ART APPRECIATION

Bernardo Nicolas Caslib, Jr.

Dorothea C. Garing
Jezreel Anne R. Casaul

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Contents

Preface
…………………………………………………………………………………… v

Unit I. Introduction to Art Apprciation

Lesson 1 What Is Art: Introduction and Assumptions

……………………………. 2
Lesson 2 Art
Appreciatio,Creativity,Imagination,AndExpression………………… 12
Lesson 3 Functions and Philosophical Perspectives on Art
………………………. 25
Lesson 4 Subject and Content ……………………………………………………..
37
Lesson 5 Artists and Artisans
………………………………………....................... 51
Lesson 6 Elements and Principles of Art
………………………………………….. 66

Unit II. Western Art History

Lesson 7 Art in EarlyCivilizations………………………………………………...

81
Lesson 8 Art of Emerging Europe ………………………………………………..
92
Lesson 9 Contemporary Art ………………………………………………………
100

Unit III. Culture and the Arts

Lesson 10 Soulmaking, Appropriation, and Improvisation

……………………….. 110
Lesson 11 Art in Asia ………………………………………………………………
118
Preface

There is nothing that grounds men and women more concretely than
the work of their hands. When Plato claimed that man, more than
anything else, is his soul, his capacity to think and Aristotle added that his
being social and political is what sets him apart, the masters of thought
disappointed by missing out on one of the most important aspects of man:
his capacity to create and appreciate these creations. The result of this
facet of man is art and the humanities. It is no puzzle then why the field
was called humanities. It is the work of man: his hymns, verses, paintings,
sculptures that define his humanity, his being man or woman. Without the
great works of civilization, man would not have been man.
This book is a survey of the most important elements of the study of
the humanities. Art Appreciation, as a course, attempts to develop in
students the ability to appreciate, scrutinize, and appraise works of art.
This book was written these aims in mind.
The book will begin with the preliminaries on what art is, what its
assumptions are, what it normally amounts to, and its functions. There will
also be a survey of a few philosophies that were made and conceived by
thinkers about art and beauty. After these, the subject and content of art,
as well as the actors in art, the artisans, will be dealt with. Then, the
history of art, from the cavemen to the contemporary ones will be
charted. How did art evolve through time? Has there been unifying
element throughout the history? The book will end with a discussion of
Philippine and Asian art, and how art has made us who we are. Through
and through, each lesson is comprised of opportunities for the students
not just to learn passively but also to actively contribute to and participate
in art. We hope that teachers and students alike will take these
opportunities for engagement to heart.
Toward the end, the book only wishes to contribute to the holistic
development of each Filipino learner in the hopes that every college
students does not just become a skilled professional, an expert in his field,
but one who is truly human, a kind that does not just think and socialize
but one who appreciates the work of the hands and the beauty that he is
capable of producing and beholding.

-The Authors

Unit I. Introduction to Art

Appreciation
 Lesson 1
What Is Art: Introduction and Assumptions

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

1. understand the role of the humanities and the arts in man’s attempt
at fully realizing his end;
2. clarify misconceptions about art;
3. characterize the assumptions of the arts; and
4. engage better with personal experiences of and in art.

Art is something that is perennially around us. Some people may deny
having to do with the arts but it is indisputable that life presents us with
many forms of and opportunities for communion with the arts. A bank
manager choosing what tie to wear together with his shirt and shoes, a
politician shuffling her music track while comfortably seated on her car
looking for her favorite song, a student marveling at the intricate designs
of a medieval cathedral during his field trip, a market vendor cheering for
her bet in a dance competition on a noontime TV program all manifest
concern for values that are undeniably, despite tangentially, artistic.
 Despite the seemingly overflowing
instances of arts around people, one
still finds the need to see more and
experience more, whether consciously
or unconsciously. One whose exposure
to music is only limited to one genre
finds it lacking not to have been
exposed to more; one whose idea of a
Figure 1. A Medieval
cathedral is limited to the locally available ones
finds enormous joy in seeing other prototypes in Europe. Plato had the
sharpest foresight when he discussed in the Symposium that beauty, the
object of love of any love, truly progresses. As one moves through life, one
locates better, more beautiful objects desire (Scott 200, 26). One can
never be totally content with what is just before him. Human beings are
drawn toward what is good and ultimately, beautiful.

This lesson is about this yearning for the beautiful, the appreciation of
the all-consuming beauty around us, and some preliminary clarifications
on assumptions that people normally hold about art.

Pre-test

Let’s Get Started

In the first column of the table below, list down your most striking
encounters with arts. On the second column, explain why you think each
encounter is an experience with art.

My Encounters with Arts Why?

Let’s Get Down to Business
Why Study the Humanities?

For as long as man existed in this planet, he has cultivated the land,
altered the conditions of the fauna and the flora, all in order to survive.
Alongside these necessities, man also marked his place in the world
through his works. Through his bare hands, man constructed
infrastructures that will tend to his needs, like his house. He sharpened
swords and spears. He employed fire in order to melt gold. The initial
meaning of the word art has something to do with all these craft.

The word “art” comes from the ancient Latin ars which means
“craft” or specialized form of skill, like carpentry or smithying or surgery”
(Collingwood 1938, 5). Art the suggested the capacity to produce an
intended result for carefully plans step or method. When a man wants to
build a house, plans meticulously to get to what the prototype promises,
executes the steps to produce the said structure, he is engaged in art. The
Ancient World did not have any conceived notion of art in the same way
that we do now. To them, art only meant using bare hands to produce
something that will be useful to one’s day-to-day life.

Arts in Medieval Latin came to mean something different. It meant

‘any special form of book-learning, such as grammar or logic, magic or
astrology” (Collingwood 1938, 6). It was only during renaissance that the
word reacquired a meaning that was inherent in its ancient form-craft.
Early renaissance artists saw their activities merely as craftsmanship,
devoid of a whole lot of intonations that are attached to the word now. It
was seventeenth century when the problem and idea of aesthetics, the
study of beauty, began to unfold distinctly from the notion of technical
workmanship that is the original conception of the word “art”. It was
finally in the eighteenth century when the word has evolved to distinguish
between the fine arts and useful arts. The fine arts would come to mean

Figure 1. Cave Paintings

“not delicate or highly skilled arts, but ‘beautiful’ arts” (Collingwood
1938). This is something that is more akin to what is now considered art.

The humanities constitute one of the oldest and most important

means of expression developed by man (Dudley, Faricy, and Company
1960, 3). Human history has witnessed how man evolved not just
physically but also culturally,
from cave painters to men of
exquisite paintbrush users of
the present. Even if one goes
back to the time before
written records of man’s
civilization has appeared, one
can find cases of man’s
attempts of not just crafting
tools to live and survive but
also expressing his feelings and thoughts. The Galloping Wild Boar fond in
the cave of Altamira, Spain is one such example. In 1879, a Spaniard and
his daughter were exploring a cave when they saw pictures of a wild boar,
hind and bison. According to experts, these paintings were purported to
belong to Upper Paleolithic Age, several thousands of years before the
current era. Pre-historic men, with their crude instruments, already
showcase and manifested earliest attempts at recording man’s innermost
interests, preoccupations, and thoughts. The humanities, then, ironically,
has started even before the term has been coined. Human persons have
long been exercising what it means to be a human long before he was
even aware of his being one. The humanities stand tall in bearing witness
to this magnificent phenomenon. Any human person, then, is asked to
participate, if not totally partake in this long tradition of humanizing
himself.

Assumptions of Art
I. Art is universal.
Literature has provided key works of art. Among the most
popular ones being taught in school are the two Greek epics, the
lliad and the Odyssey. The Sanskrit pieces Mahabharata and
Ramayana are also staples in this field. These works, purportedly
written before the beginning of recorded history, are believed to
be man’s attempt at recording stories and tales that have been
passed on, known, and sung throughout the years. Art has
always been timeless and universal, spanning generations and
continents through and through.

In every country and in every generation, there is always art.

Oftentimes, people feel that what is considered artistic are only
those which have been made long time ago. This is a
misconception. Age is not a factor in determining art. An “…art is
not good because it is old, but old because it is good” (Dudley,
Faricy, and Company 1960, 4). In this Philippines, the works of
Rizal and Francisco Balagtas are not being read because they are
old. Otherwise, works of other Filipinos who have long died would
have been required in Junior High School too. The pieces
mentioned are read in school and have remained to be with us
because they are good. They are liked and adored because they
meet our needs and desires. Florante and Laura never fails to
teach high school students the beauty of love, one that is
universal and pure. Ibong Adarna, another Filipino masterpiece,
has always captured the imagination of the young with its
timeless lessons. When we recite the Psalms, we feel in
communion with King David as we feel one with him in his
conversation with God. When we listen to a kundiman or perform
folk dances, we still enjoy the way our Filipino ancestors whiled
away their time in the past. We do not necessarily like kundiman
for its original meaning. We just like it. We enjoy it. Or just as one
of the characters in the movie “Bar Boys” thought, kundiman
makes one concentrate better.

The first assumption the about the humanities is the art has
 been crafted by all people regardless of origin, time, and place,
and that it stayed on because it is like and enjoyed by people
continuously. A great piece of work will never be obsolete. Some
people say that art is art for its intrinsic worth. In John Stuart
Mill’s Utilitarianism, enjoyment in the arts belongs to a higher
good, one that lies at the opposite end of base pleasures. Art will
always be present because human beings will always express
themselves and delight in these expressions. Men will continue to
use art while art persists and never gets depleted.

II. Art is not nature.

In the Philippines, it is not entirely novel to hear some
consumers of local movies remark that these movies produced
locally are unrealistic. They contend that local movies work
around certain formula to the detriment of substance and
faithfulness to reality of the movies. These critical minds argue
that a good movie must reflect reality as closely as possible. Is
that so?

Paul Cezanne, a French painter, painted a scene from reality

entitled “Well and Grinding Wheel in the Forest of the Chateau
Noir. ” The said scene from the forest is inspired by a real scene
in the forest which photograph is available to us. Comparing the
two, one can see that Cezanne’s landscape is quite different from
the original scene. Cezanne has changed some patterns and
details from the way they were actually in the photograph. What
he did is not nature. It is art.

One important characteristic of art is that it is not nature. Art

is man’s expression of his reception of nature. Art is man’s way of
interpreting nature. Art is not nature. Art is made by man
whereas nature is given around us. It is in this juncture that they
can be considered opposites. What we find in nature should not
be expected to be present in art too. Movies are not meant to be
direct representation of reality. They may, according to the
moviemaker’s perception of reality, be a reinterpretation, or even
distortion, or even distortion of nature.

This distinction assumes that all of us see nature, perceive its

elements in myriad, different, yet ultimately valid ways. One can
only imagine the story of the five blind men who one day argue
against each other on what an elephant looks like. Each of the
five blind men was holding a different part of the elephant. The
first was touching the body and thus, thought that an elephant is
like a wall. Another was touching the beast’s ear and was
convinced that an elephant is like a fan. The rest were touching
other different parts of the elephant and concluded differently
based on their perception. Art is like each of these men’s view of
the elephant. It is based on an individual’s subjective experience
of nature. Artists are not expected to duplicate nature just as
even scientists with their elaborate laboratories cannot make
nature.

Once this point has been made, a student of humanities can

then ask further questions such as: What reasons might the artist
have in creating something? Why did Andres Bonifacio write
“Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa”? What motivation did Juan Luna
have in creating his masterpiece, the Spolarium? In whatever
 work of art, one should always ask why the artist made it. What
is it that he wants to show?

III. Art involves experience.

Getting this far without a satisfactory definition of art can be
quite weird for some. For most people, art does not require a full
definition. Art is just experience. By experience, we mean the
“actual doing of something” (Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960,
6). When one says that he has an experience of something, he
often means that he knows what that something is about. When
one claims that he has experienced falling in love, getting hurt,
and bouncing back, he in effect claims that he knows the
(sometimes) endless cycle of loving. When one asserts having
experienced preparing a particular recipe, he in fact asserts
knowing how the recipe is made. Knowing a thing is different
from hearing from others what the said thing is. A radio DJ
dispensing advice on love when he is talking about. A
choreographer who cannot execute a dance step himself is a
bogus. Art is always art an experience. Unlike fields of knowledge
that involve data, art is known by experiencing. A painter cannot
claim to know how to paint if he has not tried holding a brush. A
sculptor cannot produce a work of art if one is to know art, he
must know it not as fact or information but as experience.”

A work of art then cannot be abstracted from actual doing. In

order to know what an artwork is, we have to sense it, see it, or
hear it, see AND hear it. To fully know the Rizal monument in
Luneta, one must go to Luneta and see actual sculpture. In order
to know Beyonce’s music, one must listen to it. One must have
heard her songs and to actually experience them. A famous story
about someone who adores Picasso goes something like this,
‘Years ago, Gertrude Stein was asked why she bought the
pictures of the then unknown artist Picasso. ‘I like look at them,’
said Miss Stein” (Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960). At the end
 of the day, one fully gets acquainted with art if one immerses
himself into it. In the case of Picasso, one only learns about
Picasso’s work by looking at it. That is precisely what Miss Stein
did.

In matters of art, the subject’s perception is of primacy. One

can read hundreds of reviews about a particular movie, but at the
end of the day, until he sees the movie himself, he will be in no
position to actually talk about the movie. He does not know the
movie until he experiences it. An important aspect of
experiencing art is its being highly personal, individual, and
subjective. In philosophical terms, perception of art is always a
value judgment. It depends on who the perceiver is, his tastes,
his biases, and what he has inside him. Degustibus non
disputandum est (Matters of taste are not matters of dispute).
One cannot argue with another person’s evaluation of art
because one’s experience can never be known by another.

Finally, one should also underscore that every experience with

art is accompanied by some emotion. One either likes or dislikes,
agree or disagrees that the work of art is beautiful. A stage play
or motion pictures is particularly one of those art forms that
evokes strong emotions from its audience. With experience
comes emotions and feelings, after all. Feelings and emotions are
concrete proofs that the artworks has been experiences.

Let’s Wrap It Up
Humanities and the art have always been part of man’s growth and
civilization. Since the dawn of time, man has always tried to express his
innermost thoughts and feelings about reality through creating art. Three
assumptions on art its universality, its not being nature, and its need for
experience. Art is present in every part of the globe and in every period of
time. This is what is meant by its universality. Art not being nature, not
even attempting to simply mirror nature, is the second assumption about
art. Art is always a creation of the artist, not nature. Finally, without
experience there is no art. The artsis has to be foremost, a perceiver who
is directly on touch with art.

