow and light Big, broad and heavy
China white in color Ivory white in color
Neck is more constricted Neck less constricted
Edges serrated Edges not serrated
Anterior tooth ver=cal Anterior tooth inclined somewhat forward
Molars are usually larger Pre-molars which replace temporary molars are
smaller
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AGE OF ERUPTION OF TEMPORARY TEETH:

TOOTH AGE
Lower central incisor 6-8 months
Upper central incisor 7-9 months
Upper lateral incisor 9 months
Lower lateral incisor 10 months
1st molars 12 months
Canines 18 months
2nd molars 2 years

TEMPORARY TEETH:

• Temporary den==on starts at 6 months


completed – 2.5 years.

• In 1st year total teeth – 8

• In 1.5 years total teeth – 16

• In 2 to 2.5 years – 20

• Calcifica=on of roots completed by end of 3rd year.

PERMANENT TEETH ERUPTION:

TEETH *MNEMONIC YEAR OF ERUPTION

1st Molars Mother 6
Central Incisor Is 7
Lateral Incisor In 8
1st Pre-Molar (Bicuspid) Bed 9
2nd Pre-Molar (Bicuspid) Baby 10
Canines Come 11
2nd Molars Monday 11-12
3rd Molars (Wisdom Tooth) Morning 17-18 (Variable)

*The first alphabet of each word denotes the name of the tooth.

PERMANENT TEETH:

• If 4 wisdom teeth are present, then age is >17 years.

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• Mix den==on period is 6-12 years.

• Calcifica=on of roots is completed within 3-4 years of erup=on.

Mixed denQQon period (MDP):

Ranges from fall of the first deciduous teeth and erup=on of the first permanent tooth (6-7yrs)
=ll fall of the last deciduous tooth (12-13yrs).

Number of permanent teeth during MDP = (age in years – 5)4

e.g.

Child’s age = 10 yrs

No. of permanent teeth = (10 – 5)4

= 5 X 4 = 20

So 20 out of total teeth in mouth are permanent, the rest temporary at the age of 10 years.

GUSTAFSON’S METHOD:

This method is used for age es=ma=on in adults by studying progressive changes in an individual tooth.

GUSTAFSON’S CRITERIA:

• Degree of ahri=on (wearing of teeth).

• Periodontosis (loosening of teeth).

• Secondary den=ne forma=on.

• Cementum deposi=on.

• Root resorp=on.

• Root transparency/translucency.

MILES (1963): Transparency of root is most reliable criteria.

BOYD (1963): Devised age es=ma=on from incremental lines of enamel.

These lines can be seen on histological sec=on of teeth and represent daily increments
of growth.

A well marked line, Neonatal line is formed at birth.

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SEX:

Difference in male and female denQQon:

FINDINGS MALE FEMALE

Size of upper central and lateral Different Same
incisors
Size and shape of teeth Mandibular teeth are less Mandibular teeth are more
pointed and bigger pointed and smaller
Mandibular 1st molar Has a 5th cusp 5th cusp is absent

RACE:

• Characteris=cs of mongoloids teeth:

o Shovel shaped – upper incisor.

o Enamel pearls – are small nodules of enamel on surface.

o Taurodon=sm (bull tooth) – pulp cavity of molars is wide and deep and roots are fused
and bent.

o Congenital lack of 3rd upper molars – is common.

• Carbelli’s cusp:

Small nodules on lingual surfaces of maxillary molars is common in white races.

• Large teeth with more cusps in molars – are common in Negroid.

COMMON IDENTIFYING FEATURES OF TEETH:

1. FAULTY DEVELOPMENT: Teeth may be undersized (small), oversized, notched or present

some other irregulari=es as a result of faulty development and malforma=on.

HUTCHINSON’S TEETH: cons=tute a classical example of malforma=on in CONGENITAL SYPHILIS.

2. FAULTY ALIGNMENT: Defect in alignment may be

a. In space between teeth e.g, widely spaced teeth, over riding teeth.

b. Between teeth of upper and lower jaw.

3. STAINS:
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a. Pan (betel leaf, tobacco) chewing habit stains teeth with dark brown or black deposit.

b. Yellowish or dark brown stains on back of incisor teeth are common in cigarehe smokers.

c. Chalky white or yellowish brown areas of discolora=on on enamel are found in florosis.

d. Copper causes green and mercury and lead causes blue-black line on gums.

e. Phenytoin induces hyperplasia of gums. May indicates and suggests epilep=c seizures as
a cause of death.

4. LOCALIZED ATTRITION.

a. Pipe smokers may have localized wear of teeth either on incisor or at angles of mouth
due to posi=on of pipe – habit.

b. Notched incisors from holding thread and pins between teeth suggest that person was
tailor, hair dresser or cobbler – occupa=on.

5. MISSING TEETH: Tooth loss can be antemortem or postmortem.

MEDICOLEGAL ASPECTS OF DENTAL STUDY:

1. Iden=fica=on of individual.

2. Cause of death: Teeth resist putrefac=on and amount of deposi=on of heavy metals can
be detected for a considerable period afer death that is especially helpful in poisoning.

3. In chronic phosphorus poisoning – evidence of phossy jaw is characteris=c.

4. Bite marks suggest sexual assault.

5. Ar=ficial dentures, when dislodged can some=mes cause choking in elderly.

6. Pink teeth: in putrefied bodies near gum line, teeth are of pink color, it is due to den=ne
being stained by hemoglobin products.

CHARTING OF TEETH:

1. Any extrac=ons, recent or old from condi=on of socket.

2. Any fillings, number and posi=on.

3. Ar=ficial teeth, whether of gold, porcelain or stainless steel.

4. Prosthe=c work.

5. Any crowned teeth.

6. Any broken teeth.

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7. Pathological condi=on in teeth jaws and gums.

8. Congenital defects such as enamel pearls, carbelli’s cusps or ectopic teeth.

9. Malposi=oned teeth, rotated or =lted.

10. General state of care and hygiene like caries, plaque, tobacco staining, gingivi=s.

TABLE: NOTATION SYMBOLS OF TEETH:

CONDITION OF TOOTH NOTATION SYMBOL CONDITION OF TOOTH NOTATION SYMBOL

Tooth present and . Tooth recently X
sound extracted
Tooth missing - Tooth to be extracted /
Root present + Cavity O
Filling present Ar=ficial tooth A
Crown C Direc=on of movement

Methods of char=ng;

1. Universal system [(1-32)permanent][temporary(A-T)].

2. Palmer’s nota=on (8-1) molar – incisors.

3. Haderup system +, -

4. FDI (Federa=on Dentaire Interna=onale) two digit system or interna=onal system of numbering
of teeth.

a. Quadrants 1-4 – permanent.

b. 5-8 – temporary.

5. Diagramma=c or anatomical char=ng. (Pictorial symbols).

IDENTIFICATION FROM SKELETAL REMAINS:

• Age.

• Sex.

• Race.

• Stature.

