IDENTIFICATION

Definition:

Identification is the determination of

the individuality of a person based on
certain physical characteristics, i.e.
exact fixation of personality.
 Why is it necessary?
– Living
– Recently Dead
– Decomposed bodies
– Mutilated and burnt
– Skeletonised
– Criminal cases – assault, rape, murder
– Interchange of new-born's at hospital
– Impersonation
– Marriage
– Inheritance
– Passport
– Insurance claims
– Disputed sex
Medico legal aspects:
• In civil courts, identification may be
required in cases of insurance, pension,
inheritance, marriage, disputed sex or
missing persons.
• In criminal courts it is essential in cases of
assault, murder, rape etc.
• It is required in cases of fire, explosions,
accidents, decomposed & mutilated
bodies.
‘The Corpus Delicti’
• It means the body of offence or facts of
any criminal offence.
• In a charge of homicide, It includes
1) Positive identification of the dead body.
2) Proof of its death by criminal act of the
accused.,e.g. Bullet or a broken knife
blade found in the body & responsible for
death.
‘The Corpus Delicti’
 Identification data
1.AGE
2.HEIGHT 9.HAIRS 13.TEETH
10.EAR
3.WEIGHT S
14. FINGERPRINTS
11.BEARD

4.EYE
12.POCKET 15. EXTERNAL
CHARACTERS
CONTENTS
GENITALIA
5.CLOTHE
16. OCCUPATIONAL
S
6.ORNAMENTS
MARKS
17. AMPUTATIONS
7.MOLE &
BIRTH 18. SCARS
MARKS
19. CONGENITAL
DEFECTS
20. PREGNANCY
RELATED CHANGES IN
8.TATTOOS FEMALES
21. Race
 (A) Race Determination
1) Complexion
2) Eyes
3) Hairs
4) Clothes
5) Skeleton:
Cephalic index = Maximum skull breadth x 100
(C.I) Maximum skull length
Dolicho-cephalic (long headed) C.I. is 70 to 75
Mesati-cephalic (medium headed) C.I. is 75 to 80
Brachy-cephalic (short headed) C.I. is 80 to 85
PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT RACES.....
The features, skin colour, texture all are so different.
(B) Sex Determination
• Sex has to be determined in cases of heirship,
legitimacy, marriage, divorce, rape, impotence
etc.
• External features:
Most definite evidence is the presence of
ovaries in female & the presence of testis in
male.
• Sex determination is difficult in cases of
hermaphroditism, concealed sex, advanced
• Deomposition and skeleton.
 Sex chromatin
• It’s a small planoconvex mass lying near
nuclear membrane. In males buccal
smears show about 0-4% nuclei with Barr
body while in females this number ranges
from 20-40%. Actually this Barr body is
deactivated X chromosome.
• However sex chromatin cannot be made
out in decomposed bodies.
 DAVIDSON BODY
In females, neutrophilleucocytes
contain a small nuclear attachment of
drumstick form (Davidson body) in up
to six percent of cells. This is absent in
males.

Karyotyping – chromosomal
constitution
Barr body in buccal smear of female
 Intersex
• It is an intermingling in one individual of
characters of both sexes in varying
degrees, including physical form,
reproductive organs and sexual behaviour.
• It results from some defects in embryonic
development.
 Types of Intersex
1) Gonadal agenesis: Gonads never
develop

2) Gonadal dysgenesis: Gonads fail to

develop at puberty. It is of two types
a) Klinefelter syndrome (47XXY)
b) Turner syndrome (45XO)
3) True hermaphroditism: A condition of
bisexuality with an ovary and a testicle or
two ovotestis with external genitalia of
both sexes in an individual.
4) Pseudo-hermaphroditism: Gonadal tissue
of only one sex is seen internally but
external appearance is of opposite sex.
Type Nuclear sex Sexual
characteristics
Male Pseudo- XY Feminine
hermaphroditism:

Female Pseudo- XX Masculine

hermaphroditism:

5) Concealed sex: Criminals may conceal

their sex to avoid detection by changing
dress or by other methods.
 AGE
DETERMINATION
FROM SKELETON
 • Recognizable sex differences do not appear
until after puberty except in the pelvis.
• According to Krogman, the degree of
accuracy in sexing adult skeletal remains is:
1) Entire skeleton 100%
2) Pelvis alone 95%
3) Skull alone 90%
4) Pelvis + Skull 98%
5) Long bones alone 80%
M F
1. GENERAL
SIZE
2. LONG
BONES
AND
MUSCLE
MARKINGS
3. ARTICUL
AR
SURFACES
4. METACAR
PAL BONES
5. WEIGHT
Sex determination from Skull
TRAIT MALE FEMALE
GENERAL LARGER, LONGER SMALL LIGHTER
APPEARANCE SMOOTHER
ARCHITECTURE RUGGED, MUSCLE SMOOTH
RIDGES MORE
MARKED
ORBITS SQUARE, ROUNDED,
RELATIVELY RELATIVELY
SMALLER, LARGER SHARP
ROUNDED MARGINS MARGINS
SUPRA-ORBITAL PROMINENT LESS PROMINENT/
RIDGES ABSENT
EXTERNAL BONY RIDGE ALONG OFTEN ABSENT
AUDITORY MEATUS UPPER BORDER IS
PROMINENT
 Sex determination from Skull
TRAIT MALE FEMALE
MASTOID PROCESS LARGE ROUND SMALL SMOOTH
BLUNT POINTED
PALATE LARGE BROAD U- SMALLER
SHAPED PARABOLIC
GLABELLA PROMINENT LESS PROMINENT
FRONTAL SURFACE IRRREGULAR & SMOOTHER
ROUGH
FROMTAL & LESS PROMINENT
PARIETAL
MORE
EMINENCE PROMINENT
OCCIPITAL AREA MUSCLE LINES & NOT PROMINENT
PROTUBERENCE
PROMINENT
Sex determination from skull

MALE SKULL FEMALE SKULL

FEMALE MALE
 Sex Determination from Pelvis
TRAIT MALE FEMALE
BONY FRAMEWORK MASSIVE, ROUGH, LESS MASSIVE,
SMOOTH
GENERAL DEEP FUNNEL FLAT BOWL
ILEUM LESS VERTICAL, MORE VERTICAL,
CURVE REACHES
HIGHER
PREAURICULAR NOT FREQUENT, FREQUENT, DEEP
SULCUS SHALLOW AND BOAD
ACETABULUM LARGE, DIRECTED SMALLER,
LATERALLY ANTEROLATERALLY
OBTURATOR LARGE, OVAL SMALLER,
FORAMEN TRIANGULAR
GSN SMALL, NARROW, LARGE, WIDE,
DEEP SHALLOW
ILEO PECTINEAL WELL MARKED, ROUND AND
 TRAIT MALE FEMALE
ISCHIAL Inverted Everted
TUBEROSITY
ISCHIOPUBIC RAMI More everted,thick Less everted, thin
SUB PUBIC ANGLE V shaped, sharp 70 – U shaped, round, 90 –
75 degrees 100 degrees
PELVIC BRIM Heart shaped Circular
PELVIC CAVITY Conical Round
PELVIC OUTLET Smaller Larger
SACROILIAC Large. 2 ½ – 3 Small, 2 – 2 ½
ARTICULATION vertebrae
SACRUM Longer narrower even SACRUM SHORT
curvature, well WIDE UPPER HALF
marked promontory, ALMOST STRAIGHT
large 1st vertebra