Let’s Work On This

Answer the following questions as precisely yet as thoroughly as possible.

1. If you were an artist, what kind of artist would you be?

2. Why is art not nature?

3. Why is art ageless and timeless?

4. Why art does involves experience?

Let’s Make It Happen

Choose one artwork under each category that you are familiar with.
This can be the last artwork you have come across with or the one that
made the most impact to you. Criticize each using the sheet below.

Categories:
1. Movie
2. Novel
3. Poem
4. Music
5. An architectural structure
6. A piece of clothing

Category: _____________________________
Artwork: ______________________________

What is it about? What is it for?

What is it made of?
What is its style?
How good is it?

Sources and References:

Collingwood, R.G (1938). The Principles of Art. Read Books lLtd.
Dudley, L., and Faricy, A. (1960). The Humanities. New York. McGraw-Hill.
Scott, D. (2000). “Socrates and Alcibiades in the ‘Symposium.’”
Hermathena, no.
168:25-37.

Lesson 2
Art Appreciation: Creativity, Imagination, and
Expression

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

1. Differentiate art from nature

2. Characterize artistic expression based on personal experiences
with art.
3. Discuss the nature of art’s preliminary expression; and
4. Categorize works of art by citing personal experiences.

It takes an artist to make art. One may perceive beauty on daily basis.
However, not every beautiful thing can be seen or experienced may truly
be called a work of art. Art is a product of man’s creativity, imagination,
and expression. No matter how perfectly blended the colors of a sunset
are and no matter how extraordinarily formed mountains are, nature is not
considered art simply because it is not made by man. Not even
photographs or sketches of nature, though captured or drawn by man, are
works of art, but mere recordings of the beauty in nature (Collins & Riley
1931, 3). An artwork may be inspired by nature or other works of art, but
an artist invents his own forms and patterns due to what he perceives as
beautiful and incorporates them in creating his masterpiece.

Perhaps not everyone can be considered an artist, but surely all are
spectators of art. In deciding what pair of shoes to buy, we carefully
examine all possible choices within our budget and purchase the one that
satisfies our beauty and practical standards. We are able to distinguish
what is fine and beautiful from what is not, what has good quality from
poor, and that gives us a role in the field of art appreciation.

Let’s Get Started

In one of your encounters with art through museum visits, musicals,

plays, etc., have you ever felt disconnected with an artwork? Was there a
pint in time when you did not understand what message the art was trying
to convey? If yes, write the name of the artwork in the box and attach the
image of the artwork, if possible. Explain why you think you did or did not
understand the art.

Let’s Get Down to Business

Art Appreciation as a Way of Life
 Jean-Paul Sartre, a famous French Philosopher of the twentieth
century, described the role of art as a creative work that depicts the world
in a completely different light and perspective, and the source is due to
human freedom (Greene 1995, 382). Each artworks beholds beauty of its
own kind that the artist sees and wants the viewers to perceive. More
often than not, people are blind to this beauty and only those who have
developed a fine sense of appreciation can experience and see the art the
same way the artist did. Because of this, numerous artworks go
unnoticed, artists are not given enough credit, and they miss
opportunities that are supposed to be meant for them. It sometimes takes
a lifetime before their contribution to the development of art is
recognized. Hence, refining one’s ability to appreciate art allows her to
deeply understand the purpose of an artwork and recognize the beauty it
possesses (Collins & Riley 1931, 6).

In cultivating an appreciation of art, one should also exercise and

develop her taste for things that are line and beautiful. This allows
individuals to make intelligent choices and decisions in acquiring
necessities and luxuries, knowing what gives better value for time or
money while taking into consideration the aesthetic and practical value
(Collins & Riley 1931, 7). This continuous demand for aesthetically
valuable things influences the development and evolution of art and its
forms.

Frequently museums, art galleries, performing art theaters, concert

halls, or even malls that display art exhibitions which are free in admission
during leisure time will not only develop an understanding of the art, but
will also serve as a rewarding experience. Learning to appreciate art, no
matter what vocation or profession you have, will lead to a fuller and more
meaningful life (Collins & Riley 1931, 7).

The Role of Creativity in Art Making

Creativity requires thinking outside the box. It is often used to solve
problems that have never occurred before, conflate function and style,
and simply make life a more unique and enjoyable experience. In art,
creativity is what sets apart one artwork from another. We say something
is done creatively when we have not yet seen anything like it or when it is
out of the ordinary. A creative artist does not simply copy or imitate
another artist’s work. He does not imitate the lines, flaws, colors, and
patterns in recreating nature. He embraces originality, puts his own flavor
into his work, and calls it his own creative piece.

Yet, being creative

nowadays can be quite
challenging. What you
thought was your own
unique and creative idea
may not what it seems to be
after extensive research and
knowing that the idea has
been coincidentally devised
before by someone else in Figure 1. “It’s More Fun in the Philippines”
By The Misadventures of Maja
another part of the world. For
instance, the campaign ad “It’s More Fun in the Philippines” used by the
Department of Tourism (DOT) boomed popularity in 2011, but later on it
was found out that it was allegedly plagiarized from Switzerland’s tourism
slogan “It More Fun in Switzerland,” back in 1951. In DOT’s defense,
former DOT Secretary Ramon Jimenez Jr. claimed that it was “purely
coincidental.” Thus, creativity should be backed with careful research on
related art to avoid such conflicts.

Art as a Product of Imagination, Imagination as a Product of Art

Where do you think famous writers,
painters, and musicians get their ideas from?
Where do ideas in making creative solutions
begin? It all starts in the human mind. It all
begins with imagination.

German physicist Albert Einstein who had

made significant and major contributions in
science and humanity demonstrates that
knowledge is actually derived from imagination.
He emphasizes this idea through his words.

“Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is

limited to all we now know and understand, while imagination embraces
Figure 5. “Imagination” by Bob
the entire world, and all world, and all there ever
Wierdsma will be to know and understand.”

Imagination is not constrained by the walls of the norm, but goes

beyond that. That is why people rely on curiosity and imagination for
advancement. Through imagination, one is able to craft something bold,
something new, and something better allows endless possibilities.

In an artist’s mind sits a vast gallery of artworks. An artworks does

not need to be a real thing, but can be something that is imaginary
(Collingwood 1938, 130). Take for example a musician who thinks of a
tune in his head. The making of this tune in his head makes it an
imaginary tune, an imaginative creation, an imaginary art (Collingwood
1938, 134). It remains imaginary until he hums, sings, or writes down the
notes of the tune on paper. However, something imaginary does not
necessarily mean it cannot be called art. Artist use their imagination that
gives birth to reality through creation.

In the same way that imagination produces art, art also inspires
Figure 6. “Cave Paintings” by

imagination. Imagine being an Thomas

empty Quineroom surrounded by blank, while

walls and floor. Would you be inspired to work in such a place? Often times
you will find coffee shops, restaurants, libraries with paintings hung or
sculptures and other pieces of art placed around the room to add beauty
to the surroundings. This craving and desire to be surrounded by beautiful
things dates back to our early ancestors (Collins and Riley 1931, 5). Cave
walls are surrounded by drawings and paintings of animals they hunted:
wild boars, reindeers, and bison (Figure 3). Clays were molded and stones
were carved into forms that resemble men and women; burial jars were
created with intricate designs on them, but also because beauty gave
them joy (Collins and Riley 1931, 4).

Art as Expression
There may have been times when you left something is going on
within you, you try to explain it but do not to know how. You may only be
conscious about feeling this sort of excitement, fear, or agitation, but you
know that just one word is not enough to describe the nature of what you
truly feel. Finally, you try to release yourself from this tormenting and
disabling start by doing something which is called expressing oneself
(Collingwood 1938, 109). Supposed this feeling is excitement. It is
frustrating to contain such feelings, so you relieve it by expressing
through shouting or leaping in excitement. An emotion will remain
unknown to a man until he expresses them.

Robin George Collingwood, an English philosopher who is best

known for his work in aesthetics, explicated in his publication The
Principles of Art (1938) that what an artist does to an emotion is not to
induce them, but express them (109). Through expressions, he is able to
explore his own emotions and at the same time, create something
beautiful out of it. Collingwood further illustrated that expressing emotions
is something different from describing emotions. In his example, explicitly
saying “I am angry” is not an expression of an emotion, but a mere
description (111). There is no need in relating or referring to a specific
emotion, such as anger, in expressing one’s emotion. Description actually
destroys the idea of expression, as it classifies the emotion, making it
ordinary and predictable. Expression on the other hand, individualizes
(112). An artist has the freedom to express herself the way she wants to.
Hence, there is no specific technique in expression. This makes people’s
art not a reflection of what is outside or external to them, but a reflection
of their inner selves.

There are countless ways of expressing oneself through art and

below is a list of popular art expressions including, but is not limited to the
following:

Visual Arts
Creations that fall under this category are those that appeal to the
sense of sight and are mainly visual in nature. Artist produce visual arts
driven by their desire to reproduce things that
they have seen in the way that they perceived
the (Collins and Riley 1931, 149). We will not be
too strict on the definition since there are other
artistic disciplines that also involve a visual
aspect, such as performance arts, theater,
applied arts, which will be discussed in detail
later on. Visual Arts is the kind of art form that
the population is most likely more exposed to,
Figure 7. Camellia in Old Chinese
but its variations are so diverse they range from
Vase on Black Lacquer Table by John

sculptures that you see in art galleries to the movie you saw last night.

Some mediums of visual arts include paintings, drawings, letterings,

printing, sculptures, digital imaging, and more.

Film
Film refers to the art of putting together successions of still images
in order to create an illusion of movement. Filmmaking focuses on its
aesthetic, cultural, and social value and is considered both as an art and
an industry. Films can be created by using one or a combination of some
or all of these techniques: motion-picture camera, also known as movie
camera, animation techniques, computer-generated imagery (CGI), and
more. Filmmaking simulates experiences or creates one that is beyond the
scope of our imagination as it aims to deliver ideas, feelings, or beauty to
its viewers.
 The art of filmmaking is so complex it has to take into account many
important elements such as lighting, musical score, visual effects,
direction, and more. This is why in famous film festivals and awards such
as the Metro Manila Film Festival and Oscars, a long list categories is
considered to recognize excellence in the art of filmmaking.

Performance Art
Performance art is live art
and the artist’s medium is mainly
the human body which he or she
uses to perform, but also employs
other kinds of art such as visual
art, props, or sound. It usually
consists of four important
elements: time, where the
Figure 8. Performance Art
performance took place, the performer’s or
performers’ body, and a relationship between the audience and the
performer/performers (MoMa Conceptual Art). The fact that performance
art is live makes it intangible, which means it cannot be bought or traded
as a commodity, unlike the previously discussed art expressions.

Poetry Performance
Poetry is an art form where the artist expresses his emotions not by
using paint, charcoal, or camera, but expresses them through words.
These words are carefully selected to exhibit clarity and beauty and to
simulate strong emotions of joy, anger, love, sorrow, and the list goes on.
It uses a word’s emotional, musical, and spatial values that goes beyond
its literal meaning to narrate, emphasize, argue, or convince. These
words, combined with movements, tone, volume, and intensity of the
delivery, add to the artistic value of the poem. Some poets even make
poems out of their emotions picked up from other works of art, which in
turn produces another work of art through poetry.

Architecture
As discussed, art is the pursuit and creation of beautiful things

Figure 9. The Grand Thẻậtre de

 whilst architecture is the
making of beautiful buildings.
However, not all buildings are
beautiful. Some building only
embody the functionality it
needs, but the structure, lines,
forms, and colors are not
beautifully expressed. Thus,
not all buildings can be
considered architecture. Take, for example, the Grand Theatre de
Bordeaux (Figure 11) where the functionality of the theater remains, but
the striking balance of the lines, colors, and shapes completes the
masterpiece. Buildings should embody these three important elements-
plan, construction, and design-if they wish to merit the title architecture
(Collins and Riley 1931, 107).

Dance
Dance is series of movements that follows
the rhythm of the music accompaniment. It has
been an age-old debate whether dance can really
be considered an art form, but here we primarily
describe dance as a form of expression. Dancing
is a creative form which allows people to freely
express themselves. It has no rules. You may say
that choreography does not allow this, but in art
expression, dancers are not confined to set steps
and rules but are free to create and invent their Figure 10. Olga Spessiva in
Swan Lake Costume
own movements as long as they deem it graceful
and beautiful.

Literary Art
Artists who practice literary arts use words-not paint, musical
instruments, chisels-to express themselves and communicate emotions to
the readers. However, simply becoming a writer does not make one a

Figure 11. “William Shakespeare” by

tonynetone
 literary artist. Simply constructing a
succession of sentences in a meaningful
manner is not literary art. Literary art
goes beyond the usual professional,
academic, journalistic and other technical
forms of writing. It focuses on writing
using a unique style, not following a
specific format or norm. It may include
both fiction and non-fiction such as
novels, biographers, and poems. Examples of famous literary artists and
their works include The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupery and
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare.

Theater
Theater uses live performers to present
accounts or imaginary events before a live
audience. Theater art performances usually
follow a script, though it should not be
confused with literary arts. Much like in
filmmaking, theater also consider several
elements such as acting, gesture, lighting,
sound effects, musical score, scenery, and
Figure 12. Macbeth
props. The combination of these elements is
what gives the strongest impression on the audience and the script thus
becomes a minor element. Similar to performance art, since theater is
also a live performance, the participation of the viewer is an important
element in theater arts. Some genre of theater include drama, musical,
tragedy, comedy, and improvisation.

Applied Arts is incorporating elements of style and design to

everyday items with the aim of increasing their aesthetical value. Artists
in this field bring beauty, charm, and comfort into many things that are
useful in everyday life (Collins and Riley 1931, 95). Industrial design,
interior design, fashion, and graphic design are considered applied arts.
Applied is often compared to fine arts, where the latter is chiefly
concerned on aesthetic value. Through exploration and expression of
ideas, consideration of the needs, and careful choice and techniques,
artists are able to combine functionality and style.

Let’s Wrap It Up
Art is a product of a man’s creativity, imagination, and expression.
An artwork may be inspired by nature or other works of art, but an artist
invents his own forms and patterns due to what he perceives as beautiful,
and incorporates them in creating his masterpiece. Perhaps not everyone
can be considered an artist, but surely all are spectators of art, which
gives us all a role in the field of art appreciation. Refining one’s ability to
appreciate art allows him to deeply understand the purpose of an artwork
and recognize the beauty it possesses.