RACE:
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Race can be determined from examina=on of:

• Skull.

• Mandible.

• Teeth.

• Limb bones.

SKULL:

Certain differences exist between;

• Negroid (black).

• Caucasoid (Europeans).

• Mongoloid (na=ve Americans, Koreans, Japanese, Chinese, south east Asians).

Race can be determined by;

• Cephalic index (breadth index).

• Height index.

• Nasal index.

1. Cephalic index/cranial index/breadth index.


Cephalic index is calculated as maximum breadth divided by maximum length of skull mul=plied
by 100.

a. Breadth is measured above mastoid process.

b. Length is measured between glabella and occipital protuberance with caliper.

TYPE OF SKULL CEPHALIC INDEX RACE

Dolico headed (long headed) 70-74.9 Aryans, black
Mesa= cephalic (medium 75-79.9 Europeans, Chinese
headed)
Brachy cephalic (round headed) 80 or > Mongolians

2. Height index;
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a. Height index is calculated as height of skull divided by length of skull, mul=plied by 100.

b. Height is measured from =p of mastoid process to bregma.

3. Nasal index.

Nasal index is calculated as width of nasal aperture divided by height of nasal aperture,
mul=plied by 100.

BLACKS EUROPEANS MONGOLS

Cephalic index 70-74.9 75-79.9 80 or above
Height index 72 71 75
Nasal index 55 46 50

Other differences in different races;

BLACKS EUROPEANS MONGOLS

Orbits Square Triangular Rounded
Nasal opening Broad Narrow and elongated Rounded
Palate Rectangular Triangular Rounded

Cheek bones or zygoma=c arches are prominent in Mongols.

In Mongols unlike other groups face width generally exceeds head width.

MANDIBLE AND TEETH:

IN BLACK –

• Large teeth with more cusps in molars.

• Lower jaw is strongly prognathic.

• A star shaped configura=on is ofen seen on occlusal surface of molars.

• 3rd molar is bigger than first two molars.

IN MONGOLS:

• Shovel shaped – upper central incisor.

• Enamel pearls – are small nodules of enamel on tooth surface.

• Enamel of molar teeth extends downwards between teeth in Chinese.

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• Taurodon=sm (bull tooth) – these are common in mongols. Pulp cavity is wide and deep and
roots are fused.

• Congenital lack of 3rd upper molar is common.

IN WHITE RACES:

• Carbelli’s cusp: small nodules on ligual surface of maxillary molars is common.

• Europeans have chisel shaped teeth.

LIMB BONES:

• Radio-humeral index (brachial index) – length of radius divided by length of humerus mul=plied
by 100.

EUROPEANS BLACKS
Radiohumeral index Below 75 Above 80

• Tibio-femoral index (crural index) – length of =bia divided by length of femur, mul=plied by 100.

EUROPEANS BLACKS
Tibio-femoral index Below 83 Above 83

SEX DETERMINATION FROM SKELETON

GENERAL FEATURES:

MALE FEMALE
Skeleton compara=vely bigger and stouter Skeleton compara=vely smaller and slender
Weight – 4.5 kg Wight – 3 kg
Muscular ridges, depressions and processes more Muscular ridges, depressions and processes less
prominent prominent
Shaf of long bone rela=vely rough and ar=cular Shaf of long bones rela=vely smooth and ar=cular
surfaces and ends larger surfaces and ends smaller

PELVIS:

MALE FEMALE
Bony frame work – massive Bony frame work – less massive
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Inlet – deep and narrow Inlet – shallow and wide

Anterior superior iliac spine – not widely Anterior superior iliac spine – widely separated
separated
Ilium – less expanded, high and ver=cal Ilium – more expanded, low and laterally directed
Subpubic arch – narrow, V shaped, angle = 70 Subpubic arch – wide, U shaped , angle = 90
degrees degrees
Ischial tuberosi=es – inverted Ischial tuberosi=es – everted
Obturator foramen – ovoid Obturator foramen – triangular
Greater scia=c notch – narrow Greater scia=c notch – wide
Sacrum – long and narrow, has 5 or more Sacrum – wide and short, has 5 segments, less
segments, well marked promontary marked promontary
Acetabulum – wider and deeper Acetabulum – narrower and shallower
Anterior curvature – is equally distributed along Anterior curvature – is straight in upper half and
its length sharply curved in lower half
Ar=cular surface of sacrum – extends to 2 ½ to 3 Ar=cular surface of sacrum – extends to 2 to 2 ½
vertebral bodies vertebral bodies
Ischiopubic angle – acute Ischiopubic angle – broad
Ischial spine – everted Ischial spine – inverted
Pelvic brim – heart shaped Pelvic brim – circular
Iliac crest – inverted Iliac crest – everted
Pre-auricular sulcus – not marked Pre-auricular sulcus – very prominent
Pubic tubercle – more marked Pubic tubercle – less marked

FEMUR:

MALE FEMALE
Acetabular area – wider and deeper Acetabular area – narrower and shallower
Head of femur – is larger Head of femur – is smaller
Ar=cualr surface – forms more than two thirds of Ar=cular surface – forms less than two thirds of
sphere sphere
Neck – forms obtuse angle with shaf (125 degree) Neck – forms right angle with shaf
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SKULL:

MALE FEMALE
Bigger, heavier and rough Smaller, lighter and smooth
Cranial capacity almost 200 cc/10 % more Cranial capacity almost 200 cc/10% less
Frontal sinuses more developed Frontal sinuses less developed
Fronto-nasal angula=on dis=nct Fronto nasal angula=on smoothly curved
Glabella, supra orbital ridges, zygoma=c arch, Glabella, supra orbital ridges, zygoma=c arch,
mastoid process, occipital protuberance, occipital mastoid process, occipital protuberance, occipital
condyle and muscular ahachments are more condyle and muscular ahachments are less
pronounced pronounced
Orbital opening compara=vely big and rectangular Orbital opening compara=vely small and rounded
Facial bones more massive and not delicate in Facial bones less massive and delicate in texture
texture
Frontal protuberance – marked Frontal protuberance – less marked
Orbital apertures – square and small Orbital apertures – rounded and large
Orbital margins – sharp Orbital margins – rounded
Nasal bone – narrow, with sharp margin Nasal bone – broad, with rounded margin
Cranial Capacity = 1500 -1550 cc Cranial Capacity = 1350 -1400 cc

SPINAL COLUMN:

MALE FEMALE
Mean breadth of 1st cervical vertebrae = 83 mm Mean breadth of 1st cervical vertebrae = 72 mm
Lumbar lordosis less marked. Lumbar lordosis more marked
Vertebral column = 73 cm Vertebral column = 60 cm

MANDIBLE:

MALE FEMALE
Lower jaw more massive Lower jaw less massive
Chin – square Chin – pointed or rounded
Symphyseal height more Symphyseal height less
Ramus – more braod Ramus – less braod
Angle region – everted Angle region – not everted
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THORAX:

MALE FEMALE
Thoracic cage – longer and narrower Thoracic cage – shorter and wider
Ribs – have a less pronounced curvature Ribs – have a more pronounced curvature
Body of sternum is bigger and more than twice Body of sternum is shorter and less than twice the
the length of manubrium length of manubrium
Upper border of sternum is at level of body of 2nd Upper border of sternum is at the level of 3rd
thoracic vertebrae thoracic vertebrae

SACRAL INDEX:

Sacral index is calculated as breadth of base of sacrum divided by anterior length of sacrum,
mul=plied by 100. Also called corpobasal index.