COCCYX Less movable More movable

 Sex Determination from Mandible
TRAIT MALE FEMALE
1. General size Large & Thick Small & Thin
2. Chin Square (U- Rounded
shaped)
3.Angle of body & Less obtuse More obtuse, not
Ramus (gonion) (<125°) & prominent
prominent
4. Body height at Greater Smaller
Symphysis
5. Condyles Larger smaller
Basic anatomy of mandible
 Medullary Index of bones
• The sex of the long bones can be determined
on the basis of their medullary index (Diameter
of medulla-diameter of whole bone x 100)
from tibia, humerus, ulna and radius.
 (C) AGE DETERMINATION
• The age of an individual particularly in the
earlier years can be determined from:
1) Teeth
2) Ossification of bones
3) Secondary Sexual Characters
4) General development in case of children
 Age Determination of the Children &
Young Adults Under 25 years

(i) GENERAL PHYSICAL EXAMINATION:

1) Pubic & axillary hairs
2) Secondary sexual characters
3) Height & weight
 (ii) Dentition in determining age
Temporary teeth
• 20 in number
• Four incisors, two canines & four molars in each
jaw.
• They begin to erupt at about 6 months after birth
& begin to shed off by 6th year.
• These 20 teeth when replaced by permanent
incisors, canines and premolars are known as
‘Successional permanent teeth’.
• Independently appeared permanent molars are
known as ‘Super-added teeth’.
 Continued…
Eruption of temporary teeth
TOOTH ERUPTION
LOWER CENTRAL 6-8 months
INCISOR
UPPER CENTRAL 7-9 months
INCISOR
UPPER LATERAL 7-9 months
INCISOR
LOWER LATERAL 10-12 months
INCISOR
1st MOLAR 12-14 months
CANINE 17-18 months
2nd MOLAR 20-30 months
Continued…
Eruption of Permanent teeth
TOOTH ERUPTION
1ST MOLAR 6-7 years
CENTRAL 6-8 years
INCISOR
LATERAL 7-9 years
INCISOR
FIRST BICUSPID 9-11 years
SECOND 10-12 years
BICUSPID
CANINE 11-12 years
SECOND 12-14 years
MOLAR
THIRD MOLAR 17-25 years
Continued
•Period of period
It is the Mixed Dentition
when both temporary and
permanent teeth are present in jaws.
• Starting from the eruption of 1st molar
(permanent) till before the day of eruption
of last permanent canine.
• The average age interval for mixed
dentition is 6 to 11 years.
Gustafson’s Method:

• In elderly subjects age can be ascertained using

Gustafson’s method.
• It includes following criteria:
1) Attrition
2) Periodontosis
3) Secondary dentin
4) Cementum apposition
5) Root resorption
6) Root transparency (most important)
 Gustafson’s Method
1. Attrition:
• These are the
changes caused on
masticating surface
due to wearing and
tearing
 Gustafson’s Method
2. Periodontosis:
If oral hygiene is bad, the tooth root may be
exposed with deposition of debris.
 Gustafson’s Method
3. Secondary dentin:
With advance age there
may be deposition of
secondary dentine
tissue in the pulp cavity.
4. Cementum
Apposition
The cementum
increases in thickness
particularly due to
changes in the tooth
position.
5. Root Resorption –
Absorption of the root starts first at the apex
and extends upwards. It usually occurs in late age.
5. Transparency of root occurs from below
upwards in lower jaw and from above
downwards in upper jaw. It is the most
reliable of all criteria.
Contd…
• Gustafson’s method gives an estimate of
age with an error of ± 4 to 7 years.
• Further modifications of this method is
known as Gustafson’s formula.

• Boyde’s method: Age of the individuals in

terms of days is determined by counting
the cross striations of INCREMENTAL
LINES which develop on the enamel. It is
useful to determine the age of dead infant.
• Stack’s method: Age of the infant is
determined from the weight & the
height of the erupting tooth.
• Age by Cemental Annulations:
Alternation dark and light lines visible
under light microscopy of ground
section of human tooth root
cementum.
(iii) Individual Bones in determining Age
Bone Time of
Upper limb: Fusion
Acromion 17-18
years
Head of 18-19
humerus years
Elbow joint 14-16
years
Wrist joint 18-19
years
Contd…
Lower limb Bone Time of fusion