Creativity is what sets apart one artwork from another. A creative

artist does not simply copy or imitate another artist’s work. He does not
imitate the lines, flaws, colors, and patterns in recreating nature. While
through imagination, an artist is able to craft something bold, something
new, and something better in the hopes of creating something that will
stimulate change. In the same way that imagination produces art, art also
inspires imagination. Lastly, through expression, an artist able to explore
his own emotions, at the same time, create something beautiful out of it.
Expressing emotions is something different from describing emotions,
description actually destroys the idea of expression, as it classifies the
emotion, making it ordinary and predictable. Expression on the other
hand, individualizes.

Some forms of art expression include visual arts, film, performance

art, poetry performance, architecture, dance, literary arts, theater arts,
and applied arts.

Let’s Work On This

Answer the following questions as precisely yet as thoroughly as possible.

1. What art field will you explore? Why?

How can you utilize the arts to express yourself, your community,
and your relation to others?
Let’s Make It Happen
On the table below, write down examples of the different art forms
studied in this lesson. Provide ways on how these art forms express nd
how they unmask creativity from the artist.
Type of Art Example How does this How does this
unmask the
Expression express?
artist’s
creativity

Sources and References:

Collingwood, Robin George. The Principles of Art, 1938

Collins, Mary Rose and Olive Riley. Art Appreciation for Junior and Senior
High Schools.
Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1931.

Greene, Maxine. “Art and Imagination: Reclaiming the Sense of Possibility.”

The Phi Delta

Kappan 76, no. 5 (January 1995): 378-382.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/20405345?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Moma Learning. “Conceptual Art.” Accessed October 14, 2017.

https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/themes/conceptual-
art/performance-into-art

The Visual Center. “Poetry is Art Form.” Accessed October 15, 2017

https://www.theaterscenter.org/art-exibitions/poetry-art-form.html

Unbound Visual Arts. “What is Visual Art?” Accessed October 15, 2017.
https://www.unboundvisualarts.org/what-is-visual-art/

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Lesson 3
Functions and Philosophical Perspectives on Art
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. distinguish between directly functional and indirectly functional art;
2. explain and discuss the basic philosophical perspectives on the art;
3. realize the function of some arts forms in daily life; and
4. apply concepts and theories on beauty and aesthetics in real life
scenarios

The Greek philosopher Aristotle claimed that every particular

substance in the world has an end, telos in Greek, which translates to
“purpose”. Every substance, defined as a formed matter, according to
fixed path toward its aim. A seed is bound to become a full-grown plant. A
cocoon can look forward to flying high when it morphs into a butterfly. A
baby will eventually turn into a grown man or woman.

This telos according to Aristotle

is intricately linked with function. For
a thing to reach its purpose, it has to
also fulfill a function. Man, in
Aristotle’s view of reality, is bound to
achieve a life of fulfillment and
happiness, or in Greek, eudaimonia.
All men move toward this final end.
Happiness, however, the supposed
end of man, is linked with his
function, which is being rational. One
Figure 13. Aristotle
can only be happy when he is rational. This
means that to Aristotle, plants can never be happy because they are not
rationl, as well as tables and chairs. Man’s natural end, telos, is connected
with his function, which is his rationality.

Moreover, the telos and function of a thing are both related to a

thing’s identity. What makes a table is the fact that it does perform its
function and thereby, reach its telos. If a table does not have a surface on
which we can put on our books or our plates and glasses, then it ceases to
be table. The same goes for the human being. What makes a human
neing a human being, according to some schools of thought, is its capacity
for thinking, its supposed function. Without this function, the human being
ceases to be a human being. The telos, the function, and the “whatness”
of a thing are all interconnected.

In contemporary life, the connection between the end, the function,

and the “whatness” of a thing have become closer and more interlaced,
suggesting sometimes that the end is the function and vice versa, and
that they determine what kind of a thing a thing is. When one sees a new
kitchen appliance in the department store, one tries to know first what
functions the appliance has. After knowing these functions, one can claim
to know the purpose of the appliance and then begins to realize what
appliance one is holding in his arms.

Does art necessarily have an end? When an artist creates a work of

art, does she have an end in mind? What function does an artwork
perform? Does it have any purpose? Do all artworks have a function? Does
the function make an object a work of art? This lesson is an attempt to
clarify these questions.

Let’s Get Started

Visit your school or city/town museum. In the table below, list down
as many different artworks that you have witnessed. On the second
column, identify what is it for? You can either research this or sunrise
intelligently. Write them down on the corresponding column.
Artwork What is it for?

Let’s Get Down to Business

Functions of Art
When one speaks of function, one is practically talking about the
use of the object whose function is in question. An inquiry on the function
of art is an inquiry on what art is for. Alternatively, the answer to the
question “what is it for” is the function of whatever “it” in the question
refers to. Suppose one asks, what is the Rizal monument for? Why was it
erected in Luneta, or what then was called Bagumbayan? Is it for pure
sentimental value? In this string of questions, the inquirer is hoping to get
the function of the piece of art in Luneta.

When it comes to function, different art forms come with distinctive

functions. There is no one-to-one correspondence between an art and its
function. Some art forms are more functional than others. Architecture, for
example, as an art is highly functional just like most applied arts. A
building as a work of art is obviously made for a specific purpose. The Taj
Mahal, a massive mausoleum of white marble built in Agra was

Figure 14. Jewelry-making in

Maalaysia
constructed in memory of
the favorite wife of the
then emperor, Shah
Jahan. On the other hand,
jewelry-making as an art
is known by its product.
The name of the art in
these applied arts is basically denoted by its specified function. In this and
other such functional arts, “…function is so important that it has usurped
the name of the art on the identification of individual works” (Dudley,
Faricy, and Company 1960). Other examples are paintings, poems, and
statues. The name of the art basically points toward the direction of the
product or its function.

On the other end of the spectrum, one can only think of painting
and literature s those forms of art which have a least to do with purely
practical values. When one examines and thinks of painting or a work of
literature such as a poem or a novel, one looks at the value of the art in
itself and not because of what it can do and benefit us. Unlike practical
arts where the value of the art (in pottery, jewelry-making, architecture,
among others) in question lies in the practical benefits one gains from it (a
pot, a jewelry, or a house or building), with painting and literature, one
can only look at the value of the product of art in and for itself. A poem is
beautiful regardless of its possible ramifications in the society. Joyce
Kilmer’s “Trees” has maintained its popularity through the years
regardless of its application or practical benefit. This definitely is not to
say that paintings and literary works can never have any function. The
two masterpieces of our national hero, Dr. Jose P. Rizal, the Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo served as a catechist for Filipino
revolutionaries to gather strength in rejecting the oppressive of the
Spaniards in the Philippines in the nineteenth century. The novels accrued
value and as consequence, function, that is over and beyond its literary
worth. They are functional “in so far as they are designed to accomplish
some definite end” (Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960). In the case of
Rizal’s novels, they spelled out country’s independence. They continue to
be treasured even a hundred years after their supposed functions.

Roughly and broadly, the functions of art are classified into three:
personal (public display, expression), social (celebration, to, affect
collective behavior), and physical (utilitarian). Let us try to understand
each of these three.

Personal Functions of Art

The personal functions of art are varied and are highly subjective.
This means that it depends on
the person-the artist who
created the art. An artist may
create an art out of the need
for self –expression. This is the
case for an artist who needs to
communicate an idea to his
audience. It can also be a mere
entertainment for his intended Figure 15. An Adult Coloring Book

audience. Oftentimes, the artist may not even intend to mean anything
with his work.

An art may also be therapeutic. In some orphanages and home for

abandoned elders, art is used to help residents process their emotions or
while away their time. Recently, the use of adult coloring books to de-
stress has been apparent too with a lot of designs being sold in bookstores
nationwide. These all fall under personal functions of art.

Social Functions of Art

Art is considered to have a social function if and when it addresses a
particular collective interest as opposed to a personal interest. Political art
is a very common example of an art with a social function. Art may
convey message of protest, contestation, or whatever message the artist
intends his work to carry. Oftentimes, art also depict social conditions.
Photography, as an art form, delivers this kind of functions by taking
photos of subjects in conditions that people do not normally take a look at
or give attention to. Pictures of poverty may carry emotional overtones
that may solicit action or awareness from their audience. Moreover,
performance art like plays, or satires can also rouse emotions and rally
people toward a particular end. In this end more, the social function of art
is apparent.

Physical Function of Art

The physical functions of art are
easiest to spot and understand. The
physical functions of art can be found
in artworks that are crafted in order to
serve some physical purpose. A
Japanese raku bowl that serves a
physical function in a tea ceremony is
Figure 16. A Japanese Raku bowl
an example. Architecture, jewelry-
making, in even interior design are all forms of arts that have physical
function.

Other Functions of Art

Music as an art is also interesting to talk about in relation to
function. Music in its original form was principally functional. Music was
used for dance and religion. Unlike today when one can just listen to
music for the sake of music’s sake, the ancient world saw music only as an
instrument to facilitate worship and invocation to gods. Music also was
essential to dance because music assures synchronicity among dancers.
Moreover, music also guarantees that marches, in the case of warriors,
are simultaneous.
Today, music has expanded its function and coverage. Music is
listened to and made by people for reasons that were foreign to early
civilizations. There is now a lot of music that has no connection
whatsoever to dance or religion. Serenade is one example. People
composes hymns of love to express feelings and emotions. Music is also
used as wonderful accompaniment to stage plays and motion pictures.
Interestingly, piece of music can mean a multitude of meanings to
different people, proof that as an art, music has gone a long way.
Sculpture, on the other hand, is another functional art form that has
long existed for various purposes. Just like music, from the early days of
humanity, sculptures have been made by man most particularly for
religion. People erect statues for the divine, in the Roman Catholic world,
the employment of sculptures for religious purposes has remained vital,
relevant, and symbolic.
Sculptures were also made in
order to commemorate important
figures in history. Jose Rizal’s
monument in Luneta and Andres
Bonifacio’s Monumento in Caloocan are Figure 17. Pope Francis
common examples. In the University of Commemorative Coin
the Philippines, the iconic statue
Oblation by Guillermo E. Tolentino has
remained a pillar of the university and constant of reminder of the need to
offer oneself up selflessly for the country.
Coins are also manifestations of sculpting’s function. Every can in
the Philippines features a relief of a famous hero or personality. Recently,
the Central Bank of the Philippines produced special, commemorative
coins for certain personalities like Pope Francis and the Jesuit, Horacio de
la Costa.

Another art from that readily lends itself to multiple functions is

architecture. In fact, architecture might be the most prominent functional
art form. Buildings are huge, expensive, and are not easily constructed
and replaced. Unlike other forms of art like pots, furniture, poetry, or even
paintings, buildings take so much time to erect and also to destroy. A lot of
investment is put into making megastructures like the pyramids of Giza,
the acropolis, of the great cathedrals of the medieval world. One cannot
simply dismiss taking into consideration the function of a building before
construction.

It is also in architecture where one can find the intimate connection

of function and form. In planning out an architectural structure, one has to
seriously consider the national conditions like topography and climate of
the place of erection and the social conditions such as the purpose of the
building itself. In the Philippines, climate is a huge factor in building a
house. Spanish colonial houses were designed to allow for air to circulate
inside the house. Large windows were staples then. Capiz shells were also
utilized to allow for light to enter the
Figure 18. A Spanish House in the
Philippines
house even if the
windows were closed.
Moreover, social
conditions such as
purpose play a huge
role in architecture. To
Christians, a church is
primarily a place of
worship and
assembly. Regular ceremonies, where members of the church are
expected to come regularly, are held inside the church. A huge, spacious
church therefore is necessitated by this social condition. Indeed, in
whenever art serves a particular function, the form has to be determined
by the function.

Does Art Always Have to Be Functional?

While it has been shown that most arts are functional, still there are
some which are not. The value of a work of art does not depend on
function but on the work itself. The plays of Aeschylus, the poetry of
Robert Frost and Edgar Allan Poe are still counted as examples of great
works of art despite their not having a known function. In those whose
functions are ascertained however, it is different story. A functional object
cannot be claimed to be beautiful unless it can perform its function
sufficiently. Consider a house that cannot even protect its resident from
the nasty weather outside or a spoon that spills the food on it. Adequate
performance of function partly determines the beauty of a design in these
functional art forms.

Despite these however, efficiency cannot be mistaken as beauty.

While it certainly determines beauty in some works of art, an efficient
functional object is not necessarily beautiful. Art demands so much more
than mere efficiency. What then really comprise beauty and art? What
makes something truly beautiful? What really makes a work of art? What
really is art? The next section attempts to provide different perspectives
on the nature of art.

Philosophical Perspective on Art

Art as an Imitation
Plato (2000) in his masterpiece, The Republic, particularly paints a
picture of artists as imitators and art as mere imitation. In his description
of the ideal republic, Plato advises against the inclusion of art as a subject
in the curriculum and the banning of artists in the Republic. In Plato’s
metaphysics, or view of reality, the things in this world are only copies of
the original, the eternal, and the true entities that can only be found in the
World of Forms. Human beings endeavor to reach the Forms all throughout
this life, starting with formal education in school. From looking at
“shadows in the cave,” men slowly crawl outside to behold the real
entities in the world. For example, the chair that one sits on is not real
chair. It is an imperfect copy of the perfect “chair” in the World of Forms.
Much is true for “beauty” in this world. When on ascribes beauty to
another person, he refers to an imperfect beauty that participates only in
the Form of Beauty in the World of Forms. Plato was convinced that artist
merely reinforce the belief in copies and discourage men to reach for the
real entities in the World of Forms.

Plato was deeply suspicious of arts and artists for two reasons: they
appeal to the emotion rather than to the rational faculty of men and they
imitate rather than lead one to reality. Poetry and painting, the art forms
that Plato was particularly concerned with, do not have any place in the
ideal state that Socrates (as the protagonist) in Plato’s dialogue envisions.
First, Plato is critical of the effects of art, specifically, poetry to the people
of the ideal state. Poetry rouses emotions and feelings and thus, clouds
the rationality of people. Poetry has a capacity to
Figure 19. Plato
sway minds without taking into
consideration the use of proper reason. As such, it leads one further away
from the cultivation of the intellect which Plato campaigned for. Likewise,
Socrates is worried that art
objects represent only the things
in this world, copies themselves
of reality. As such, in the
dialogue, Socrates claims that art
is just an imitation of imitation. A
painting is just an imitation of
nature, which is also just an
imitation of reality in the World of Forms.

The arts then are to be banished, alongside the practitioners, so

that the attitudes and actions of the members of the Republic will not be
corrupted by the influence of the arts. For Plato, art is dangerous because
it provides a petty replacement for the real entities that can only be
attained through reason.