MALE FEMALE
Sacral index 112 116

ISCHIOPUBIC INDEX (WASHBURN INDEX):

Ischiopubic index is calculated by pubic length divided by ischial length mul=plied by 100.

MALE FEMALE
Ischiopubic index 73-94 91-115

ACCORDING TO KROGMAN, degree of accuracy to determine sex from bones:

• En=re skeleton 100%

• Pelvis and skull 98%

• Pelvis alone 95%

• Skull alone 90%

• Long bones alone 80%

AGE DETERMINATION FROM SKELETON

MANDIBLE:
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FEATURES INFANCY ADULT OLD AGE

Angle between ramus Obtuse Right angle Obtuse
and body
Body Shallow and small Thin and elongated Shallow and big
Ramus Short and oblique Stunted Long and oblique
Condylar process At lower level than Above the level of Neck is bent backwards
coronoid process coronoid process
Mental foramen Placed near lower Midway between upper Near alveolar margin
border and lower border

SPINAL COLUMN:

• In youth, upper and lower surfaces of bodies of vertebra bear radial markings at age of 10 years.

• By age of 30 years, they begin to fade and disappear.

• Lipping of vertebra is seen usually at 40 years.

• Osteophy=c outgrowths from anterior and lateral margins of intervertebral discs become visible
by 40 years.

• Disc undergoes atrophic changes by about 40 – 50 years.

transverse diameter of base of sacrum
Sacral index = X 100
Anterior length of sacrum

brea dth of bod y of 1st sacral ver tebra

Corporo-basal index = X 100
trans verse diameter of base of sacr um

THE DATING OF HUMAN BONES:

Examina=on of bones provide =me since death by taking environmental condi=ons into
considera=on. It is possible to state whether bone is ancient or modern.

NAKED EYE APPEARANCE:

• Presence of remnants of periosteum or tags of ligaments or sof =ssue indicates that bones are
less than 5 years old.

• A soapy texture of surface indicates age less than few decades.

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• Light, crumbling bones are likely to be a century or more old.

LAB FINDINGS:

1. Es=ma=on of radioac=ve C14: It is performed by ac=on of cosmic rays. Afer death, C14
decreases and it takes 5000-6000 years to decrease C14 to its half value. By using this method,
we can es=mate age of very old bones.

2. Nitrogen content: New bones contain 4-4.5 gm% of nitrogen and it decreases to 2.5 gm%
afer 350 years.

3. Amino acid contents: Up to 20 amino acids can be found in bones less than 100 years old.

4. Blood pigments: Blood pigments are present in bones and benzidine, phenolphthalein
and leucomalachite green test can detect blood pigments up to 5-10 years.

5. Immunologic ac=vity: if an=gen-an=body reac=on is present, then bone is few months old.

6. Fluorescence: Fluorescence can be seen across freshly sawn surface of long bone under
ultraviolet light for more than a century then declining and may vanish within 300-500 years.

ESTIMATION OF AGE FROM PUBIC SYMPHYSIS:

Symphysis pubis is best single criterion for judging age of an adult skeleton.

Pubic symphyseal changes Years

Symphyseal surface is even <20
Surface is markedly ridged and irregular called billowing ridges running 20-25
transversely across ar=cular surface
Billowing gradually disappears and ar=cular surface becomes granular with 25-35
sharp anterior and posterior margins
Ar=cular surface is smooth and oval 35-45
Narrow and beaded rims develop in and around margins of ar=cular surface 45-50
and some erosion starts
Varying degree of erosion with breaking down of ventral margin 50-60
Surface becomes irregularly eroded >60

IDENTIFICATION IN MASS DISASTERS:

Mass disaster is defined as death of more than 12 vic=ms in a single event.

OBJECTIVES OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATION ARE:

1. To determine cause and manner of death of each individual.

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2. To find cause of disaster e.g, bomb and detonator fragments embedded in bodies of vic=ms.

3. To obtain samples for toxicological analysis (especially alcohol and carbon monoxide).

• In mass disaster such as aircraf or train accident an en=re body may not be available and
examina=on may have to be carried out from available fragmentary remains.

• First of all we have to look for survivors and rescue them on priority basis.

• Then locate bodies and label them with a number.

• Take photographs and diagrams.

DESCRIPTION OF EACH PERSON INCLUDES:

• Appearance.

• Clothing, pocket contents and other personal effects.

• Deformi=es, moles, scars and tahoos.

• Race.

• Sex.

• Age.

• Stature.

• Finger prints.

• Foot prints.

• Dental status.

• Data from special techniques.

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES:

• X-ray examina=on.

• Ultra-violet rays.

• Post mortem serology.

• DNA profiling.

IDENTIFICATION CAN BE DONE BY:

1. Visual iden=fica=on – is standard method used by police to establish iden=ty of dead body.
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2. Photographs of clothing, personal possession or physical characteris=cs – may be recognized if

facial features are damaged.

a. Examina=on of clothes: Note any marks on clothing like manufacturer’s label or laundry
marks.

b. External examina=on: to determine.

i. Sex, height, weight, hair color, color of eyes.

ii. Anatomical, surgical and trauma=c scars.

c. Radiographic examina=on: complete set of skeletal X-rays should be taken

d. Autopsy: evidence relevant to iden=fica=on will be collected such as

i. Surgical absence of internal organ – appendectomy.

ii. Post surgical condi=ons like gastroenterostomy.

iii. Pre exis=ng disease.

e. Finger prints: should be taken.

f. Dental data.

PHOTOGRAPHS/FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY:

PURPOSE OF PHOTOGRAPHY:

• They help to iden=fy body.

• They provide an accurate picture of scene of crime.

• They help the witness to refresh his memory about findings.

• They help court to understand tes=mony in its proper perspec=ve.

• Pictures enhance credibility of evidence.

SUPERIMPOSITION:

It is a technique by which x-ray of recovered skull can be matched with photographs of vic=m.

• More recent photograph is beher.

• Two nega=ves are prepared one of person and other of skull.

• Appropriate magnifica=on is done to achieve maximum alignment.

• Two nega=ves are then superimposed by keeping over each other.

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• Contours, sof =ssue thickness and anatomical rela=onships are examined.

• This test has more nega=ve value to exclude person.

Inter pupillary distance is the best matching criteria for skull x-rays, as it remains same throughout
life.

FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION:

• Skeletal remains and modeling clay can reconstruct facial features ofen sufficiently close to
permit iden=fica=on.

