MORAL DILEMMAS Companies and professional organizations may adopt their own ethical Levels of Dilemma

standards and that employees/members adopt those standards as part

We, as the agent, the doer of an act, will have the choice between wrong of their personal business ethics. The dilemma at the personal level is when one, on the subjective level, is
and another as presumably good therefore we have the duty to choose confronted with choices that are equally good and bad. The agent choice
what is morally acceptable to our society. Our understanding of morality We face ethical dilemmas on a day-to-day basis, but understanding how does not affect any organization but only between individuals.
is a set of personal and shared beliefs about the meaningful events of to do the right thing —and knowing the difference between right and
our society. Moreover, the concepts of morality and ethics are wrong— can be difficult and oftentimes subjective. An organizational dilemma exists within an organization or a particular
understood as synonymous in many situations. Moral dilemmas are sector. It refers to a problem of reconciling inconsistencies between
always a special concern in morality and ethics. Types of Ethical Dilemma individual needs and aspirations on the one hand, and the collective
purpose of the organization on the other.
This module will highlight key moral dilemmas that are common to our Epistemic dilemmas take place in a decision-making context where moral
day-to-day activities. standards conflict and the agent cannot readily determine which ethical Systematic/ Structural Dilemma refers to the ongoing search for a
principle should take precedence over the other. satisfactory system.
This is also a prelude to our discussion on problem-making-solving.
In other words, the moral agent here does not know which option is Managers rarely face well-defined problems with clear-cut solutions,
Ethics are the moral standards and principles by which entities govern morally right or wrong. instead, they confront enduring dilemmas like tradeoffs without easy
their behaviors and decision-making. When these standards and answers.
principles conflict with each other in a decision-making situation, an Self-imposed dilemma is one created by the agent’s own errors in
ethical dilemma may occur. judgment, such as making competing promises to multiple organizations We are in a perplexing situation where the choices we have are between
that cannot be fulfilled simultaneously. equally unsatisfactory alternatives. In this case, we are in a dilemma.
What is an Ethical Dilemma?
For example, David is running for the position of town mayor. During the VIRTUE ETHICS AND THE NATURAL LAW ETHICS
An ethical dilemma takes place in a decision-making context where any campaign period, he promised the indigenous peoples in his community
of the available options requires the agent to violate or compromise on to protect their virgin forest just to gain their votes, but at the same Ethics is about human acts and their morality. Only human beings are
their ethical standards. time, he sought financial support from a mining corporation. capable of morality. Human acts proceed from a man in his rational
nature. Human acts in accord with goodness are moral like love and
Ethical dilemmas can be characterized by the following three elements: Fortunately, David won the elections, yet he is faced with the dilemma of justice; moral acts done by man are right to conduct.
fulfilling his promise to the indigenous peoples and at the same time
1. The agent must be faced with a choice or the need to make a allows the mining corporation to destroy their forest. This module will highlight the works of Aristotle that the goodness of an
decision. act is determined by the person’s possession of moral characters or
2. The agent must have more than one course of action World-imposed dilemma is caused by circumstances outside the agent’s virtue and Thomas Aquinas that moral law given by God that makes man
available. control; we can’t control have created an unavoidable moral conflict. know what is good and bad and commands him to do good and to avoid
3. The agent recognizes that all available courses of action evil.
require them to compromise on some personally held ethical An obligation dilemma is one where an agent has multiple options and
standard or value. more than one of them is obligatory, while a prohibition dilemma occurs
when all available options are prohibited.
COMMON ETHICAL PRACTICES IN THE WORKPLACE Virtue Ethics dates back to Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics. He
In the single-agent dilemma, the agent “ought, all things considered, to started with this question. What is good?
 Telling the truth do A, ought, all things considered, to do B, and she cannot do both A and
 Acting in the best interests of customers B”. In other words, the moral agent is compelled to act on two or more Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
 Taking responsibility for one’s actions equally the same moral options but she cannot choose both.
He was born in the town of Stagira in Macedonia
 Acting in one’s own best interests His father was a physician to the royal court of Philip of Macedonia
In a multi-person dilemma, on the other hand, “...the situation is such
 Following company policies He enrolled in Plato’s Academy
that one agent, P1, ought to do A, a second agent, P2, ought to do B, and
 Treating others equally He was a tutor to Alexander the Great
though each agent can do what he ought to do, it is not possible both for
 Fulfilling professional obligations He founded the school in Athens called the Lyceum
P1 to do A and P2 to do B.” The multi-person dilemma occurs in
 Conducting sustainable business practices His ethical theories found in his work Nicomachean Ethics
situations that involve several persons like a family, an organization, or a
 Following through on commitments
community who is expected to come up with consensual decision on a “Every art and every kind of inquiry, and likewise every act and purpose,
 Maximizing profits
moral issue at hand. seems to aim at some good: and so it has been well said that the good is
 Following the law
 Avoiding layoffs that at which everything aims.”
How Do You Identify an Ethical Dilemma?
 Acting in the best interests of shareholders The good is the end of the thing.
Experts agree that identifying an ethical dilemma starts with recognizing
your gut reaction to a problematic situation. If a decision seems to Getting high grades in your final exam is good because it is the end of
Ethical standards are the moral frameworks that individuals and challenge your moral compass, it’s time to take a step back and studying your lessons.
organizations use to guide their decision-making and differentiate investigate further.
between right and wrong.
But every end is a means to other ends so that every good is desired for intellect, which is capable of understanding concepts and making from playing the lyre that both good and bad lyre-players are produced.”
the sake of some other greater good. decisions. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics

By getting high grades you pass the exam, by passing the exam you pass Hence, man is a rational animal. Therefore, the highest good for man
the course, by passing the course you graduate, by graduating you get a must include the excellent functioning of the rational faculties
job, by having a job you earn money, and so on. What virtue is:
Pleasure and happiness
There must be the supreme end of every act, the good beyond which Virtue is the disposition to choose the mean, in both actions and
there is no greater good. Good is the aim of all action According to Aristotle, pleasure is not the aim of every human action, passions. Virtue is a state of character which causes one to choose the
because not every pleasure is good. (Remember, the highest good is intermediate (“the mean”) between two extremes (“vices”).
Some goods are subordinate to others. intrinsically good).
“[Moral virtue] is concerned with passions and actions, and in these,
The highest goods are intrinsically good –not subordinate to anything Pleasure is found in various forms of activity, and a proper pleasure or there is excess, defect, and the intermediate. For instance, both fear and
pain may belong to any activity. The pleasure which is found in some confidence and appetite and anger and pity and in general pleasure and
forms of activity may be good, and the pleasure which is found in other pain may be felt both too much and too little, and in both cases not well;
forms of activity may be bad. Pain may similarly be good or bad. but to feel them at the right times, with reference to the right objects,
If something is the highest good, then it is good in itself, and not merely
towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right way, is
because it leads to something else. So, pleasure is not the highest good -- it is not the same as happiness. what is both intermediate and best, and this is characteristic of virtue.
Rather, Similarly with regard to actions also there is excess, defect, and the
Good in itself = intrinsic good
intermediate.” Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics
A life of happiness = a life of excellent functioning =
Good because it leads to something else = extrinsic good
A life a virtue =a life in which the rational faculties are in control

Virtues and vices are acquired by habit

Good and Function
There are moral virtues and intellectual virtues; we will concern with the
What is good for X depends on the function of X
moral virtues.
The function of a knife is to cut. ----- A good knife cuts well.
Intellectual virtue comes from teaching, but moral virtue comes from
The function of an eye is to see. ----- A good eye sees well. habit. This means that the two are acquired differently; intellectual
virtue can be acquired by reading a book; moral virtue can be acquired
The function of a tree is to grow and flourish. ----- only through practice.

A good tree grows and flourishes. An argument:

Souls According to Aristotle 1. Nothing can form a habit that is contrary to its nature.

All living things have souls, where a soul is simply whatever it is that 2. Virtues can be formed by habit.
makes the difference between life and death.
3. Vices can be formed by habit.
Souls come in different types depending on the kind of creature they
belong to. Plants have souls that are only “vegetative”. That is, they Therefore, man is neither virtuous nor vicious by nature.
control growth and do various things automatically (e.g.
photosynthesize). EUDAIMONISM
How virtues and vices are formed
Higher animals have a vegetative part of the soul, but they also have an It holds that the proper goal of human life is eudaimonia (which can be
appetitive part of the soul, which feels sensations (such as pleasure and A certain type of situation elicits certain responses in us (actions and variously translated as "happiness", "well-being“ or the "good life")
pain) and appetites (desires for food, sex, etc.) passions). Depending on how we respond, we will form a habit and
become either virtuous of vicious. Thus, vices are acquired by bad habits, This goal can be achieved by a lifetime of practicing "arÃate"(the virtues)
The Highest Good for Human Beings in one's everyday activities, subject to the exercise of
just as virtues are acquired by good habits.
"phronesis"(practical wisdom) to resolve any conflicts or dilemmas which
Happiness = the highest good for man
We become virtuous by acting virtuously. might arise.
But what is happiness exactly?
We become vicious by acting viciously. Indeed, such a virtuous life would in itself constitute eudaimonia, which
Humans have vegetative and appetitive parts of the soul, but they also should be seen as an objective, not a subjective, state, characterized by
“Again, it is from the same causes and by the same means that every the well-lived life
have a rational part, which other animals lack. The rational part is the
virtue is both produced and destroyed, and similarly every art; for it is
 • The divine law, on the other hand, comes directly from God through
revelation and is a gift of God’s grace. Through this, we are directed to
our supernatural end and obtain the theological virtues of faith, hope,
and love.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

Dominican monk, the Angelic Doctor; His famous works, Summa

Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles

Natural Law Ethics or Christian Ethics

His thoughts derive much from his predecessors, the Fathers of the
Church, the Ancient Greeks

His comprehensive synthesis of the past doctrines and their creative

integration into theology

His line of thinking which asserted the supremacy of faith over reason

The ethics by Aquinas is an interpretation of Aristotle’s theory of

morality as flowing from human rational nature.

3 Kinds of Law according to St. Thomas Aquinas

1. Eternal Law is made by God through his omnipotence for all things and
promulgated by dispositions ordained to them.

2. Natural Law is the moral law made by God through his goodness for
man as rational creatures and made known by human nature.

3. Positive Law is the civil law made by men in the society through
political legislation for themselves and promulgated by public
pronouncements.

Aquinas believes that we should always follow our conscience, even

when it is wrong or causes great harm. Since we have no way of knowing
whether our consciences are wrong, they are the best guide we have as
to what is the moral thing to do. To go against one’s conscience is to go
against the values of truth and reason.

There are four main virtues according to Aquinas

• Prudentia – the act of bringing moral reasoning into all decisions, and
putting it before irrational desires and ego-promotion. The reason, rather
than passion, is at the heart of moral decisions.

• Justice – a disposition to give others what they are entitled to, or have
a right to.

• Courage (fortitude) – a disposition to restrain fears so as to act rightly.

• Temperantia – the moderation of desires, especially sexual desire, in

line with their “proper role”.

The difference between natural law and divine law

• The natural law presents our rational knowledge of the good by which
the intellect directs our wills to control our appetites and passion.