Art as a Representation
Aristotle, Plato’s most important student in philosophy, agreed with
his teacher that art is a form of imitation. However, in contrast to the
disgust that his master holds for art. Aristotle considered art as an aid to
philosophy in revealing truth. The kind of imitation that art does is not
antithetical to the reaching of fundamental truths in the world. Talking
about tragedies for example. Aristotle (2016) in the Politics claimed that
poetry is a literary representation in general. Akin to other art forms,
poetry only admits of an attempt to represent what things might be. For
Aristotle, all kinds of art including poetry, music, dances, painting, and
sculpture do not aim to represent reality as it is. What art endeavors to do
is to provide a vision of what might be or the myriad possibilities in reality.
Unlike, Plato who thinks that art is an imitation of another imitation.
Aristotle conceives art as representing possible versions of reality.

In the Aristotelian worldview, art serves two particular purposes.

First, art allows for the experience of pleasure. Experiences that are
otherwise repugnant can become entertaining in art. For examples, a
horrible experience can be made an object of humor in a comedy. Second,
art also has an ability to be instructive and teach its audience things
about life, thus it is cognitive as well. Greek plays are usually of this
nature.

Art as Disinterested Judgment

In “Critique of Judgment,” Immanuel Kant
considered the judgment of beauty, the
cornerstone of art, as something that can be
universal despite its subjectivity. Kant
mentioned that judgment of beauty, and
therefore, art, is innately autonomous from
specific interests. It is the form of the art that is
adjudged by one who perceives art to be
beautiful or more so, sublime. Therefore, even
aesthetic judgment for Kant is a cognitive
activity.

Kant recognized that judgment of beauty is subjective. However,

Kant advanced the proposition that even subjective the proposition that
event subjective judgments are based on some Figure 20. Immanuel

criterion for the said judgment. In the process, Kant responds to the age-
old question at how and in what sense can a judgment of beauty which
ordinarily is considered to be a subjective feeling, be considered objective
or universal. How is this so? For Kant, when one judges a particular
painting as beautiful, one in effect is saying that the said painting has
induced a particular feeling of satisfaction from him and that he expects
the painting to rouse the same feeling from any one. There is something
in the work of art that makes it capable of inciting the same feeling of
pleasure and satisfaction from any perceiver, regardless of his condition.
For Kant, every human being after the perception of the free play of his
faculties should recognize the beauty that is inherent in a work of art. This
is a kind of universality that a judgment of beauty is assumed by Kant to
have. And so, when the same person says that something is beautiful, he
does not just believe that the thing is beautiful for him, but in a sense,
expects that the same thing should put everyone in awe.

Art as a Communication of Emotion

The author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy,
provided another perspective on what art is. In his book, What is Art
(2016). Tolstoy defended the production of the sometimes truly
extravagant art like operas despite extreme poverty in the world. For him,
art plays a huge role in communication to its audience’s emotions that the
artist previously experienced. Art then serves as a language, a
communication device that articulates feelings and emotions that are
otherwise unavailable to the audience. In the same way that languages
communicates information to the other people, art communicates
emotions. In listening to music, in watching an opera, in reading poems,
the audience is at the receiving end of the artist communicating his
feelings and emotions.

Tolstoy is fighting for the social dimension of art. As a purveyor of

man’s innermost feelings and thoughts, art is given a unique opportunity
to serve as a mechanism for social unity. Art is central to man’s existence
because it makes accessible feelings and emotions of people from the
past and present, from one continent to another. In making these possibly
latent feelings and emotions accessible to anyone in varied time and
location, art serves as a mechanism of cohesion for everyone. Thus, even
at present, one can commune with early Cambodians and their struggles
by visiting the Angkor Wat or can definitely feel for the early royalties of
different Korean dynasties by watching Korean dramas. Art is what allows
for these possibilities.

Let’s Wrap It Up
Art has remained to be relevant in our daily lives because most of it
has played some form of function for man. Since the dawn of the
civilization, art has been at the forefront of giving color to man’s
existence. The different functions of art may be classified as either
personal, social, or physical. An art’s function is personal if it depends on
the artist herself or sometimes still, the audience of the art. There is a
social function in art if and when it has a particular social function, when it
addresses a collective need of a group of people. Physical function, finally,
has something to do with direct, tangible uses of art. Not all products of
art have function. This should not disqualify them as art though. As
mentioned and elucidated by some of the most important thinkers in
history, art may serve either as imitation, representation, a disinterested
judgment, or simply a communication of emotion.

Let’s Work On This

Answer the following questions as precisely yet as thoroughly as possible.

What art form/artwork has changed something in your life? Why?

Account for the experience.

Does art always have a function? Why? Support your response.

Provide your own example.

If an artwork ceased to have a function, will it remain an art? Why?

Let’s Make It Happen
Look around your house and identify a product of art. In the box
below, paste a picture of that product of art in your household. Trace the
beginnings of this item and identify what functions it has played in history
(e.g., a painting of the Last Supper in your dining room or a spoon).

Sources and References:

Aristotle. 2016. Poetics. Aristotle.
Dudley, Louise, Austin Faricy, and McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1960. The
Humanities. McGraw-Hill.
Plato. 2000. Plato: “The Republic.” Cambridge University Press.
Tolstoy, Leo. 2016. What is Art? (English Version, Abridged). BIG BYTE
BOOKS.
Figure 1: Creative Commons accessed: October25, 2017
http://www.google.com/search?
site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=aristotle&tbs=sur:fmc#imgrc=MWDcunWSVy-
LOaM:
Figure 2: Creative Commons accessed: October 25, 2017
https://c1.staticflickr.com/6/5653/21263213375_bba1333dff_b.jpg
Figure 3: Creative Commons accessed: October 25, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=japanese
%20ruku%20bowl&tbs=-sur:fmc#imgrc=9fluoOvcqXDY9M:
Figure 4: Creative Commons accessed: October 25, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=adult
%20coloring%20book&tbs=-sur:fmc#imgrc=Od3xl47nX3EYaM
Figure 5: Creative Commons accessed: October 28, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbs=sur%3Afmc&tbm=is-
ch&sa=1&ei=RxTOWY7gE4ie0gSS4L7gCw&q=pope+francis+coins+philip
pines&oq=pope+francis+coins&gs_l=psy-ab.3.1.0l3j0i7i30k1j0i30k-
1j0i24k1.4823.7729.0.9233.15.14.1.0.0.0.116.1072.11j2.13.0....0...1.1.64.
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ab..1.14.1076...0i8i7i30k1j0i13k1.0.5Mq0N7rcWuY#imgrc=j81lTMEEPkl-
UxM:
Figure 6; Creative Commons accessed: October 28, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=philippine
%20spanish%20house&tbs=sur:fmc#imgrc=igL2Om8_iLUysM:
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=philippine
%20spanish%20house&tbs=sur:fmc#imgrc=igL2Om8_iLUysM:
Figure 7: Creative Commons accessed: October 28, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=plato&tbs=-
sur:fmc#imgrc=85s_sKVEJNhMtM:
Figure 8: Creative Commons accessed: October 28, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=angkor
%20wat7tbs=-sur:fmc#imgrc=xbW3pdsmqg2kM:
 Lesson 4
Subject and Content

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. differentiate representational art and non-representation art;
2. discuss the difference of between an artwork’s subject from its
content;
3. identify the subject matter and content of specific examples of art;
and
4. enumerate the sources of the subjects of some of the most
recognizable works of art in Philippines art history.

In the Philippines, which is predominantly a non-museum-going

public, looking at art has always been a tricky business. This is true not
just for novices, but at times, confronts even the long-time art aficionados.
One of the major hurdles that spoil an individual’s engagement with
artwork is the notion that in order to appreciate it, one must be able to
extract a specific image; isolate the artist or maker’s intention; and
unearth a particular meaning. Failure to do so automatically implies a
failure of comprehension and therefore, failure of the experience. This
however relegates art engagement and therefore appreciation to the very
few who had training and instruction in producing and in reading art. This
should not be the case.

In most cases, there are clues that mediate between the artwork
and the viewer, allowing the viewer to more easily comprehend what he is
seeing. These clues are the three basic components of a work of art:
subject, form, and content. These components are largely inseparable
from each other, and usually related to each other.

In this chapter, subject and content will be discussed, while form will
be better examined in Chapter 6. To differentiate them briefly, subject
refers to the visual focus or the image that may be extracted from
examining the artwork; while content is the meaning that is
communicated by the artist or the artwork. Finally, the development and
configuration of the artwork-how the elements and the medium or
material are put together-is the form. In simpler terms, the subject is seen
as the “what”; the content is the “why” and the form is the “how.”

Let’s Get Started

 Think-Pair-Share:
Look at this painting by (I will specify an example). List down
everything that you see within the four corners of the work. List as
many items as you can, in 3 minutes. Use the space below.

Let’s Get Down to Business

In the field of the sciences, experimentation is key to proving a
hypothesis or a larger theory. Often, an experiment is done multiple times
to further prove the reliability of an outcome. Therein, empirical or
observable data in the form of visible or tactile qualities, events or
occurrence, and even yielding an output or by-product must follow after
step or series of processes are carried out. In the arts, there are also
observable qualities that the artwork holds that will point to its subject,
and sometimes even to its content. In order to flesh out what the subject
of the artwork is, it is important to first look at the constituent figures that
are perceivable on the surface of the canvas or the sculpture, and the
manner in which the artist chose to depict those figures. From these, the
type of subject can then be inferred.

Types of Subject
One of the most iconic and recognizable paintings all over the world
is a work done by Leonardo da Vinci. A question often raised asks who the
Mona Lisa is and why was da Vinci compelled to paint her? But as scholars
attempt to solve the true identity of the sitter, it is relevant to note that
there is a consensus that the Mona Lisa whoever she is based on a real
person.

Figure 21. Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa (1503). Musẻẻ du Louvre Collection. Photo courtesy of
Josh Hallett.

Portraits such as the Mona Lisa are good examples of what is called
representational art. These types of art have subjects that refer to objects
or events occurring in the real world. Often it is also termed figurative art,
because as its name suggests, the figures depicted are easy to make out
and decipher. Despite not knowing who Mona Lisa is, it is clear that the
painting is of a woman that is realistically-proportioned; only the upper
torso is shown; a beguiling and mysterious smile is flashed; and that the
background is a landscape probably a view from a window. Pushing it even
further, one can even imagine a scene in which da Vinci alternates
between applying dabs of paint on the canvas and looking at the sitter in
order to capture her features for the portrait.

Figure 22. Jackson Pollock, detail of Number 1A (1948). Oil and enamel paint on
On the other hand, seeing a painting that has nothing in it but
canvas.
continuous drips of paint or splotches of colors either confounds the
viewer or is readily trivialized as something that anyone with access to
materials can easily make. The works of Jackson Pollock, who is known for
his “action paintings,” are often subjected to these remarks. Using large-
scale canvasses that were usually laid out on the floor or resting on a wall,
Pollock tilted his paint can and allowed paint to drip. Assisting it with
movement, he used other implements such as hardened brushes, knives,
sticks, and trowels to add detail, texture, and dimension to his paintings.
There were no clear figures that jot out from the canvas; there were only
drips and splashes. This kind of work can be subsumed under the category
of non-representation. As the opposite of the previously discussed type of
subject, non-representational art is also often termed non-figurative art.

Non-representational art does not make a reference to the real

world, whether it is a person, place, thing, or even a particular event. It is
stripped-down to visual elements such as shapes, lines, and colors that
are employed to translate a particular feeling, emotion, and even concept.

It is in this light that representational works are often favored

because they are easier to recognize. Viewers find a greater degree of
comfort when what they see registers as something familiar. They then
continue to process this understanding, sometimes even becoming
confident enough to share their insight to others. It can be argued then
that an artist is faced with a strong persuasion of creating works that veer
toward representational art. However, it is not simply an issue of assumed
preference; rather, it cuts across matters relating to prevailing themes,
norms, and practices of specific historical moments.

Non-representational Art and Abstract Art

One source of confusion is the notion that non-representational art

is the same as abstract art. This is essential to discuss because it
introduces the fact thatFigure 23. Pablo Picasso’sart
representational Head of a non-representational art
and
Woman (1962)
is not a clear-cut divide; rather, they exist in a spectrum. An abstract work
of Pablo Picasso is a great example to illustrate this. Although he is more
known for his paintings, he also dabbled into other works including
sculptures. Cut metal that is hinged on a metal based, there is a palpable
distortion of the image-whatever it is-seems to be melting. Even without
reading the title from the caption, mere seconds of looking at the
combination of lines, shapes and colors of the sculpture will point to a
head of a woman. Even with the abstraction of the image, this work is
arguably representational. As a guide, an artwork, depending on the
degree of distortion or abstraction, may be judged as leaning more toward
one over the other. Abstract art is in itself a departure from reality, but the
extent of that departure determines whether it has reached the end of the
spectrum which is non-representationality.

Sources and Kinds of Subject

When hit with a wall or a block, the writer is often advised to look
back and take from what he knows. From there, a well and wealth of
material may be drawn. But for artists, where do they source the subjects
of their paintings? What do they paint?

For non-representational art, a higher level of perceptiveness and

insight might be required to fully grasp and feeling, emotion, or concept
behind the work. It is perhaps easier to infer where the subject matter
comes from if the artwork is an example of representational art. From the
figure(s) depicted in the artwork, there is already a suggestion as to its
aspiration.

However, in discussing the sources and kinds of subject in artworks.

It is important to note that these two are often inextricably related. Often,
even a singular source of inspiration can yield multiple translations. A
good starting point is of course nature.

There is nothing more rudimentary than human interaction with the

physical world around the artist. Early childhood often revolves around
getting to know not just the body and what it can do, but also in getting
accustomed to a multitude of sensory prompts around the artist especially
these situated in his environment.
 Figure 24. Vincent Van Gogh, Die Ebene von Auvers (Wheat Fields near Auvers)
(1980) Oil on canvas.

Artist throughout history have explored diverse ways of representing

nature: from plants to animals, the qualities of bodies of water and the
terrain of landmasses; and even the perceivable cycles and changing of
seasons. Often, these depictions are seen as expressions of the scared or
the profane, sired by reality or supplemented by the artist’s imagination.
One artist who was attuned with nature was Vincent Van Gogh. He saw art
and nature as inseparable, often finding solace and happiness in painting
in it (working in the middle of unspoiled fields) and painting from it
(landscapes). In a letter to his brother Theo, he wrote “…if I felt no love for
nature and my work, then I would be unhappy.” (Hague, 26 July 1882)

Other artists with a considerable number of landscapes and

seascapes are Claude Monel, Camille Pissaro, Paul Cezanne, and JMW
Turner. In the Philippines, National Artist for Painting Fernando Amorsolo
and Fabian de la Rosa gained prominence from their painted rural scenes
such as women in the fields gathered in harvest.
Breaking nature into smaller parts is Jan Van Kasser the Elder who
did numerous still lives and small-scale, highly detailed studies, and
scientific illustrations of flowers, insects, shells, fruits, garlands, and
bouquets.