• Computer programmes are available to simulate aging as well as reconstruc=on of appearance.

UV LAMP:

• An UV lamp can be used to locate and define tahoo marks and scars of burned and decomposed
remains and to segregate in case of a mix up.

• When examined by UV light, washed stains are readily seen.

• Seminal stains show a bluish white fluorescence.

DNA PROFILING:

DNA finger prinQng:

It is a way of iden=fying a certain individual, rather than simply iden=fying a specie or some
par=cular trait. It is also known as;

• Gene=c finger prin=ng.

• DNA profiling.

IntroducQon:

• DNA exists in form of twisted double helix and governs various inherent traits of human as well
as animal.

• Each person has a unique DNA finger print similar to conven=onal finger print.

• DNA finger print is same for every cell, =ssue and organ of a person.

• Any type of organism can be iden=fied by examina=on of DNA sequence unique to that specie.

• To iden=fy individual, forensic scien=sts scan 13 DNA regions that vary from person to person
and use data to create a DNA profile called DNA finger print.
24 Chapter 5

Structure of DNA:

• Double helix.

• Histones.

• Nucleo=des.

• Nitrogenous bases.

• Hydrogen bonds.

• Length of DNA in a cell is about 180 cm.

• Sequence of bases can code for many proper=es of cells of body as cells can read this code –
coding DNA.

• Non coding DNA is also present.

• Traits of human beings are result of informa=on contained in DNA code.

• DNA code is passed by sperm and egg to offspring.

• A single sperm and egg contain about 3 million bases.

DNA typing:

• DNA finger prin=ng begins by extrac=ng DNA from cells in samples.

• DNA is analyzed for presence of set of specific DNA markers.

• A marker by itself is not unique to an individual, if, however 2 DNA samples are alike at 4 or 5
regions, odds are great that samples are from same person.

• Two main techniques for comparing a test with control sample.

o Mul= locus probe.

o Single locus probe.

• Recent advances in iden=fying mitochondrial DNA, however, offer new scope for using =ny
sample.

Making DNA finger prints:

• Restric=on fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).

• Polymerase chain reac=on (PCR).

• Short tandem repeats (STR) analysis.

• Amplified fragment length polymorphism (Amp FLP).

25 Chapter 5

• Mitochondrial DNA analysis.

• Y-chromosome analysis.

RestricQon fragment length polymorphism (RFLP):

• Technique for analyzing various lengths of DNA fragments that result from dissec=ng a DNA
sample with an enzyme called Restric=on Endonuclease.

• Enzyme cuts DNA at specific sequences pahern known as Restric=on Endonuclease Recogni=on
Sites.

• DNA fragments are then separated using Gel Electrophoresis.

• They are then hybridized with DNA Probes that bind to complementary DNA sequence in
sample.

• DNA finger prin=ng by RFLP is a lab procedure that requires following steps.

o Isola=on of DNA.

▪ DNA must be recovered from cells of =ssues of body like blood, hair or skin etc.

▪ Amount of DNA found at base of root of hair is usually sufficient.

o Cu}ng, sizing and sor=ng.

▪ Restric=on endonucleases are used to cut DNA into fragments at specific places.

▪ DNA fragments are sorted according to size into bands by Gel Electrophoresis.

o Transfer of DNA to Nylon Membrane.

▪ Bands of DNA are transferred via a technique called Southern Blot from gel to
Nylon membrane.

o Probing.

▪ Nylon membrane is then treated with a radioac=vely labeled DNA probe which
binds to certain specific DNA sequences on membrane.

▪ It produces a pahern called DNA finger print.

o DNA finger print.

▪ Excess of probe is washed off.

▪ An X-ray film placed next to nylon membrane detects radioac=ve pahern of

band.

▪ Autoradiography reveals visible prints of bands (DNA finger prints).

26 Chapter 5

▪ These prints are called Autorads.


Drawbacks of RFLP.

▪ Exact size of bands is unknown.

▪ A very =me consuming method.

▪ Requires a very high quan=ty of very good quality DNA to be used.

▪ Samples degraded by environmental factors such as dirt or fungus do not work

well with RFLP.

• Polymerase chain reacQons (PCR).

o PCR involves amplifica=on of specific regions of DNA using a cycling of temperature and
thermo stable polymerase enzyme along with sequence specific primers of DNA.

o PCR analysis is used to make millions of exact copies of DNA from a biological sample.

o PCR itself does not accomplish DNA typing by increasing amount of DNA available for
DNA typing.

• Short tandem repeat (STR) analysis;

o STR technique is used to evaluate specific regions (loci) within nuclear DNA.

o It uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequence of DNA.

o Because different people have different number of repeat units, these regions of DNA
can be used to discriminate between individuals.

o STR loci are targeted using sequence specific primer and are amplified by PCR.

o DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using electrophoresis.

o When looking at mul=ple loci, it is unique combina=on of these polymorphism to an

individual that makes discrimina=ng as an iden=fica=on tool.

o More STR regions that are tested in an individual, more discrimina=ng test becomes.

• Amplified fragment length polymorphism (Amp FLP).

o This technique relies on Variable No. Tandem Repeats (VNTR) polymorphism to

dis=nguish various alleles, which are separated on polyacrylamide gel using an allelic
ladder.

• Mitochondrial DNA analysis – used in disputed maternity.

o Mt DNA is typed because there are many copies of MT DNA in a cell while there are only
1-2 copies of nuclear DNA.
27 Chapter 5

o Mt DNA analysis can only be used to examine DNA from samples that cannot be
analyzed by RFLP or STR.

o Mitochondrion of each new embryo comes from mother’s egg cell.

o Comparing mt DNA profile of uniden=fied remains with profile of a poten=al maternal

rela=ve can be important technique in missing person inves=ga=ons.

• Y-Chromosome analysis (used in disputed paternity).

o Y-chromosome is passed directly from father to son.

o Especially useful in detec=ng rela=onship among males.

o Also useful in analyzing biological evidence involving mul=ple male contribu=ons.

Samples needed for DNA profiling:

• Blood.

o RBCs have no nuclear DNA.

o 5ml is taken into an EDTA tube.

o Blood samples should be taken in plas=c tubes and frozen solid in a deep freezer.

o Blood stain should be sent intact on surfaces, kept as cool as possible before and during
transit to lab.

o Blood stain may be rubbed with cohon wool swab moistened with water. This swab is
then air dried without heat and then frozen.

o Dried blood stains on hard surfaces can be scrapped off with scalpel in a small plas=c
container and sent as they are and kept as cool as possible.

• Seminal and vaginal fluids.

o Swabs from vagina, rectus, mouth etc should be air dried as quickly as possible but not
heated then stored in deep freeze before transit to lab.

o Liquid semen found in vagina or elsewhere should be recovered with fine pipehe, placed
in small plain tube and frozen solid.

o Seminal stain on small items of fabric or any other small object may be frozen or kept
cool as possible before and during transit.

o Clothing should be stored in paper bags and kept as cool as possible.

o Damp swabs may be taken of suspect stains, which are then air dried and frozen.
28 Chapter 5

o Suspect’s dried seminal stains on hard surface may be scrapped off and transmihed dry
to lab.

o Mouth swabs at least 3-4 must be obtained by rubbing hard inside cheek or mouth lining
scrapped with an instrument and then smeared onto a swab.