Lower end of 18-19 years

Femur
Upper end of
Tibia

(Knee joint)

Head of femur 17-18 years

Ankle joint 16-17 years

Contd…
Bone Time of
Pelvis
fusion

Triradiate 13-15 years

Cartilage

Pubic 20 years
Symphysis

Iliac Crest 20-21 years

Ischial 20-21 tears

Tuberosity
Contd…
Skull Fontanelle
Fontanelle Time of
fusion

Lateral & 1-2

Occipital months

Posterior 6-8
months

Anterior 1.5 – 2
years
 Contd…
Suture Time of
Skull Sutures Fusion
Sagittal Suture
30-40 years
1) Poste
rior 1/3rd 40-50 years
2) Anteri
or 1/3rd 50-60 years
3) Middl
e 1/3rd

Coronal 50-60 years

sutures
Lambdoid 50-60 years
Sutures

•Coronal, Sagittal and Lambdoid sutures start fusing

at 25 years from inside.
Contd…
Sternum
• Four pieces of body fuse with one another from
below upwards between 14-25 years.
• Xiphoid unites with body at about 50 years.

Hyoid
• Greater cornu of hyoid unites with body
between 40-60 years.
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
OF DIFFERENT AGES
❖ 7 Months of Intra-Uterine age of foetus –
viability
❖ < 1 year infanticide
❖ <5 years criminally not responsible – RLY
Act.
❖ <7 Years criminally not responsible – I.P.C 82
❖ 7-12 Years Punishable if judge feels that child
has mental maturity I.P.C – 83
❖ <10 Years kidnapping a child for movable
property – I.P.C – 369.
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
OF DIFFERENT AGES
❖ <12 Years :
❖ A) Can’t give valid consent for physical
examination – IPC – 89
❖ B) Oath is not required
❖ C) abandoning – 317 I.P.C
❖ < 14 Years Can’t be employed in factories
and mines – Factory and mine Act.
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
OF DIFFERENT AGES
❖ <15 Years:
❖ A) Having sexual intercourse with his
wife even with her consent amounts, rape –
I.P.C - 375
❖ B) With physical fitness certificate one
can work for limited hours in factories or
mines. If completed 15 Years.
❖ 16 - 18 Years:
❖ A) A Boy called juvenile. J.J.A (Juvenile
Justice Act – 1986)
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
OF DIFFERENT AGES
❖ B) Having sexual intercourse with any girl
even with her consent – amount to rape –
satutory Rape – I.P.C – 375
❖ C) Kidnapping a boy below 16 years or other
than movable property (Elopement or illegal
marriage)
❖ >18 years. Consent for sexual act – By girls.
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
OF DIFFERENT AGES
❖ <18 years :
❖ A) A girl called Juvenile.
❖ B) Kidnapping a girl below 18 years for
other than movable property . I.P.C 361.
❖ C) Up to 18 years A male juvenile is kept in
juvenile home.
❖ D) can’t give valid consent to suffer any
harm (surgery) I.P.C – 87
❖ E) To procure induce) a girl for prostitution
– 366 – A.I.P.C
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
OF DIFFERENT AGES
❖ F) Selling a girl purpose of prostitution
372 IPC
• G) Buying a minor – 373 IPC
❖ 18 Years & above
❖ A) Boy or girl become Major
❖ B) Marriage age for girls.
❖ C) By becoming major – Get certain rights.
❖ D) Employment
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
OF DIFFERENT AGES
❖ 20 years a female juvenile is kept in
juvenile homes.
❖ 21 years:
❖ A) Marriage age for boys.
❖ B) Kidnapping a foreign girl into India for
prostitution – I.P.C 366 B (21 years)
❖ C) In disputed cases a person become
major (under the court of wards)
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE -
GENERAL
❖ Evidence – At any age.
❖ Puberty – In males 14-16 years
❖ In females 13-15 years
❖ Sterility – Boy before puberty, female before
puberty and after menopause.
❖ Voting and driving licence – 18 years
❖ Making a will – 18 Years
❖ Govt. Jobs – 21 years
❖ To contest for M.L.A and M.L.C posts – 25
years
❖ To contest for President post – 35 years
 DACTYLOGRAPHY