Figure 25. Jan Van Kassel, A Cockchafer, Beetle, Woodlice and other Insects, with a
Sprig of Auricula (early 1650s) Oil on copper. Museum of Art and Archeology,
 Greek and Roman mythology were also ripe with references:
from episodes that transport the viewer to heroic encounters of Achilles
and Aeneas; warnings about man’s folly like the vanity of Icarus, the wit
and cunning Odysseus; the beauty of Aphrodite and the athleticism of
Myron. From narrations in literature, artists on the other hand gave faces
to Greek and Roman deities or the gods and goddesses whose fates are
seemingly as tragic as those of men. Some of the art forms they look on
were well paintings or frescos and sculptural works such as busts,
statuaries, and ceramics and pottery, among others.

Figure 26. Discobolus. (Roman, 2nd Century AD), after a Greek original by
The sculptor Myron of 450-440 BC.
British Museum Collection, London. Photo by Ricky Bennison

Another integral aspect of human life is the distinct relationship with

a higher controlling power. If the belief system of Greeks and Romans was
polytheism with a multitude of gods and goddesses, the Judeo-Christian
tradition stems from a belief in a lone creator of the universe or what is
called monotheism. This tradition had an immense influence in Western
civilization especially in art. Guided by a host of styles and techniques,
various media and art forms were also experimented with: paintings,
frescos, church architecture (over-all plan of the space, stained glass
windows, tabernacles, and altars), sarcophagus, icons and other carvings,
vestments, tapestry, illuminated manuscripts, and other sacred scriptures,
among others.

Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the intricate fresco that lines the
Sistine Chapel was created by Michelangelo. The immense detail and vast
surface he had to cover had him working on it from 1508 to 1512.

Figure 27. Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel (1508-1512).

Image source: The Vatican

Unlike in Islam for example, practicing Jews and Christians were

allowed to depict their God and other important biblical figures: laying
visual foundations in inculcating the faith. But perhaps the influence of
this tradition is most intriguingly manifested in the architectural marvels
that are spread out all over the world.

The formative years of church architecture can be traced in the 4th

and 5th century but different styles and plans were developed since then.
Prevailing ideas and philosophies became resources that were used by
architects to reimagine what the church should look like. For instance,
Gothic churches were characterized by three things: soaring heights
(ceilings), volume (flying buttresses and ribbed vaults), and light (bright
stained glass windows, airy and pleasant interiors). Gothic style
architecture is often attributed as the brainchild of Abbot Suger. There is a
definitive sense that pointed to the feeling of awe on the part of the
believer and the perceived majesty and power of God, all of which
happened during the time when religion was at the heart of everyday life.
This echoes her belief that “art was central to religious experience.”

Figure 28. Interior of Westminster. Photo courtesy of

Harland Quarrington.

Proceeding from a kind of a hybrid between literature and sacred

text is India’s miniature paintings. In Central India, the kind of art that
were produced was deeply rooted in Vedic texts such as Upanishads,
Puranas, and other important texts such as the Sanskrit epics
Mahabharata and Ramayana. Indian artists had a wide array of material to
work with in showcasing not just their artistry and skill. The significance of
these paintings rests on its ability to foster devotion and the observance
of a code of ethics through the visualizations of heroic narratives. These
paintings were small in size, but were highly pictorial, stylized, and
employed a good contrast of colors. Some artists also included verse from
the epics as part of the cartouche which added interest and meaning to
the paintings.
 Figure 29. Shah Jahan Receiving
Historically significant events particularly in the affairs of humanity
are abundant references for art production. From early breakthroughs
such as the discovery of fire and the overthrow of geocentric theory in
favor of a sun-centered universe, succeeding advancements brought
about by discovery, innovation and man’s incessant search for glory
plotted a dynamic course of history.

Figure 30. Francisco de Goya, El Tres de Mayo

(1814) Oil
on canvas. Museo del Prado Collection.
An example is Goya’s El Tres de Mayo which captures the death of
Madrilenes, the local insurgents during the Peninsular War. Former allies in
the overrun of Portugal, and France turned against Spain. Napoleonic
forces invaded Madrid without much difficulty and the painting captures
the dramatic demise of its people under a firing squad.
 History as a resource for artists in search of subjects bring into
consideration events that are familiar and sometimes even common or
shared in world context: the establishment of nations and states
(discovery, conquests, and colonization), and the resulting ideologies that
they breed (democracy, liberty, freedom, and rights). These works serve
as documentary and commemorative artworks that illustrate subjects
such as important leaders and figures; events as they were recorded to
have happened; and representations of ideologies or values.

In the history of art, it is important to remember that the source and

kind of subjects were not merely a product of the artist’s inclination and
choice. A closer examination of the various art movements and artworks
created within those movements will indicate that notions of freedom and
independence, which were presumed to be enjoyed by artists, were not
without limits or restrictions. For instance, a particular kind of subject and
the way it is visually translated may be traced in relation to the art
patrons (those who commission the artworks), the favored artistic style
and canons, and more importantly the norms and trends prevailing in the
artist’s milieu.

During the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, art was

predominantly representational. During the first century of their
dominance, art came as an aid for communication-a means of propagating
religion to locals who spoke a different language. The visual arts, from
paintings to early sculptures such as santos and other votive figures and
icons, were created to assist Catholic ministry. Existing art and craft
traditions persisted, with some augmented and infused with foreign
influences that were not limited to the Spanish culture through contact.

The momentum that secular (or non-religious) art later gained in the
19th century can also be attributed this contact, what with the opening of
the Suez canal and the growth of an expert economy in agriculture. The
consequences of these developments was the rise of the middle class.
With their new-found economic and social mobility, patrons of the art were
no longer limited to the clergy, but brought about a demand coming from
these wealthy ilustrado families. Of interest was the increase in demand
for commissioned portraits (of an individual or an entire family), finding it
necessary to document themselves in light of their elevated status.
Wearing the most intricate and elaborate of garbs, significant adornments
such as jewelry and embroidered implements, among others, completed
the intended narrative. This artistic trend cemented the distinction of
artists such as Simon Flores, Justiniano Ascuncion, and Antonio Malantic
who became the foremost portraitists of the time. Here, it is evident how
during the Spanish colonial period, the subjects of artworks, even the
manner in which they are translated, were mostly dictated by the patrons
who commission them, both for religious art and secular art.

Content in Art
As outlined in the beginning, in discussing works of art, the subject
may simply be referred to as the “what”-what is readily seen and relates
to the artwork, its inspiration, and the many kinds of translation. But apart
from what is made explicit, to recognize and grasp the message of the
artwork, the viewer may sometimes need to go beyond what is visible.
Why was the artwork created in the first place? When this question is
asked, we are after the meaning or message that is expressed or
communicated by the artwork. One of the foremost scholars that
expounded on content analysis or how meaning is arrived at is art
historian Erwin Panofsky in his seminal work “Meaning in the Visual Arts”
(1955). His methodology will later identified as iconology through the
interpretation of iconography.
To take on the challenge of understanding the content of art, it must
be reiterated that there are various levels of meaning. Perhaps the most
common is what we call factual meaning. This pertains to the most
rudimentary level of meaning for it may be extracted from the identifiable
or recognizable forms in the artwork and understanding how these
elements relate to one another. Conventional meaning, on the other hand,
pertains to the acknowledged interpretation of the artwork using motifs,
signs, symbols and other cyphers as bases of its meaning. These
conventions are established through time, strengthened by recurrent use
and wide acceptance by its viewers or audience and scholars who study
them. Finally, when subjectivities are consulted, a variety of meaning may
arise when a particular work of art is read. These meanings stem from the
viewer’s or audience’s circumstances that come into play when engaging
with art. When looking at a particular painting for example, perception
and therefore meaning is always informed (and even colored) by a
manifold of contexts: what we know; what we learned; what we
experienced; and the values we stand for. It is therefore expected that
meaning may not be singular; rather, a painting may communicate
multiple meanings to its many viewers. This is what we call subjective
meaning of art.
 Figure 31. Michelangelo. Creation of Adam from the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Photo by Andrew
Graham-Dixon (2009).
Michaelangelo’s Creation of Adam can be read using the various
levels of meaning discussed above. Here, Adam is figured with an aged
God, both of them with an arm stretched and their respective index
fingers appearing to be fixed at an impending contact. Apart from God is
wearing a tunic, everyone else is nude. God is afloat, surrounded by
drapery and figures presumed to be angels and cherubs. Adam on the
other hand is earth-bound, sitting and reclined, positioned diagonally
parallel to that of God. From a factual perspective, Michaelangelo depicted
a scene from the Creation Story, in particular, the creation of man. Apart
from being a key element of Michaelangelo’s fresco at the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel, the subject matter suggests that this is an example of
biblical art.

This work is indeed iconic, and this is asserted by the conventional

meaning attached to it. Here, the specific poses of God and Adam (convex
and concave postures, respectively) allude to the correspondence of the
body and the commonly held beliefs that man was created in the image
and likeness of God. During this time, the ideal of humanism were
underscored and the arts and sciences were furthered. It is therefore
understandable that the classical canons of the form of the body (ideally
proportioned and muscular) are portrayed, especially by Michaelangelo
who was first and foremost of sculptor. There, the view is that the
greatness of old civilizations such as that of the Greeks and the Romans
may not only replicated, but even surpassed. Some art scholars noted
how Michaelangelo exhibited just the-an elevated artistry-in that the
dynamism and energy of the figures in the frescoes in the Sistine chapel
are unlike the works of predecessors.

An interesting overlap between the conventional and subjective

meanings is the proposal from gynecologist Frank Lynn Meshberger,
whose published essay appeared in the October 1990 issue of the Journal
of American Medical Association. His theory is that an image and a
message were hidden in plain sight: how the silhouette of God, the shroud
and the drapery that trail behind, all seemingly align with the shape of the
human brain. According to Meshberger, the work can also be aptly called
“The Endowment of Adam” for it brought to light that as God’s creation,
the most important qualities imparted to man was intellect. Like most
Renaissance artists, Michaelangelo unlocked the secrets and precision of
human anatomy assisting in dissections during his time. For Meshberger,
it was with his medical background and perhaps exposure to art and
history that allow him to catch the symbol, hidden in Michaelangelo’s
work.

Let’s Wrap It Up

There is sense of panic when one is confounded with the question,

“What am I seeing”? or rather “What am I supposed to see?” Perhaps,
addressing this stigma is the first step in inviting more Filipinos to engage
with art and have a more enduring appreciation for it.

In gaining the basics of deciphering the subject and content of art, it

is hoped that an individual’s sensitivity and perceptiveness to art will be
developed. As discussed in the lesson, one may begin by looking at
perceivable features of the artwork. Taking note of what is apparent will
provide clues as to what the intended meaning of the artist might be.
Knowing more about the context of its creation, from the artist’s
inspiration, reference, or source, will prove useful in understanding the
meaning of the artwork.

The majority of the public are consumers and not producers of art,
and so ensuring the readiness of the public to not only successfully
engage with the art, but meaningfully do so, is the primary function of art
appreciation and education. Throughout this book, it is hoped that the
specialized language of art will unfold for the learning pleasure of the
students, enabling the ease and encouraging the predilection of engaging
with art through its description, analysis, interpretation, and even critique.

Let’s Work on This

1. What are the hurdles of accessing art in terms of its subject and
content?
2. Where do artists source their subjects?
3. Name an example of an artwork and speculate on the content of the
artwork based on its factual, conventional, and subjective
meanings?
Let’s Make it Happen
Watch the BBC documentary about Botticelli’s Venus: The Making of an Icon.
(https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b070sqb0)

Let’s Cite Our Sources and References

“Nature and the Artist.” Accessed October 18, 2017.
https://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/stories/nature-and-the-artist.

Victoria and Albert Museum, Digital Media webmaster@vam ac uk. 2012. “Gothic Architecture.”
December 10, 2012. https://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/g/gothic-architecture/.
“Indian Miniature Paintings: The Rajasthan School – Google Arts & Culture.” n.d. Google Cultural
Institute. Accessed October 18, 2017.
https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/exhibit/PgLSknKVv0F_JQ.

“The 3rd of May 1808 in Madridor’TheExecutions’-TheCollection.”n.d. MuseoNacional Del Prado.

Accessed October 19, 2017 https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/the-3rd-of-may-
1808-in-madrid-or-the-exucations/5e177409-2993-4240-97fb-847a02c6496c.

“The Spanish Colonial Tradition in Philippine Visual Arts.”n.d. National Commission for Culture and
the Arts (blog). Accessed October 26, 2017. https://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-
the-arts/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/.

Becker, Rachel. 2016. “Does the Michaelangelo Painting in the Westworld Finale Really Show a
Brain - or Is It a Uterus?” The Verge. December 6, 2016.
https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/6/13852240/westworld-finale-ford-dolores-michaelngelo-brain-
creation-of-adam.

Bambach, Author: Carmen. n.d. “Anatomy in the Renaissance | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art
History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art.” The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Accessed
October 27, 2017. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/anat/hd_anat.htm.

Meshberger, Frank Lynn. “An Interpretation of Michaelangelo’s Creation of Adam Based on

Neuroanatomy.” Journal of American Medical Association 264, no. 14 (October 10, 1990): 1837 -41.
December 13, 2011. Accessed October 27, 2017.

https://www.nstc.wusti.edu/courses/bio3411/woolsey/2011/JAMA-1990-Meshberger-1837 41.pdf.
 Lesson 5
Artists and Artisans

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

1. outline the history of the emergence of artists and artisans;

2. recognize and critically discuss the function of state sponsorship in
the field of arts and culture through the National Artists Award and
Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA) ;
3. identify and define the different individuals and groups who take on
varied roles in the world of art and culture; and
4. classify the practices of artists in terms of the form, medium and
technique;

In the advent of technology, it is remarkable what has now been

made possible. With a click of a button, an array of overwhelming
information is made available, informing every aspect of human life. In the
fast-paced and highly complex twenty-first century, there is a real and
nagging fear that soon, everything may be replaced by computers and
robots that can arguably do things with more precision, at a shorter
amount of time and less capital in the long term. This nihilist notion is
contested by what are arguably the most resilient qualities of man, which
is his creativity and imagination. And as there is a cultivation of both of
these qualities, no robot or artificial intelligence can replace man just yet.