• Hairs.

o Whatever the source of hairs, they are of no use for DNA profiling unless nucleated root
or follicle cells are present in sufficient number.

o It is essen=al to have plucked hair from living or dead.

o Al least 10-20 hairs are minimum requirements.

o These should be placed in a small plas=c bag and frozen.

Autopsy Qssue sample:

• At least 2g of =ssue should be taken from parenchyma of an organ and placed in small plas=c
tube with no fixa=ve or preserva=ve.

• Spleen is best organ for DNA recovery, though liver, kidney, muscle and brain may also be used

• Dried bones such as femur, sternum or humerus may also be used.

Medicolegal and ethical aspects of DNA finger prinQng:

• Paternity and maternity.

• Criminal iden=fica=on.

• Personal iden=fica=on.

• To iden=fy endangered species as an aid to wild life officials.

• To match organ donor with recipient in transplant programs.

• To detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute water, soil and food.

• To determine pedigree of seeds or live stock breeds.

• Ethical issues – privacy and discrimina=on.

NaQonal DNA databank:

• Combined DNA index system (CODIS) is used for linking serial crimes and unsolved cases with
repeat offenders.

• All DNA profiles stored in CODIS are generated using STR analysis.
29 Chapter 5

• It requires more than 4 RFLP and/or 13 core STR markers.

History of DNA finger prinQng:

1980 Ray White described first polymorphic RFLP marker

1985 Alec Jeffrey discovered mul=locular VNTR probes at university of Leicester
1985 First paper was reported on PCR
1988 FBI starts DNA case work
1991 First paper reported on STR
1995 FSS launched UK DNA database
1998 FBI launched CODIS database

ApplicaQon of DNA profiling:

• Blood or few hair roots on crime weapon can be matched with vic=ms’ blood.

• Seminal fluid matching in rape murder case.

• Can dis=nguish between mixed semen and vaginal fluid.

• Linking body parts.

• Baby mix ups.

• In paternity tes=ng – absolute iden=fica=on.

• Iden=fica=on of amnesic persons.

• Genome mapping – may iden=fy physical features of skeleton from DNA.

• Sex of fetus afer 5th week IU age, can be determined.

SCAR:

‘A scar is a permanent cicatricial mark which results from healing of a wound’.

CAUSATIVE AGENT TYPE OF SCARS

Incised wound Linear scar
Gaping wound Wide scar
Punctured wound Puckered
Lacerated wound Irregular
Bullet wound Circular, ovoid or elongated depressed scar.
30 Chapter 5

Burns, scalds and corrosives Irregular scars with keloid forma=on

Some evidence of splashing about main injury.
Surgical opera=on Linear scar with
S=tch/suture marks at regular intervals along
length of scar
Seen in definite anatomical situa=ons.
In I/V drug abusers Linear needle track scars
In skin poppers Depressed scars
Small pox vaccina=on scar 1-3 in number
Circular or oval
Slightly pihed
On outer side of arm and thigh
Syphili=c scars Thin, =ssue-paper like
On genitals
Small-pox disease Characteris=c mul=ple scars.

AGE OF SCARS

• Upto two weeks: scar is;

o Reddish or blue.

o Tender and sof.

• 2 weeks to 2 months;

o Pale and white.

o Tender and sof.

• 2 – 6 months:

o Smaller and whiter.

o Lihle tender and sof.

• 6 months – years;

o White glistening.

o Tough.

MEDICOLEGAL SIGNIFICANCE:
31 Chapter 5

• Iden=fica=on.

• Inference of an instrument causing wound is possible.

• Linear needle track scars indicate a intravenous drug abuser and depressed scar a skin popper.

• Linea albicantes may indicate certain diseased condi=ons like ascites or previous pregnancy in a
female.

• The accused may ahribute scars of wound to diseases or therapeu=c procedures.

• The old scars on wrist or throat indicate previous ahempts at suicide.

• Many scars on front of the lower legs indicate repeated falls of a chronic alcoholic.

• Important in pleas of self-defense in cases of murder – age of scar corresponds to =me of

occurrence of event.

ASHLEY’S RULE:

• Length of sternum < 149 mm in females. Or

• Total midline length of manubrium and mesosternum is in

o male >149 mm

o female <149 mm.

diameter of medulla
Medullary index = X 100
diameter of whole bone
e.g, =bia, humerus, ulna and radius.

width of sciat ic notch
Scia=c notch index =  X 100
depth of sciat ic notch
Male = 4 – 5
Female = 5 – 6

Sternal index/manubrius – corpus index / hyrtl’s law index.

lenght of m anubr ium

Sternal index =  X 100
lenght of mesoster num
It is > 50 in females (54.3)
< 50 in males (46.2)

MULTIPLICATION FACTORS:
32 Chapter 5

‘Results obtained by dividing average height of body by average length of long bone’.

Stature = M.F. X bone length

‘It is the propor=on of total height represented by length of certain bones’.

BONE MULTIPLICATION FACTORS

Radius 6.43
Ulna 5.93
Humerus 4.97
Fibula 4.18
Femur 3.57

OSSIFICATION CENTERS OF CARPAL BONES:

BONE AGE OF APPEARANCE

Capitate 2 months
Hamate 2 months
Triqueterum 10 months
Lunate 2 yrs
Trapezium 4 years, 2 months
Trapezoid 4 years, 8 months
Scaphoid 7 years
Pisiform 10 – 12 yrears.

OBJECTIVE PARAMETERS OF IDENTIFICATION OF SEX:

HUMERUS:

Length:

Male = 339 mm
Female = 309 mm
Epicondylar width;
Male = 63.8 mm
Female = 56.7 mm
Ver=cal diameter of head;
Male = 45.5 mm
Female = 41 mm
33 Chapter 5

FEMUR:

Popliteal length;

Male <145 mm
Female <106 mm
Bicondylar width;
Male <78 mm
Female >72 mm
Ver=cal diameter of head;
Male = 47 mm
Female = 45 mm

SKULL:

Cranial index;

Male = 67.5 – 80.5

Female = 68.5 -79.5
Length of skull;
Male = 158 – 210 mm
Female = 157 – 193 mm
Breadth of skull;
Male = 123-164 mm
Female = 123-154 mm

LARYNX:

Length;

Male = 4.5 cm
Female = 3.5 cm
AP diameter;
Male = 3.6 cm
Female = 2.6 cm
Pubo ischial Index;
Male < 90
Female > 95
Sacral index;
Male = 112 or les
Female = 116 or more
Height of Glenoid cavity;
Male = 39 mm
Female = 36 mm
34 Chapter 5

Importance of age:

Evidence as to age may be demanded in following circumstances;

• Criminal responsibility.