The scientific study of

fingerprints as a
means of
identification.
 DACTYLOGRA
SYNONY PHY
DACTYLOSCOPY
M
DERMATOGLYPHICS

HENRY GALTON
SYSTEM
HISTO
RY
SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL – ICS –HOOGHLY DIST. (W.B)
USED
FINGER PRINTS IN OFFICIAL DOCUMENT.(1858)

SIR FRANCIS GALTON (ANTHROPOLOGIST) WORKED ON

THE
 THE FIRST FINGERPRINT BUREAU IN THE WORLD WAS
OFFICIALLY
ESTABLISHED IN CALCUTTA 1897

DEFINITI
ON.
IT IS THE STUDY OF THE IMPRESSION OF
PATTERNS FORMED BY THE PAPILLARY RIDGES
ON THE BULBS OF FINGERS.
CLASSIFICATI
ON-:
PRIMARI (a) ARCHES: 7% 1. PLAIN ARCH
LY 2. TENTED ARCH
3. EXCEPTIONAL
(b) LOOPS: 65% 1. RADIAL
2. ULNAR LOOPS

(C) WHORLS : 25% 1. CONCENTRIC

2. SPIRAL
3. DOUBLE SPIRAL
4. ALMOND SHAPED

(D) COMPOSITE: 2-3% 1. CENTRAL

POCKET LOOP
2. LATERAL
POCKET LOOP
3. TWINNED LOOPS
TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS AT THE SCENE
OF CRIME
VISIBLE FINGERPRINT: FINGER CONTAMINATED
WITH BLOOD, PAINTS, DYES ETC TOUCHES
SOMETHING

PLASTIC FINGERPRINT: FINGERPRINT LEFT ON

SOFT MATERIALS LIKE WAX, SOAP, DUST ETC.
IMPRESSION IS NOT USUALLY
VISIBLE
LATENT FINGERPRINT:

LATENT MADE VISIBLE BY CHEMICAL

FINGERPRINT REAGENT

RECORDED BY PHOTOGRAPH / LIFTED

BY USING
ADHESIVE CELLOPHANE PAPER
VISIBLE FINGERPRINTS
PLASTIC FINGERPRINTS
LATENT FINGERPRINTS
ELIMINATION PRINTS
Fingerprints taken at
crime scene of everyone
who had a lawful reason
to be there
ELIMINATION PRINTS
Fingerprints taken at
crime scene of everyone
who had a lawful reason
to be there
 Fingerprints taken at
crime scene of everyone
who had a lawful reason
to be there
 Fingerprints taken at
crime scene of everyone
who had a lawful reason
to be there
 Used to separate
possible suspect prints
Focus on the suspect
 Used to separate
possible suspect prints
Focus on the suspect
METHODS OF DEVELOPING
INVISIBLE PRINTS

Powders
Fuming
Lifting prints
Chemicals
 POWDERS
White
 POWDERS
White

Black
 POWDERS
White

Black

Colors
 LIFTING PRINTS
Lifted with a
piece of tape
Tape pressed on
the print
Lifted to a card
or form
 FUMING
Invisible prints
are made visible
by cyanoacrylate
vapors, a
chemical
reaction
 FUMING
Invisible prints
are made visible
by cyanoacrylate
vapors, a
chemical
reaction
 FUMING
Invisible prints
are made visible
by cyanoacrylate
vapors, a
chemical
reaction
 FUMING
Invisible prints
are made visible
by cyanoacrylate
vapors, a
chemical
reaction
FINGERPRINT WITH
BLOOD

prof Kabbash
 MEDICO LEGAL
IMPORTANCE
100% ACCURATE IN ESTABLISHING IDENTITY

FINGER PRINT EXPERTS CAN RENDER A FAINT AND

INVISIBLE PRINT
BY USING THE CHEMICAL LIKE ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE.