The arts are one of the most significant ways in which we try to
grapple with how the present unfolds. In Robert Henri’s The Art Spirit
(1923), he says that “Art when really understood is the province of every
human being. It is simply a question of doing things, anything, well. It is
not an outside, extra thing. When the artist is alive in any person,
whatever his kind of work may be, he becomes an inventive, searching,
daring, self-expressing creature. He becomes interesting to other people.
He disturbs, upsets, enlightens, and he opens ways for a better
understanding. Where those who are not artists are trying to close the
book he opens it, shows there are more pages possible.” There is a gap
when one continues to persist with the idea that art is something that is
detached from the everyday. In what has been reduced to a blur, it
became more integral that man pursue a better understanding of the
world in which he lives in. one of the avenues that make this both possible
and exciting is the engagement with art and culture.
 This lesson will introduce the artists who have dedicated their lives
to the cultivation of the arts through the works of great creativity,
imagination, and daring throughout history. It aims to expand this into the
wider world of the arts and culture, wherein other key players and movers
are testament to how the production, consumption, and distribution of
arts have changed profoundly.

Let’s Get Started

1. What is an art form that you can most relate to and appreciate? It
may be architecture, sculpture, painting, music, literature, film,
dance, performance/theatre, and living traditions.
2. Can you name an artist whose works you really like?
3. Is there a particular work of art created by him or her that you relate
to and appreciate? What is it and why?

Let’s Get Down to Business

In Peter Drucker’s seminal book Post Capitalist Society (1993), he

says that “the real controlling resource and the absolutely decisive factor
of production is neither capital nor labor. It is knowledge. Instead of
capitalists and proletarians, the classes of a post capitalist society are
knowledge workers and service workers.” Arguably, one type of
knowledge that fuels that twenty-first century is creativity. This is evident
in the recognition that workers in the creative sector are integral drivers
and movers in society and an integral segment of this sector are artists.
But who are they?

Artists have treaded a long history. Their roots can likewise be

traced in one the major milestones in human civilization. In the first
episode of the video series “New Ways of Seeing,” a project by The New
York Times’ T Brand Studio and jewelry giant Tiffany & Co., art critic Jerry
Saltz underscored the significance of not only the discovery of the cave
paintings, but the paintings themselves. He asserts that “these first artists
figured out a way to get the three-dimensional world into two dimensions
and attach values to their own ideas. And all of the history of art flows
forth from this invention.” He is of course is referring to the drawings and
painted images of animals, hunting scenes and a variety of symbolic
figures created during the Stone Age. Examples of these are scattered all
around the world, from France, Spain, Namibia, Australia, and Argentina to
name a few. Of course, these works were not yet subsumed in the highly
systematized art world, let alone considered as “arts.”

Out of the shadows of these caves, astounding headway was seen

moving down history from Bronze Age down to the Medieval Ages in terms
of how man continued to utilize his environs to create varying expressions
of his ideas and feelings. Through the exploration of his immediate
environs, trade, and other experimentations, new modes, media, and
techniques brought to light a wide array of artworks that instantiate the
wealth that can be done when the artist’s vision is tapped, harnessed, and
realized. But the most integral development that allowed this identity of
an “artist” to fully emerge is the systematization and sophistication that
his world-the art world-has become.
Early on, artists were embedded in the development of culture. The
works they produced were prosaic. Seen every day, the interaction with
these objects was intimate in the sense that their presence was
experienced in a multitude of ways in all of the affairs of man:
ornamentations in tools and other surfaces, weaving patterns in textiles,
visual features and the design/plan for architectural structures, and ritual
and burial implements, among others. It was in this light that artists
worked and most of the time, the products were considered not as
artworks at all but rather as craft. The use of the word “embedded”
maybe taken to mean that what was created automatically circulated in
the operations of society and was not integral to an art object that the
identity of its maker be known. It did not take long before this changed.

The Artisan and the Guilds

Ever wondered why some modes of artistic and creative production

have survived up to this day? Perhaps there is difference in process and
medium, especially now that technology and emergence of new materials
are readily available. However, when you look at these objects, they
seemingly retained the basic principles of aesthetic and design. Craftsmen
may be considered as engineers of the past. An example could be the
Gothic cathedrals and other mega structures that were built all over
Europe. Craftsmen and builders of these cathedrals and mega structures
in the past did not have sophisticated terminologies and principles that
architects and engineers abide by today. However, what they had was a
sense on materials behaved, how the environment, light, and weather
patterns affect structures and other more intuitive principles in creating
their products. Experimentation and luck must not also be forgotten.
These structures, along with later ones of its kind (or inspired by it) have
survived through time, not only by its sheer durability, but more so
through the articulation of the processes that they follow.

What is meant here is a kind of formalization of craft education in

which regulation was set in place. Here, skills qualification was needed for
an apprentice to register under a particular guild. These guilds were
prevalent during the medieval period particularly during the thirteenth to
fifteenth century, where towns had formalized groups of artisans or
craftsmen who took on a particular specialization or trade: textiles and
glass workers, carpenters, carvers, masons, armorers, and weapon-
makers, among others. Guilds were a type of social fellowship, an
association that was structured with rules, customs, rights, and
responsibilities. With a lifetime commitment to a particular trade, an
artisan develops immense skill and expertise in his craft. A master artisan
or craftsman would then be open to hiring apprentices who will be under
his tutelage and instruction. In these guilds, artistry, and technology
flourished under one roof.

This brought to light ways of thinking about transferring knowledge

and skills by visualizing and articulating the principles, processes, and
tricks of the trade both in words and in print through manuals and
publications. Of course, these printed publications were done cheaply and
Figure 32. Albrecht Dủrer, Self-Portrait (1500). Oil
did not have the same thoroughness as with handbooks and manuals of
on lime panel. Alte Pinakothek (Munich) Collection.
biblical proportions. Aside from funds, another hurdle was the fact that
some of the knowledge that went into production was difficult to put into
words. This can be attested in a way that often, we find ourselves at a loss
when tasked with explaining a particular step or process in something that
we created. Consider this, in addition to the fact that receiving the
explanation of how something is made does not automatically make us
impressions who can carry out the task bump-free.
 In the visual arts, an example of an artist strongly influenced by this
was Albrecht Durer. Born in 1471, his father was a goldsmith which is why
he also apprenticed as such. Later on, he shifted to the visual arts. A
custom at that time was that after completing an apprenticeship, one is
expected to travel to gather more experience and knowledge elsewhere.
His life was ripe with travels, fame, and fortunate. However, one of the
biggest credits to his practice was his dedication and interest in
scholarship with his attendance to a close friend’s meetings of artists and
scholars. He also published quite a number of books and treatises
including those that talked about practical skills as an artist that would be
useful to other artisans and craftsmen who dared to read it. Mostly on
perspective and human proportion, his works were written in the first-
person singular format, practical in the way it was written and was
supported by illustrations. It also helped that his illustrations were laid out
opposite the text that explains it. Although he was caught between the
time when canons were still being followed, he suggested to his readers
that his was merely recommendations, and that if they found a better way
to go about it, then one should depart from he learned.

Although the timeline is a bit skewed, the culture of artisans became

prevalent in the Philippines as well, particularly during the Spanish
colonial period. Formerly done in the spirit of the communal and the
everyday, patronship changed the way art was perceived. This was both
the case for religious and secular art, wherein the existence of artisans
proved to be of immense use. It was through mimesis or copying that
artisans first learned to depict religious images and scenes. Friars, being
non-artists themselves, provided the references that artists used. During
the propagation of the faith, Spanish friars commissioned a lot of artisans
to carve, paint, and engrave images for churches and public sites. Each
locality had a characterizing style or feature in the way that their
depictions were made; the manner in which Boholano artists would paint
saints and scenes were different from how those from Laguna or Rizal
would.

From the church, the next patrons of the arts were the then-new
elite, the ilustrados or the middle class, along with foreign guests who
wanted souvenirs to take along with them. In the previous chapter, it was
mentioned that portrait paintings became a fad. But looking closer at the
paintings would reveal the specificity of the style in which they were
painted. Two other important genres for painting at that time were the
tipos del pais and letras y figuras. The former was about watercolour
painting that showcased the different local inhabitants of the country in
different garbs and clues to their occupation and status; while the later
combined the principle tipos del pais and incorporated it as a means to
illustrate the letters of one’s name or surname.

One key example that will illustrate the systematization of art

instruction-a combination of sorts of the guild and the art school-was the
establishment Damian Domingo of the Academia de Debujo. Known as the
best tipos del pais painter, his school specialized in teaching the
miniaturismo style of painting along with the tenets of classical European
painting. Eventually, other schools emerged, teaching other genres such
as bodegones (still life) and paisajes (landscapes).

The Artist and His Studio

Moving back to Europe, the big shift that propelled the evolution of
the pivotal role of the artist started during the Medieval Age up to the
Renaissance Period. The most pivotal developments included the
transformation of the craftsman to an independent artist; the widespread
patronization of secular art (alongside the continuous production of works
with, religious subject); and the assertion of cognition, the will, and
individually. Before the Renaissance Period, artworks were left unsigned.
Artists claiming authorship for their works by affixing their mark onto the
surface of their paintings was a big milestone in the history of the artist.
Combined, these resulted to a wider variety of artworks, not just in form,
but more so in style and technique. A site that saw this shift was a very
personal space for the artist himself, which is the studio.

Today, artist studios have been a place of interest for the public. It is
interesting to see and learn where the creativity manifests itself,
especially since an artist’s studio is an extension of the artist himself. The
studio model dates back from the Renaissance Period. Therein, artists
flexed their relationship with their patron as a site where negotiations and
works are made. There were those work stations were segmented into
two, the studiolo and the bottega; the latter is where the work usually
happened. Apprentices studied under masters, assisting with menial tasks
or the preparation of the painting surfaces. In the seventeenth century,
these demarcations became lose, eventually merging together. This was
especially true with artists who explored oil-painting techniques whose
long process can be described by cycles of mixing, layering, and drying of
paint. This format remained throughout the latter part of the 1800s.

In France, on the other hand, the academies and art salons became
popular as it not only supported the production of art, but also the
discourse around it. Criticism and analysis were highlighted as integral
aspects of art engagement and therefore the display of the artworks
through official art salons as sought for. To be included in the exhibition
was deemed an honor, especially since it did not take a while before it
was considered an arbiter of standards and taste.

The beginnings of industrial revolution had an interesting

ramification for artists. A compendium of events released the artists from
the limitations that affected the way in which he produced his works.
These included the availability and portability of materials (i.e., foldable
easels and pain in tubes), and the reliance on the wealthy patrons to place
a commission. More painters enjoyed painting on their own behalf,
creating works they wanted to create. It was during this time that a host
of styles developed side-by-side, allowing artists to fully grasp the
potential of artistic license, with minimal (to no) consideration for the
prevailing tastes and stylistic preferences. During the latter part of the
1800s, artists began to question the merits of stringent artistic training
and education, but it was during the 1900s that art was truly liberated
from the traditions of the past. Perhaps, it was then the artists found
freedom to articulate their distinct aesthetic and way of creative
production.

Other Players in the World of Art

Figure 33. Prominent roles in the art world with

their mandatory relationships

The terrain in which the artist traverses is becoming increasingly

complex. In the last century, some of the roles that have been existent
since the beginning of art history have been properly dealth with-ascribed
with a name and legitimized into a sophisticated network of relationships
and exchanges. This network is what we call the art world.
 In Howard S. Becker’s Art Worlds (1982), he asserted that ‘’all
artistic work, like all human activity, involves the joint activity of a
number, often a large number, of people. Through their cooperation, the
artwork we eventually see or hear comes to be and continues to be. The
work always shows signs of that cooperation. The forms of cooperation
may be ephemeral, but often become more or less routine; producing
patterns of collective activity we can call an art world. The existence of art
worlds, as well as the way their existence affects both the production and
consumption of artworks, suggests a sociological approach to the arts. It is
not an approach that produces aesthetic judgments; although that is a
task many sociologists of art have set for themselves.” There is an
assumption that an artist works in solitary; that the only time the external
world is allowed in would be when the work is displayed and in circulation.
This would necessitate the seemingly central position that the artist
enjoys in the grand scheme of art experience. Although a popular opinion
still, it has considerably waned, with the emergence of another art player
as a super power-the curator.

But the task at hand is not to christen a specific group of people in

the art world as its foci. What must be recognized is that as what Becker
contended, there are numerous people that either work in consent or
dissension, and in doing so, continuously re(define), (in)validate, maintain
(or abolish), reproduce and circulate the “cultural category of art, and to
produce the consent of the entire society in the legitimacy of the art
world’s authority to do so” (Irvin, 2013.) The terrain where art is
distributed is a global network comprised of individuals, groups and
institutions such as schools, museums, galleries, art spaces, auction
houses, and other commercial market platforms, and professions. The last
aspect is very important because this implies that the art world not only
rely on ideas, sentiment, and aesthetic values, but also on skills that are
professionalized, stratified, and more importantly, monetized.

It is important to note that with the complexity of the art world,

players are no longer limited to those who undertook formal instruction in
either (or both) production and/or study of art. Take for instance
administrative or managerial roles, both of which can exist in either
institutional or non-institutional scenarios. These roles maybe broken
down to working boards (board of trustees); directors and assistant
directors; managing curators; and other posts whose interest is the
management and operations of museums, galleries and other art spaces.
For independent artists, or those outside the wing off a gallery as a “stable
artist,” they sometimes require the assistance of an artist manager in
order to manage his career and sometimes to help him in promoting
himself to the art world as well.
 A curator, on the other hand, is one of the most elusive of roles to
pin down. Institutional curator typically are affiliated with museums and
galleries, while independent or freelance curators have the leeway to
move around various projects, platforms, and art spaces in a multiplicity
of terms. Generally, the role of the curator is more in the interpretation
and development of the artwork(s) or the collection(s) through
establishing the significance, relationship and relevance of these
materials-in isolation and/or as part of a wider narrative. Some of the roles
expected of curators are the ability to research, write and as an arbiter of
design and layout decisions for the display and hang of materials for
exhibition.