• Judicial punishment.

• Kidnapping.

• Rape.

• Marriage.

• Ahainment of majority.

• Employment.

• Infan=cide.

• Criminal abor=on.

• Impotence and sterility.

• Competence as a witness.

• Iden=fica=on.

Criminal responsibility:

‘Criminal responsibility means liability to punishment’.

• A child under age of seven is incapable of commi}ng an offense (sec=on 82 PPC). Ac=on alone
does not amount to guilt unless it is accompanied by a guilty mind.

• A child >7and <12 years of age is presumed to be capable of commi}ng an offense if he has
obtained sufficient maturity to understand and judge nature and consequences of his conduct
on that occasion (sec=on 83 PPC).

• A child under 12 years of age cannot give valid consent to suffer any harm which can occur from
an act done in good faith e.g. a consent for any opera=on (U/S 89).

• A person under 18 years of age cannot give valid consent whether expressed or implied to suffer
any harm which may result from an act not intended or not known to cause death or grievous
hurt e.g. consent for a wrestling contest (U/S 87).

Judicial punishment:

• Juvenile offenders, that is children (below 18 years of age) who have commihed a crime are tried
as minors.
35 Chapter 5

• Juvenile offenders are not sent to jail to avoid company of seasoned criminals, nor are they
sentenced to death.

Kidnapping:

This means ‘carrying away a person from lawful guardianship by illegal means’. It is an offense to
kidnap or abduct a minor from lawful guardianship if age of a boy is less than 16 years and that of a girl
less than 18 years.

Rape:

No age limit.

Marriage:

Male 21 years.

Female 18 years.

Abainment of majority:

Male 21 years.

Female 18 years.

Employment:

• Child of less than 14 years of age cannot be employed in a factory, mines or other hazardous
employment.

• A person who has completed 15 years of age is allowed to work in a factory like an adult if
cer=fied by a doctor.

o 21 years property inheritance.

o 25 years contest legisla=ve elec=on.

o 45 years contest elec=on of president of Pakistan.

InfanQcide:

“Unlawful and deliberate killing of child or new born below age of one year by act of omission or
commission”.

Criminal aborQon:

A woman who has passed the child bearing age cannot be charged of procuring criminal
abor=on.
36 Chapter 5

Evidence/witness:

A child of any age can give evidence if court is sa=sfied about his truthfulness.

Impotence and sterility:

• A boy is sterile though not impotent before puberty.

• No upper age limit regarding potency or sterility of men.

• Women become sterile afer menopause.

IdenQficaQon:

• Determina=on of age may be required for iden=fica=on of an individual, either living or dead.

• When a person appears afer many years and claims to be missing person.

Age cerQficate:

• A document prepared by MO which shows approximate age of subject.

• As it is not possible to be strictly accurate while giving an opinion about age, cer=ficate should
give a range and be worded as.

o From physical and radiological examina=on of________, bearing following iden=fica=on

marks, I am of opinion that individual is aged between ______to ______years.

o Iden=fica=on marks:

▪ _________________

▪ _________________

Place date medical officer

Degree and designa=on.

Medicolegal importance of age:

Intrauterine life:

• 4-8 weeks – organogenesis.

• 25 weeks – quickening.
37 Chapter 5

• 28 weeks – viability.

• 40 weeks - full term birth.

These periods are of importance because in cases of Istaqat-e-Hamal and Istaqat-e-Jinin, we have to
iden=fy period and accordingly punishment is given.

Extrauterine life:

• Up to 2 years – infancy.

• Up to 5 years – school age.

• Up to 7 years – criminal responsibility U/S 83 PPC.

• 16-18 years – marriage/consen=ng, age ahainment of maturity/vote cas=ng.

• 21 years – property inheritance.

• 25 years – contest legisla=ve elec=on.

• 45 years – contest elec=on of president of Pakistan.

• 60 years – re=rement.

Age esQmaQon:

For age es=ma=on we have to study following;

• General appearance.

• Bone.

• Teeth.

Intrauterine life:

• Pre embryonic stage – 1-3 weeks.

• Embryonic stage – 4-8 weeks.

• Fetal stage – 9 weeks – 10 lunar months.

Age is calculated by;

• General appearance.

• Length of fetus.

• Weight of fetus.

• Appearance of ossifica=on centers.

38 Chapter 5

• Stage of developing teeth.

General appearance in pre-embryonic stage:

• Placental development.

• CR length of embryo – less than 1 cm at 3 weeks.

• Weight – about 2 grams at 3 weeks.

• Count number of somites.

Post embryonic stage:

• CR length – 1-4 cm.

• Weight – 10-15gm at 4-8 wks.

• Appearance of pharyngeal arches.

• Appearance of limb buds at 6-8 wks.

• Appearance of ossifica=on centers for clavicle, skull bones, long bones, mandible, ribs and
vertebrae.

5 months:

• Lanugo hair on scalp.

• Eye brows become visible.

• Tes=cles start descending.

7 months:

• Nails up to finger =ps.

• Eyelids open and separated.

• Papillary membrane disappear.

• Tes=cles descended up to inguinal ring.

Full term:

• Lanugo hair absent.

• Nails grown beyond finger =ps.

• Tes=cles descended into scrotum.

39 Chapter 5

Length of fetus:

Rule of Hasse – 1895;

According to this ‘age of fetus is calculated by square root of crown heel length in cen=meters’
e.g. if CHL is 16 cm, age of fetus is about 4 months intrauterine life.

Rule of Morrison 1964;

This rule states that “crown heel length (CHL) of fetus in cen=meters divided by 5 gives age in
months”, e.g. if CHL is 40 cm, the age is 8 months, it is applicable afer 5 months of intrauterine life.

To determine length of fetus, we apply rule of Hasse before 5 months age of intrauterine life

Length age

9cm 3 months

16cm 4 months

25cm 5 months

Afer 5 months age of intrauterine, we apply Morrison’s rule.

Weight of fetus;

20th wk – 400 gm

28th wk – 1100 – 1300 gm

40th wk – 2700-3500gm

Excep=ons are;

• Mul=ple births such as twins, each child has less weight than standard.

• In females, weight of fetus is 100gm less than male fetus of same age.

• Weight is less in cases of placental insufficiency, drug induced diseases or due to nutri=onal
deficiency then we call it ‘Small for Date’.

Centers of ossificaQon:

Centers of ossifica=on can be detected by dissec=ng bone itself. Order of appearance of primary
centers of ossifica=on are as follows:

Skull bone and clavicle 5-6 wks

Calcaneum, ischium and pubic bones 5 months
Long bones 7-8 wks
40 Chapter 5

Talus 7 months
Lower end of femur, CUBOID 9 months

OssificaQon of bones:

• Examina=on of bone helps us in es=ma=on of age of person.

• Human skeleton develops from separate ossifica=on centers.

• Long bones are more helpful in determining age.