FINGERPRINTS FROM DEAD UNKNOWN BODY– PRINTS OF

ALL 10 DIGITDEAD BODY– SOAK THE FINGER TIPS WITH
SHRINKED
ALKALINE SOLUTION
& THEN TAKE THE PRINT.

IN DEGLOVING SKIN– TAKE THE PRINT OF DERMIS:

TO IDENTIFY CHANCE IMPRESSION OF CRIMINAL LEFT AT
THE SCENE OF
CRIME

TO MAINTAIN IDENTITY RECORDS OF HABITUAL

OFFENDER

IF THE PERSON
IT IS THE SIGNATURE OF ILLITERATE( LEFTISTHUMB
RIGHT
IMPRESSION) HANDED.

FOR PREVENTION OF IMPERSONATION

FOR PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTAL EXCHANGE OF

NEWBORN
 TATTOO
MARK
TA TAU– TO
MARK

THESE ARE THE DESIGN OR IMPRINT PRODUCED IN

THE SKIN BY
MULTIPLE PUNCTURED WOUNDS BY THE NEEDLE
DIPPED IN SOME
COLORING
COMMONLYMATERIAL.
SEEN IN ILLITERATE, LOW SOCIO
ECONOMIC PEOPLES
CRIMINALS AND IN PROSTITUTE.
COLORING
MATERIAL-:
BLACK -- CARBON
DUST

BLUE BLACK -- INDIAN INK

BLUE -- PRUSSIAN
BLUE

RED --
ULTRAMARINE

BROWN -- OCHRE

GREEN -- CHROMIC
NATURAL DISAPPEARANCE OF
TATTOO MARK-:
IT DEPENDS SITE OF THE BODY( COVER/
ON EXPOSED PART)

EXPOSED TO CONSTANT FRICTION/

SUN
RAY EXPOSURE.

WHETHER PENETRATION
SUPERFICIAL/ DEEP
TO SKIN
IT IS SEEN THAT PIGMENT DEPOSITED SUPERFICIALLY
BECOME TYPE OF PIGMENT.
FAINTER.
 WHEN DYE OR THE PIGMENTS DISAPPEARED FROM
THE SKIN
THEY MAY BE DEMONSTRABLE IN THE REGIONAL
LYMPH NODE.
REVEALING LATENT TATTOO
MARK-:
1. APPLICATION OF HEAT, RUBBING, U.V LIGHT THEN
MAGNIFYING
LENSES.

2. INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY.
ARTIFICIAL REMOVAL OF TATTOO
MARK-:
1. SURGIC EXCISION & SKIN
ALLY GRAFTING,
SCARIFICATION,
HEAT OR CHEMICAL
2. BURNIN
BURN.
G
 1. BY ELECTROLYSIS