If curators are the hardest to define, it is buyers and collectors who

are probably the easiest to qualify. Often they are construed as one and
the same, but separately taken, buyers are those who initially assess and
survey the artwork, on behalf of the collector who may either be too busy
or who would rather keep his identity hidden. Formerly ascribed with the
term “patron,” buyers and collectors are those who acquire and purchase
artworks for a variety of reasons: for the appreciation and enjoyment of
art; for the scholarship and education opportunity it may provide (donors
of study collections); to safeguard and preserve them for posterity; for
investment; to communicate a way of life/lifestyle; among others. These
days, collectors are becoming more involved well beyond extending their
wallets. They have found another voice as an arbiter of taste. A collector
who has established himself as a someone who not only appreciates art
but knows art, understands its behavior and patterns, become a key
player in making or breaking an artist’s career or shaping the course of a
museum’s collection (through pledges of support and donation).

In addition, art dealers are those whose direct hand is in the

distribution and circulation of the artworks through a variety of means,
such as direct sales, through galleries, and the more recent player in the
Philippines, auction houses. The knowledge and insight that art dealers
are expected to have include a specialization in art form, style, medium or
period; market trends; and even the interrelationships of other key
players in the art world that will benefit the circulation and distribution of
the artwork (or artist) he promotes.

There are some overlaps in the way buyers, collectors, and dealers
operate and behave. This is perfectly understandable, perhaps especially
in the Philippines where delineation of roles is a bit more ambiguous.
There are many other roles that are in existent in the art world today, and
there seems to be no stopping of the cropping up of new ones. Other roles
and their connectedness to others are roughly illustrated in Figure 2.
As the art world is seen as a socio-economic network, it is important to
note the major difference between museums and galleries. These are the
main institutions that display, distribute, and circulate different artworks;
however, they behave in different ways. The most substantial demarcation
that separates one from the other is the ethics that admonishes museums
from entering into the more market aspect of the art world. What this
means is that museums should involve itself into the sale of artworks. The
predominant role that museums are mandated to fulfill is the display of
artworks for the education and appreciation of these objects only, both in
isolation or as a part of a collection and a wider narrative rendered
possible by its inclusion in exhibitions or informed by museum
programming (i.e., lectures, workshops, screenings, etc.).

Production Process
The process of creating an artwork does not necessarily follow a
linear progression. One of the things that one must accept is the fact that
the arts have and anarchic dimension to it, allowing it to fully harness its
creative potential. The very reason why different art styles, periods, and
movements were made possible, is because there was some form of
flexibility given to artists in terms of how the conceptualize and execute
their ideas into reality. But this does not mean there is no guiding principle
that governs the general process of art production.

The process is essentially tripartite: (1) preproduction, (2)

production, and (3) postproduction. The artists always begins with an idea
that he wants to express or communicate with his audience. It may not
necessarily be fully formulated, and so some form of exposure, research,
and other approaches maybe explored to get the idea long before actually
making the artwork. This process is not of course the preproduction stage.
The idea may take a while to form, or may come as swift as a bolt of
lightning.

Some artists however birth their ideas when material manipulation

is already underway. This is when preproduction sometimes seep into the
production stage. The execution of the art may take a variety of forms
such as painting, sculpture, tapestry, photograph, film, routine (dance), or
track or composition (music). Even tricky art forms such as conceptual art,
which purports to be solely concerned with the ideas, take a variety of
formats. Some artworks rely on a precise and skilled execution, while
others need only intuition and a kind of judiciousness in the manipulation
of material.

Gathering and sourcing the materials needed for the creation of the
artwork is either subsumed under preproduction or the production stage.
Either way, materials form one of the most crucial aspects that inform the
direction, quality, and the final output itself.

The last stage is the most drawn-out the postproduction. Once an

artwork is finished, it will then be decided on how it will be circulated or
distributed. If the artist decides that he alone should see the work, then so
be it. But most of the time, if not always, the creation of the object
requires that it be seen, heard, touched, and/or experienced in a variety of
ways. Often, it enters into a new sphere, inside the domain of museums,
galleries, performance halls, theaters, and other art spaces where
interaction can take place. Take note however, that approval, enjoyment,
or pleasure are not sole reactions that an artist intends for his work.
Sometimes, it is repulsion, contempt, or even grief, which the artist hopes
for. Either way, it is intellectual and emotional reaction that is often the
impetus for creating an artwork. A message is almost always embedded in
the artwork and it is the hope of the artist that his audience comes across
it, or takes from it something that is his and his alone.

There are many aspects that go into production. These may include
allowing the artwork to set, tweaking the artwork to set tweaking the
artwork, preparing the artwork for transport and display, and even the
promotion and inclusion of the artwork in publications or discussions.

Medium and Technique

Like what was previously mentioned, medium is one the aspects of

art that directly correlate with its composition and presumed finality of the
artwork. Medium is the mode of expression in which the concept, idea, or
message is conveyed. It may be concrete or tangible, such as paintings,
sculptures, monuments, and structures; or it may be ephemeral or
something transient, such as a track (recording of sound), a film, or a
performance. The appreciation or engagement with the artwork is also
affected by the medium spatiotemporally. For concrete works, the objects
physically manifest itself for a prolonged or lasting period. For ephemeral
works on the other hand, it is durational.

A chosen medium must not be expected to yield the same results.

Giving two different artists the same exact material and the general
qualifier of “painting,” the end product will still vary minimally or in an
exponential scale. This is where technique comes in, as it is the reason
why art history is described by a seemingly limitless example of works of
art. The technique of the artwork shows the level of familiarity with the
medium being manipulated. It alludes to the necessity of additional tools
or implements (i.e., for sculptors, hammer and chisel may come in handy),
or consideration of time (i.e., behavior of different kinds of paint especially
in drying time requirements), and the specificity of the site of creation
(i.e., indoor or outdoor production requirements).

Engagement with Art

The defining roles and nature of exhibitions have had an interesting

evolution, changing alongside the demands of the society that purports to
partake in its display. In Anna Cline’s The Evolving and its Impact on Art
and Culture (2012), she wrote that “exhibitions act as the catalyst of art
and ideas to the public; they represent a way of displaying and
contextualizing art that makes it relevant and accessible to contemporary
audiences. The art exhibition, by its nature, holds a mirror up to society,
reflecting its interests and concerns while at the same time challenging its
ideologies and preconceptions. Keeping art relevant to society and to
diverse audience at any given point in history is one of the main goals of
the art exhibition and one of the reasons it is so important to the history of
art.” Therefore, it is apparent that exhibitions are not only of import to
artists who rely on its being, but more so to the varied audiences who get
to see them.

In Paula Marincola’s What Makes a Great Exhibition? (2006) it reads

that “exhibitions are strategically located at the nexus where artists, their
work, the arts institution, and many different public interest.” This
opportunity is singular, as most interactions in the art world are limited to
two players at a time. Exhibitions create an opportunity in which the
different roles in the art world get meet, interact and even enter into a
discussion.

One of the most common platforms to engage with the art is

through exhibitions either of museums or galleries. Nowadays, there are
other exhibition spaces that have opened up for artists to showcase their
works. Often, one goes to a museum or a gallery, the while cube often
renders everything peaceful and calm. However, the exhibition process is
an intricate sequence of events made possible of events made possible by
multiple individuals and groups within and outside the artist and staff.

Exhibitions may be long term or permanent hangs, or it may be

temporary or periodically changing. An artist may have a solo exhibition.
There are some instances when an artwork is a stand-alone or a site-
specific work that renders its display under a slightly different structure or
format.

Aside from exhibitions, other opportunities for art engagement

transpire in the classroom (instruction); studio visits; lectures, workshops,
and other events that augment the exhibitions (programs); auction sales;
art fairs, biennials and triennials; and other larger showing of artworks
where art personalities can also flex their influence and authority.
Publications are also a good way to introduce the artwork and open it up
for appreciation, critique, and analysis.

Awards and Citations

As with any organized endeavor, the arts and culture have entered
into a phase in which another aspect of its practice can be realized. After
an artist has spent considerable time in honing his skills, establishing the
relevance of the body of his works, and even gaining respect from his
colleagues in the art world, he may be considered or nominated for
awards and citations.
In history, support for the arts and culture is not limited to the
allocation of funding or patronship. One of the most common measures in
which artists and other creative producers are given incentives and honor
for their work is through state-initiated and given awards and citations.
The two major awards given to artists in the Philippines are the Orden ng
Pambansang Alagad ng Sining (Order of National Artists) and Gawad sa
Manlilikha ng Bayan (National Living Treasures Award).

The conferment of the Order of National Artists is the “highest

national recognition given to Filipino individuals who have made
significant contributions to the development of Philippine arts, namely:
music, dance, theater, visual arts, literature, film, broadcast arts, and
architecture and allied arts. The order is jointly administered by the
National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) and the Cultural
Center of the Philippines (CCP) and conferred by the President of the
Philippines Art.” He was the sole awardee in the year 1972, a National
Artists for Visual Arts.

At present, there are 66 awardees of this prestigious honor across

different art forms. Some of them were given the award posthumously,
while others were fortunate enough to receive the award themselves.
Some of the honors and privileges that a national artist awardee receives
are the following: (1) the rank of title, as proclaimed by the President of
the Philippines; (2) a medallion or insignia and a citation that will be read
during the conferment: (3) cash awards and a host of benefits (monthly
life pension, medical, and hospitalization benefits, life insurance
coverage); (4) a state funeral and burial at the Libingan ng mga Bayani
(Heroes’ Cemetery); and (5) a place of honor or designated area during
national state functions, along with recognition or acknowledgement at
cultural events.

The Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan or the National Living Treasures

Award was created 1992 under the Republic Act No. 7355. Also under the
jurisdiction of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA)
(2015) “through the Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan Committee and an Ad
Hoc Panel of Experts, conducts the search for the finest traditional artists
of the land, adopts the program that will ensure the transfer of their skills
to others and undertakes measures to promote a genuine appreciation of
and instill pride among our people about the genius of the Manlilikha ng
Bayan.” It was first conferred to three outstanding artists in music and
poetry back in 1993. They are Ginaw Bilog, a master of the Ambahan
poetry; Masino Intaray, a master of various traditional instruments of the
Palawan people, and Samaon Sulaiman, a master of the kutyapi and other
instruments.
The recipient of GAMABA are sought out under the qualifications of a
“Manlilikha ng Bayan” who is a “citizen engaged in any traditional art
uniquely Filipino whose distinctive skills have reached such a high level of
technical and artistic excellence and have been passed on to and widely
practiced by the present generation in his/her community with the same
degree of technical and artistic competence” (NCCA, 2015). These artist’s
practice may fall under the following categories: folk, architecture,
maritime transport, textile or fiber art, pottery and other artistic
expressions of traditional culture.

Some of the incentives accorded the awardee are the following: (1)
a specially designed gold medallion; (2) an initial grant of ₱100,000 and a
₱10,000 monthly stipend for life (this was later increased to ₱14,000); (3)
benefits such as maximum cumulative amount or tribute fit for a National
Living Treasure.

Let’s Wrap It Up

The evolution of the artist throughout history is one of the most

interesting progressions in the affairs of man. From the banalities of the
works he created to assist and inform the everyday, he was caught in the
midst of prevailing and shifting ideologist, and utilized the power of the
creativity and imagination in attempt to grapple with the world around
him. There is much responsibility and expectation ascribed to artists. As
Woodrow Wilson (1913) relates, “You are not here merely to make a living.
You are here in order to enable the world to live more amply, with greater
vision, with a finer spirit of hope and achievement. You are here to enrich
the world, and you impoverish yourself if you forget that errand.”

Let’s Work on This

1. What do you think is the role of the artist in the twenty-first century
society?
2. How relevant still are the awards National Artist and GAMABA, not
just to the art world, but to the Filipino society as a whole?
3. Analyze and critique state sponsored recognition for artists and
cultural workers. What do you think are some of the considerations
that must be addressed with regards to these?

Let’s Make it Happen

 1. Identify and select one artist. He or she may be Filipino or
foreign; and may be identified with any art form: architecture,
sculpture, painting, music, literature, film, dance,
performance/theater, and living traditions, among others.
a. Research on him or her and select five aspects of his or her
life (events, ideas, works , awards/citations) that you think
have a substantial contribution not just to the local or foreign
art scene, but also to human history.
b. Present this in class in using the Pecha Kucha format.

PECHA KUCHA

This presentation format was devised by Astrid Klein and Mark

Dytham of Klein Dytham architecture, where you show 20 images
to make a presentation. The images advance automatically (20
seconds are allotted for each image) and you talk along the
images. This ensures a brief presentation that packs a punch
2. As a possible artisan, make a creative interpretation of different
musical genres that you like (jazz, pop, etc). Can you perform
“gangnam style” by fusing it with classical music? (This has been
done in Asia’s Got Talent.) Prepare for a possible performance in
class.
3. The class should collate all art output so far. Coordinate with a
barangay and put up a makeshift gallery. Display all works and
engage children to talk about your work.

Sources and References:

“Truth, Perception, and the Role of the Artist.” n.d. Accessed November 1,
2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-role-of-the-artist-4119979.

Prak, Maarten. An artisan ‘revolution’ in late medieval and early modern

Europe? Accessed October 23, 2017.
http://dutchworld.columbia.edu/files/2013/08/ArtisansRevolution_2013-1-
1.pdf.

“The Spanish Colonial Tradition in Philippine Visual Arts.” n.d. National

Commission for Culture and the Arts (blog). Accessed October 26, 2017.
http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/visual-
arts/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/.

“The Evolution of the Artist’s Studio, From Renaissance Bottega to

Assembly Line | Art for Sale | Artspace.” Accessed November 1, 2017.
http://www.artspace.com/magazine/art_101/art_market/the-evolution-of-
the-artists-studio-52374.
“The History of Drawing | Scholastic ART | Scholastic.Com.” n.d. Accessed
November 1, 2017. http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?
id=3753864.

“Institutional Theory of Art and the Artworld.” n.d. Accessed November 1,

2017. https://faculty.georgetown.edu/irvinem/visualarts/Institutional-
theory-artworld.html.

Becker, Howard S. Art Worlds. London, England: University of California

Press, 1982. Electronic.
https://monoskop.org/images/1/17/Becker_Howard_S_Art_Worlds.pdf

Cline, Anna C., “The Evolving Role of the Exhibition and its Impact on Art
and Culture.” Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 2012. Trinity
College Digital Repository, http://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/267

“National Artists of the Philippines.” n.d. Accessed November 1, 2017.

http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/national-artists-of-
the-philippines/.

Inc, Primer Media, and Primer Media Inc. n.d “Who’s Who: National Artists
of the Philippines.” Tips & Guides, Accessed November 1, 2017.
http://primer.com.ph/tips-guides/2016/07/27/whos-who-national-artists-of-
the-philippines/.