• Typical long bones have 3 centers or principle foci for growth.

o Diaphysis – mid por=on of shaf.

o Epiphysis – lower or distal end.

o Diaphysio – epiphyseal zone – between epiphysis and diaphysis.

• On X-ray by observing these areas, exact age of an individual can be determined.

• As a rule, main areas, focused on X-ray are;

o Wrist and hand in children.

o Elbow, shoulder and knee in adult.

o Skull, vertebra and sternum in old people.

• In long bones, especially in limbs, appearance of secondary centers of ossifica=on and finally
union of epiphysis with diaphysis is index up to 25 years of age.

• This union takes place earlier in females by 2 years than in males, except in case of suture of
skull, where suture obliterates slowly and lihle later in females than in males.

Krogman

Has divided skeletal development changes for es=ma=on of age into seven periods.

Period 1:

• From birth to 5th year.

• Age determina=on depends on centers of ossifica=on that appear afer birth.

1 year Head of femur, humerus and =bia

41 Chapter 5

2 years Lower =bia, radius

3 years Patella
4years Upper fibula, greater trochanter of femur
5 years Lower fibula

Period 2:

• From 5-12 years.

• Age es=ma=on depends on growth of above centers of ossifica=on and appearance of addi=onal
secondary centers.

• Size of center indicates age.

6 years Head of radius, lower ulna

7 years Scaphoid, rami of ischium and pubis unites
8 years Medial epicondyle of humerus, olecranon
10 years Lesser trochanter of femur
11 years Trochlea of humerus
12 years Acetabular Y-car=lage
10-12 years Pisiform

Period 3:

• From 12-20 years.

• Age es=ma=on depends upon union of epiphyses with their shafs in most of long bones.

13 years Lateral epicondyle of humerus appears and unites with trochlea and
capitulum
14 years Olecranon process united to ulna
18 years Head of femur and radius fuses with shafs
20 years Lower radius, ulna and femur to shafs
Iliac crest to body

Period 4:

• From 20-25 years.

42 Chapter 5

• Nearly all epiphyses in body have united except center in medial end of clavicle.

21 years Appearance of center at inner end of clavicle

22-24 years Fusion of secondary epiphysis of inner end of clavicle
Ar=cular facets of ribs

Period 5:

• From 25-36 years.

• Skull sutures begin to close.

• Extent of closure of sutures is helpful.

• Union starts from inner aspects.

o 30-35 years – sagihal suture.

Period 6:

• From 36-50 years.

• Further progress in closure of sutures.

o 35-40 years – coronoid suture.

o 45-50 years – lambdoid suture.

• Early degenera=ve changes occur in ar=cular surfaces of long bones in joints;

o Lipping of ends/bones.

o Loss of joint space.

o Punched out areas of osteoporosis.

• 40 years – xiphisternum unites with body.

• Palate suture closes at 45-50 years.

Period 7:

• From 50 years onwards.

• Further proceeding in closure of sutures and joint changes.

• Calcifica=on of laryngeal and costal car=lages.

• Prominent feature is pathological changes in skeleton.

43 Chapter 5

55-60 years Parieto mastoid and squamous sutures

70 years Sphenoparietal suture
40-60 years Greater cornu of hyoid bone united with body

Height and weight data:

Height data;

• During intrauterine life, length of fetus gives indica=on about age.

• A full term fetus is 45-50 cm in length.

• 60 cm at end of 6 months.

• 68 cm at end of 1 year.

• Double the length at birth, at end of 4th year (90-100cm).

Weight data:

• Average weight at birth is 2.5-3 kg.

• Average increase in weight is 0.5kg/month for 1st year.

• Doubles the weight at birth, at 6th month.

• 3 =mes the birth weight at the end of 1st year.

• Due to individual varia=on, growth charts have lihle medicolegal value.

Miscellaneous:

Birth record:

• Birth and death register is maintained by municipality.

• Repor=ng and registra=on of birth and death is made compulsory by law.

• It can be used as a reliable indicator for determining age, if name of an individual has been
entered.

• This also provide legal proof for iden=fica=on, age, na=onality, parentage, civil status of an
individual.

Changes occurring at puberty:

Age of appearance of;

44 Chapter 5

• Pubic hair female 13 years, male 14 years.

• Axillary hair female 14 years, male 15 years.

• Hair on face male 16-18 years.

• Breasts appear in female at 13-14 years of age and menstrua=on generally starts.

• Voice in male becomes deeper at 16-18 years.

Senile changes:

• Retrogressive changes like wrinkles on face appear at 40 years of age.

• Arcus senilis.

• Cataract.

• Graying of hair.

• Note: pubic and axillary hair never turn grey before 50 years of age.

DeterminaQon of sex:

Need of detec=on of sex arises in cases of;

• Iden=fica=on of dead especially in cases of mu=lated bodies.

• Inheritance.

• Marriage/divorce.

• Sexual offenses.

• Rights and du=es preserved to one sex.

Methods of determinaQon of sex:

Sex is determined by following methods;

• General appearance (presump=ve evidence).

• Secondary sexual characteris=cs (probable evidence).

• Gonadal test (posi=ve evidence).

• Nuclear sexing (posi=ve evidence).

• Bones especially in mu=lated bodies.

General appearance: presumpQve evidence:

45 Chapter 5

• Facial appearance.

• Body habitus.

• Body hair.

• Clothing.

By observing above men=oned features, we can take it as presump=ve evidence because there are
males of feminine type and there are females of masculine type.

Secondary sexual characters: Probable evidence:

This is highly probable evidence of sex and in this aspect we observe possession of external
characters like;

• Development of breasts.

• Development of vagina.

• Distribu=on of hair.

• Presence of male or female genitalia.

Gonadal test: posiQve evidence:

This includes presence of;

• Ovaries in cases of females.

• Tes=cles in cases of males.

Nuclear sexing: posiQve evidence:

• Davidson bodies – Davidson in 1945 discovered solitary nuclear appendage of WBC in females.

o %age is 6 in 227 neutrophils, age has no influence on %age.

o Davidson bodies are drums=ck structures with dense chroma=c head 1.5 µ in diameter.

• Barr bodies – basophilic intranuclear condensed structure located near inner surface of nuclear
membrane of soma=c cells in females.

o These are present in cells e.g. skin, car=lage, and muscle, amnio=c fluid and buccal
mucosal cells. These are minute condensa=ons of nuclear membrane, size is 1.2 X 0.7µ

o As these are found in both sexes, so sex determina=on is done by their %age.

▪ In cases of females – 40% or more of cells show barr bodies and they are called
chroma=n posi=ve.
46 Chapter 5

▪ In cases of males – they are present in 10% or less of cells called chroma=n
nega=ve.

o Buccal smears are rou=nely used.

Intersex state:

These are condi=ons in which male and female characters e.g. gonads, physical form and sexual
behavior coexists in varying propor=ons in same individual.

Divided into four groups by Davidson;

• Gonadal agenesis.