2. BY LASER BEAM

3. BY OVER TATTOOING

4. NATURALLY – CHRONIC
ECZEMA.
MEDICO LEGAL
IMPORTANCE-:
1. IT MAINLY 1. PERSONAL
REFLECTS DETAILS

2. RELIGIOUS
BELIEF

3. SEXUAL
FANTASY.
 2. DRUG ADDICTS ESPECIALLY THE I.V DRUG ABUSER
MAY CONCEAL
THE SITE OF INJECTION BY A TATTOO DESIGN.

3. IT ALSO INDICATES THE MENTAL MAKE UP, DESIRES

AND
BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS.
EROTIC TATTOO MARK– SEXUAL
FANTASY.
BLUE BIRD DESIGN ON
HOMOSEXU
BETWEEN
THUMB & INDEX FINGERS AL
COMPLICATION OF
TATTOOING-:
1. INFLAMMATION &
SEPSIS
2. ABSCESS
3. GANGRENE
4. TUBERCULOSIS
5. LEPROSY
6. SYPHILIS
7. AIDS
Superimposition Technique
 Superimposition Technique
• A technique applied to determine whether the
skull is that of the person in the photograph.
• The technique was applied by Glaister and
Brash in 1935 in Ruxton Case.
 History
➢ The Buck Ruxton "Jigsaw
Murders" case
➢ On Sept. 14, 1935, Buck Ruxton, an Indian-
born physician who lived in Lancashire, near the
English-Scottish border, murdered his wife
Isabella and her maid Mary Rogerson, and then
mutilated their bodies and scattered the parts, in
an effort to make them unidentifiable
➢ The bodies were identified using the
techniques of fingerprint identification, forensic
anthropology to superimpose a photograph over
the X-ray of a victim's skull and forensic
entomology for approximate date of death. by
forensic pathologist John Glaister, Jr. and
anatomist James Couper Brash and pioneering
use of photographic superimpositions
 Superimposition Technique -
TYPES
• Photographic
• Video graphic
• Computer assisted superimposition
• 3D craniofacial superimposition
 Basic steps for personal identification
through skull superimposition technique

Arrangement of
Photograph

Skeletonised
remains
Application of
Superimposition
Technique

Identification
 Photographic Superimposition
• Negative of recent photograph
• Negative is placed under the ground glass of the
camera and salient features of the face are marked out
carefully.
• Photograph is enlarged to natural size.
• Skull is mounted on an appropriate skull rest to align
accurately the outline of the head on the ground glass.
• Distance is adjusted to equalize the scale on the
camera and the skull.
 Photographic Superimposition
• This, when photographed gives a life-sized
negative of the skull.
• The negatives of the photograph and the skull
are superimposed by aligning the characteristic
points in the negatives.
 Points to be compared
1. Eyes within the orbital plates
2. Nasion
3. Prosthion in the central line
4. Nasal spine in the centre
5. Lower border of the nose
6. Lower border of the upper jaw
7. Zygomas below the eyes
8. Supra orbital ridges
9. Angle of the jaw
10. External auditory meatus
11. Teeth
 Photographic Superimposition
➢ Two superimposed negatives are then photographed
on the bromide paper
➢ The resulting superimposed photograph brings out
the points of similarity or dissimilarity between the
photograph and the skull
➢ The superimposition is correct, if the outlines and
the size of the skull accurately correspond to the face
in the photograph
 Video Superimposition
➢ Developed to overcome the
protracted time involved with
still photography
superimposition

➢ Video super imposition will

provide quicker and greater
flexibility in both crucial areas
such as enlargement of the
antemortem photograph and the
alignment of the skull to the
photograph
 Video Superimposition
➢ Skull is mounted on an
adjustable support allowing
movement in three planes
➢ Photograph is also fixed with
the same orientation parallel to
the skull.
➢ One camera is directed at the
skull and another video camera
is directed at the photograph.
➢ Both images are projected on a
monitor.
➢ Images are superimposed and
analysed for conformity.
 Computer Assisted Superimposition
• Skull and facial photographs are digitalised
using a computer.
• Then the two images are compared
morphologically.
• Anatomical relationships are evaluated by
wiping and fade in and fade out.
3D Craniofacial superimposition
 Advantages & Disadvantages of the
Superimposition technique
➢ So far, research indicates that superimposition is
useful as an exclusion tool (i.e., determining to whom
the skeletal remains do not belong and those errors
are reduced with the use of two or more views (i.e.,
frontal and profile)

➢ In perhaps the most comprehensive study so far

conducted by Austin-Smith and Maples (1994), false
positive or incorrect identification rates were 0.6%.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of the
Superimposition technique
➢ Superimposition offers the most reliable information
(particularly in closed samples where the skeletal
remains are a priori known to belong to one of only a
few individuals)

➢ Superimposition Technique is not generally used to

provide positive identifications; rather used to help
generate information that can be investigated using
higher powered methods