• Gonadal dysgenesis.

• True hermaphrodite.

• Pseudo hermaphrodite.

Varia=on from dis=nctly male and female sex in early stage of fetal life by defec=ve development
results in true hermaphrodite (development of both male and female gonads in same individual).

• Turner syndrome – 45 XO short stature, sexual infan=lism, congenital anomalies.

• Klinefelter’s syndrome – 47 XXY small testes, gynecomas=a, eunuchoidism.

• True hermaphrodite – external and internal genitalia may consist of both sexes.

• Pseudo hermaphrodite – there is lack of clear cut differen=a=on of external genitalia while
internal genitalia are iso-sexual.

Test of sex in adults:

• Possession of tes=s and emission of semen in males.

• Possession of ovaries with periodic menstrua=on in cases of females.

• Local examina=on regarding external genitalia.

• Gonadal test.

Finger prinQng system:

Dactylography/finger print/Galton system/Dermatoglyphics.

It is the surest method of iden=fica=on, there are ridges and furrows on epidermis and there are
abundant openings of sweat glands. Sweat contains fat to some extent and if an excited person is asked
to make a contact of his palm with a smooth surface, it leaves a greasy impression.

Principles;
47 Chapter 5

• Each person’s impression is unique, chances of same pahern of finger prints is 1:54000 million.

• Pahern remains unchanged throughout life.

• Present from birth.

ExcepQons:

Coelic disese, atopic derma==s, acanthosis niggrican, and scleroderma may temporary change or
obliterate pahern. Permanent loss of pahern occurs in leprosy, exposure to radia=ons and electric injury.
In rickets and acromegaly – distance between ridges is changed.

Principle pahern of finger prints;

• Arhced – 6-7% incidence.

• Looped – 67%.

• Whorl – 25%.

• Composite – 1-2%.

• Accidental.

Loop pahern is more common and it is of two types:

• Mouth of loop open on radial side.

• Mouth of loop open on ulnar side.

Note: Finger prints start forming during 6-12 weeks of intrauterine life and are completed at 6 months
IU.

Advantages:

• Applicable to persons of all ages.

• Helpful even in putrefied bodies.

• Absolute way of iden=fica=on.

• Can be maintained on record.

• Can be stored and transferred telegraphically.

• Recogni=on of chance print at crime scene.

Types of finger prints:

A finger print obtained at scene of crime can be;

48 Chapter 5

• Visible prints – blood prints, paint prints, dirt prints.

• Plas=c prints – soap, buher, wax, grease, freshly painted surface.

• Latent prints – an invisible image due to perspira=on (sweat).

Methods to record finger prints and preservaQon:

In living being – following two methods are used;

• Plain method – done by staining =p of finger (par=al).

• Rolling method (thumb in, finger out) – finger is held firmly and then it is rolled and thus whole
surface of finger prints is achieved.

o Finger print is made more prominent with help of dus=ng powder.

o Dus=ng powder becomes fixed with greasy mark and we can take photograph of finger
print.

In dead person – in dead, skin becomes dry and hard. First apply olive oil or liquid paraffin
injected into finger, thus it becomes sof and we can take prints in usual manner.

Preserva=on – finger prints can be preserved by cu}ng fingers at interphalangeal joints then
preserve fingers in 70% alcohol in individual container and label fingers separately. In case of
putrefied bodies where degloving occurs, epidermis should be removed carefully and it is spread
with formalin and preserved in between two glass slides.

PracQcal applicaQon of finger prints:

• Iden=fica=on of criminal whose finger prints is found at scene of crime.

• Assistance to prosecute guilty.

• Exchange of criminal iden=fying informa=on with iden=fica=on bureau of foreign countries in

cases of mutual interest.

• Maintenance of iden=ty records (service or criminal).

• Iden=fica=on of unknown deceased persons.

• Iden=fica=on of person suffering from amnesia.

• Iden=fica=on licensing procedures for automobiles, firearms.

• Problem of mistaken iden=ty.

PrecauQons for taking finger prints:

• In living, finger should be clean and dry.

49 Chapter 5

• If prints are not clear, olive oil is applied to make ridges prominent.

• Apply ink to all fingers sofly and all ten fingers are used.

• If =p of any finger is cut or scarred, it should be recorded.

• No prin=ng is taken if pa=ent is suffering from leprosy or radia=on poisoning.

Finger prints and medical pracQQoner:

• Don’t handle objects at scene of crime.

• Scene should be disturbed as lihle as possible while examining injured and dead.

Poroscopy – method of examining pores is called poroscopy.

• Poroscopy was described by Locard, so called Locard’s method.


every mm2 = 9-18 pores.

• Ridges on fingers and hands are studded with microscopic pores.

• Formed by mouth of ducts of subepidermal sweat glands.

• This method is useful when only fragments of finger prints are available.

Foot prints:

Offender at scene of crime may leave foot prints.

• Bare foot/shoe.

o In case of shoes.

▪ Primary markings are caused by make of shoe and sole.

▪ Secondary markings are caused by changes due to usage.

• Small por=on of foot print or shoe is sufficient for comparison.

Features of foot prints:

1. Iden=fica=on

2. Stature of individual cons=tutes 15 % ra=o of foot length.

Ma x . foot lenght
Stature =
0.15
50 Chapter 5

3. Weight: 

in male above 14 years:

Ma x . foot outline width
weight = 

0.60
In females above 14 yrs:

Ma x foot outline width
weight =
0.67
4. Sex determina=on:


MALE FEMALE
Footprint length (cm) 24.67 22.43
Standard devia=on 1.15 1.17

5. Shoe print or boot print also helps to es=mate height.

Nail striaQons:

Stria=ons over nail are said to be permanent but diseases destroying nails can affect them.

Palatoprints (rugoscopy):

Curved, wavy, circular or straight Rugae present over palate are also considered permanent and
can be used for iden=fica=on. Rugae are ridges on anterior part of palatal mucosa on each side. They are
unique, don’t change and reappear afer trauma.

Cheiloscopy:

• Study of prints made by lips.

• Lip prints can be found over wine glass, love lehers or on private parts etc.

Le Moyne Sunder (1950) pointed out that wrinkles and cracks of lips have certain individualis=c
characteris=cs like finger prints.

Japanese authors Kazuo Suzuki and Yasuo TsuchiHashi (1970) classified lip prints into following;

• Type I or long ver=cal grooves – these are clear cut or grooves running ver=cally across lip.

• Type I or short ver=cal grooves – ver=cal or straight lines that disappear half way into lip.
51 Chapter 5

• Type II or branching grooves – grooves that branch or fork.

• Type III or diamond grooves – grooves that intersect.

• Type IV or re=cular grooves – re=cular or net like.

• Type V or other types – these include rectangular or other non classifiable irregular lip prints.

Quetelet’s rule:

“No two nature made objects are alike”.

Or

“All nature made things have unlimited and infinite varia=ons of forms”.

Example: finger prints (different even in iden=cal twins).