“National Living Treasures Guidelines.” n.d. National Commission for

Culture and the Arts (blog). Accessed November 1, 2017.
http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/gamaba/national-
living-treasures-guidelines/.

Boddy-Evans, Marion. n.d. “23 Inspirational Quotes for Artsist.”

ThoughtCo. Accessed November 1, 2017.
https://www.thoughtco.com/inspirational-quotes-for-artists-2577434.

Wilson, W. (1913). “Understanding America, “AnAddress at Congress Hall,

Swarthmore College, Philadelphia. Accessed October 18, 2017.
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65372
 Lesson 6
Elements and Principles of Art

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

1. enumerate the different elements of visual and auditory art;

2. differentiate the principles of art;
3. provide examples of the interrelatedness of some of the
elements of art, and the principles of art;
4. explain the relevance of the elements and principles of art in the
study of art and its products (artworks); and
5. illustrate examples of hybrid art and dissect what art forms are
combined therein.

In the chapter on Subject and Content, it was mentioned that arts

have a specialized language. And to be able to understand this language,
familiarity with some of the elements and principles that make it legible is
required. Think of it as the letters-the stringing of letters to formulate
words, and perhaps even the different pronunciations and enunciations
that assist comprehension.

The next chapter endeavors to take art and break it into its smaller
parts. Like a scientist who takes a splice or a sample and places it under a
microscope, the next lesson will allow for a better view, not of the final
picture; rather, the parts that complete it.
Let’s Get Started

Art With Only Five Lines

This exercise will challenge your creativity under severe limitations. You
will be given 5 minutes only for each exercise.

1. In a legal-sized paper, draw five equally sized squares.

A B C
D E

2. For 1 minute, create an artwork within the bounds of first square (A).
Do the same for the next for squares, moving from B to E as timed
by your instructor.
3. You will be given a time limit to work on each square. Be sure to not
go over the given time.
4. After the exercise, share your experience and show your work to
your peers.

Let’s Get Down to Business

Elements of Art: Visual

Taking off from the scientific reference, elements of art are skin to
the atoms that are defined as the units or ‘building blocks” of matter.
Together, in a variety of combinations and formations, they have the
ability to create molecules such as water, or the more complex sucrose.
These formulations are something along the lines of what happens when
elements of art are joined together, in a variety of ways. In the same line
of reasoning, the elements of art are the aspects of an artwork that can be
isolated from each other.

These elements of art generally produced when something is done

to the medium after the technique is carried out. It must be underscored
however, that all works of art require all elements to be present as they
are inherent in the very nature of them. For example, sculptures
automatically have the following elements with or without the decision of
the artist to include them: shape, form, and space. Without these elements, there
is no sculpture to begin with. Elements are necessary preconditions for the
creation of art.
 To enumerate, the elements of art and design are following: line,
shape, form, space, color, and texture.

1. Line
A line refers to a point moving at an identification path-it has
length and direction. It also has width. It is one-dimensional
however, it has the capacity to either define the parameters of the
artwork (edges) and/or become a substantial component of the
composition. Although a line is “simple,” it has variations in view of
its orientation/direction, shape, and thickness. These variations
import not only the visual elements into the artwork, but bring in
suggestions as to be meaning or message being conveyed by the
artist.

a. Horizontal and Vertical Lines

These refer to the orientation of the line. Horizontal lines are

normally association with rest or calm. Landscapes often contain
these elements as works like these often connote a visual sense
of being parallel to the ground. It also alludes to position of the
reclined, body at rest. Vertical lines on the other hand connote
elevation or height usually taken to mean exaltation or aspiration
for action. Together, these lines communicate stability and
firmness.

b. Diagonal and Crooked Lines

Although the progression is can be seen, diagonal lines

convey movement and instability. Crooked or jagged lines on the
other hand are reminiscent of violence, conflict, or struggle.

c. Curve lines

Lines that bend or coil allude to softness, grace, flexibility or

even sensuality.

2-3. Shape and Form

These two are related to each other in that they define the
space occupied by the object of art. Shape refers to two dimension:
height and width, while form refers to three dimensions: height,
width, and depth. Shape provides the contour of the artwork.
Shapes can either be:

a. Geometric

Geometric shapes find their origin in mathematical

 propositions. As such, its translation and use are often man-
made. These include shapes such as squares, triangles, cubes,
circles, spheres, and cones, among others.

b. Organic

Organic shapes are those readily occurring in nature, often

irregular and asymmetrical.

As for form, sculptures or ornate furniture for instance are

good examples of art objects with the element of form as their
observable quality.

4. Space

In relation to shape and form is space. It is usually inferred

from a sense of depth, whether it is real or simulated. Real space is
three-dimensional. Like what has been mentioned above, sculptures
are a perfect example of artworks that bear this element . However,
this can only be manifested in two-dimensional artworks through the
use of different techniques, or the use (or non-use) of area around a
drawing or picture.

a. Positive and Negative Space

This is usually identified with the white space is the negative
space. The positive space on the other hand is the space where
shadow is heavily used.
b. Three-dimensional Space
Like what is mentioned above, this can be simulated through a
variety of techniques such as shading. An illusion of three-
dimensionality can be achieved in a two-dimensional work.
5. Color
Color is perhaps one of the elements that best enhance the
appeal of an artwork. This element is a property of light, as it is
reflected off the object. It is characterized into three:
a. Hue
This dimension of color gives its name. It can be subdivided into:
● Primary colors: red, yellow, and blue
● Secondary colors: green, orange, and violet
● Tertiary colors: six in total, these hues are achieved when
primary and secondary colors are mixed
b. Value
The brightness or darkness of the color refers to the value.
Often, this is used by artists to create the illusion of depth and
solidity, a particular mood, communicate a feeling, or in
establishing a scene (i.e.day and night).
 ● Light colors: taken as the source of light in the composition.
● Dark colors: the lack or even absence of light.
c. Intensity
The color’s brightness or dullness is the intensity. It is
identified as the strength of color, whether it is vivid or muted.
● Bright or warm colors: positive energy
● Dull or cool colors: sedate/soothing, seriousness or calm.
6. Texture
Like space, texture can be either real or implied. This element in
an artwork allows it to be experienced through the sense of touch
(and sight.) this element renders the art object tactile.
a. Textures In The Two-dimensional Plane
For two-dimensional works, texture can be implied through the
use of technique or of using one or a combination of other
elements of art. By creating this visual quality in the artwork, one
can imagine how it the surface will feel if it was to be touched.
Some of the words used to describe texture are the following:
rough or smooth, hard or soft, hairy, leathery, sharp or dull, etc.
To be able to simulate the texture of a surface in a flat, two-
dimensional plan is one important skill that an artist must be
familiar with, especially if his idea or concept necessitates it.
b. Surface Texture
This refers to texture of the three-dimensional art object.
The elements of art make it possible to engage with the visual and
tactile qualities of the artwork through a “common language” that may be
widely understood. Through these elements, there is something from
which the idea, concept, message, or intended mood of the artist maybe
inferred. It offers a starting point or a baseline from which analysis may
take place. This kind of analysis is called formal analysis of art.

Planes and Perspective

It was discussed how illusions can be made and implied through

techniques in visual art, specifically in paintings, drawings, and
illustrations. In order to do so, an understanding of the notion of planes is
needed, and the technique is called perspective.

In tackling the first one, planes maybe taken as picture plane or

ground plane. Picture plane is actual surface of the painting or drawing,
where no illusion of a third dimension exists. Here the elements lay flat, as
if you are looking through a window into what lies on the other side of the
glass.

Once notion of the third dimension is asserted, an integral idea is

ground plane, which pertains to the theoretical horizontal plane and
makes the image or picture presented seem “real”.

In Western art, one of the most important techniques developed is

the ability to make a flat surface appear three-dimensional, which has
depth and space. This technique called perspective is credited to
Renaissance artists, the early proponents included Leon Battista Alberti
and Paolo Uccello architect Filippo Brunelleschi in the early fifteenth
century and was published in Alberti’s On Painting, in 1435. Often
synonymous to linear perspective, it is an illusion that uses converging
lines and vanishing points that affect the size and distance of objects
relative to that of the viewer. A viewpoint may be construed as normal
(view standing up), low (view from a lower angle), of high (view looking
down on a scene).

There are three types of perspective, grounded on the number of

vanishing points used by the artist:
1. One-point perspective – often used in depicting roads, tracks,
hallways or rows of trees, this type of perspective shows parallel
lines that seem to converge at a specific and lone vanishing point,
along the horizon line.
2. Two-point perspective – pertains to a painting or drawing that
makes use of two vanishing points, which can be place anywhere
along the horizon line. It is often used in depicting structures such
houses of buildings in the landscape that are viewed from a specific
corner.
3. Three-point perspective – in this type of perspective, the viewer
is looking at a scene from above or below. As the name suggests, it
makes use of the three-vanishing points, each corresponding to
each axes of the scene.

Elements of Art: Auditory

Together with literature, music as an art form is classified as

auditory art. However, some would argue that it is actually under the
broad category of performance art. Either way, music, much like the visual
arts, has its own building blocks or elements.

Perhaps one of the most widespread forms of art, whose intersection

in daily life is most perceptible, is music. Music is sound organized in a
specific time. It is considered n implement to cultural activities, answering
a specific role or function. During the when man had to hunt for food,
music was used a corral or herd animals, or as an element of specific
rituals or rites. Singing or dancing to music was also often included in
opportunities for members of society to gather and interact. Some are
adept with the skill and sense to produce music, while others consume it
as listeners, audiences, and even performers.

If there is an important quality that music has, it is that it has the

capacity to transcend barriers, even that of differences in language or
conventions in sound. Different demographics, group and individuals may
have specific preferences as to the genre of music. However, in order to
establish this preference, listeners often take to its elements for its
evolution. Some of the common elements of music are the following:
rhythm, dynamics, melody, harmony, timbre, texture, and form.

1. Rhythm
Often associated to the terms beat, meter, and tempo, rhythm
is the element of music that situates it in time. It is the pulse of the
music. Beat is basic unit of music while tempo refers to its speed
(beats/second). Beats can be organized into a recognizable
recurrent pattern called the meter.
Classical terms are used to refer to the variations in tempo,
some of which are the following:
a. Largo – slowly and broadly
b. Andante – walking pace
c. Moderato – at moderate speed
d. Allegro – fast
e. Vivace – lively
f. Accelerando – gradually speeding up
g. Rallentado – gradually slowing down
h. Allargando – getting slower and broadening
i. Allargando – getting slower, broadening
j. Rubato – literally “robbed time,” rhythm is played freely for
expressive effect

2. Dynamics
The element of music that refers to the loudness or quietness
of music is dynamics. Classical terms are used to refer to the
different levels pertaining to this:
a. pianissimo [pp] – very quiet
b. piano [p] – quiet
c. mezzo-piano [mp] – moderately quiet
d. mezzo-forte [mf] – moderately loud
e. forte [f] – loud
f. fortissimo [ff] – very loud
 For composers to indicate an increase or decrease of loudness,
they use the terms crescendo for the former; and decrescendo or
diminuendo for the latter.

3. Melody
Melody refers to the linear presentation (horizontal) of pitch.
By horizontal, it means that in musical notation, it is read in
succession from left to right. Pitch is the highness or lowness of
musical sound.

4. Harmony
If melody is horizontal, harmony is vertical. It arises when
pitches are combined to form chords. When several noted are
simultaneously played, this refers to a chord.
Harmony can be described in terms of its “harshness”:
dissonance or a harsh-sounding combination; or consonance, the
smooth-sounding combination.

5. Timbre
Timbre is often likened to the color of music. It is a quality that
distinguishes a voice or an instrument from another. Dependent on
the technique, the timbre may give a certain tone or characteristic
to music, much like how a painter evokes different effects or
impressions onto the canvas.

6. Texture
The number of melodies, the type of layers, and their
relatedness in a composition is the texture of music. It may be:
a. Monophonic – single melodic line
b. Polyphonic – two or more melodic lines
c. Homophonic – main melody accompanied by chords

Akin to artworks whose style, medium, and technique emphasizes

some of the elements in visual arts, a particular composition and genre of
music may emphasize the elements of music outlined above. Some
elements may even be de-emphasized or omitted altogether. Like what
was mentioned above, these elements maybe isolated from each other,
however, as visual or musical compositions, the combination of these
elements in art is what we initially engage with.
Most often, elements do not only coexist in the artwork, but are
fused together or overlap with each other. In visual arts, most artworks
have overlapping elements.
Principles of Art
 To reiterate the appreciation and engagement of art relies
substantially on being equipped with the appropriate language that allows
it to be more comprehensible. If the elements of art were like the letters
(and stringing of these letters into words, phrases, and sentences), then
principles of art would perhaps be closest to the rules of grammar and
composition. Learning these principles will lessen the intimidation and
might even open up vast possibilities for the novice looker to have a more
pleasurable experience of art. These principles will provide explicit ways in
which these elements are used, how they are manipulated, how they
interact, and how they inform the overall composition of the artwork in
order to assist the artist in conveying his intention. It is the principles of
art that influence the effect achieved by the elements, and the linkages of
other principles. These principles are: balance, proportion, emphasis and
contrast, unity/variety, harmony, movement, rhythm, scale, unity, and
repetition and pattern.
1. Balance
This principle refers to the distribution of the visual elements
in view of their placement in relation to each other. There are three
forms of balance:
a. Symmetrical – the elements used on one side are
reflected on the other. This offers the most stable visual
sense to any artwork.
b. Asymmetrical – the elements are not the same (or of the
same weight) on each side, putting the heaviness on one
side.
c. Radial – there is a central point in the composition, around
which elements and objects are distributed.
2. Scale and Proportion
The size of an object in relation to another, or relative to a
whole composition describes proportion. This can also refer to
values such as amounts or number of elements or objects in the
composition. It can be:
a. Natural – especially for figurative artworks, it relates to
the realistic size-relations of the visual elements in the
artwork. When it is the accuracy in relation to the real
world that we are after, this is what is now referred to as
the principle of scale.
b. Exaggerated – these refer to unusual size-relations of
visual elements, deliberately exaggerating the immensity
or minuteness of an object.
In relation to this, there are notions in scale that
differentiates when an element is considered to be smaller
 than expected (diminutive); and when something appears
to be larger than what is presumed (monumental).
c. Idealized – most common to those that follow canons of
perfection, the size-relations of elements or objects achieve
the most ideal size-relations.

3-4. Emphasis and Contrast

Emphasis allows the attention of the viewer to a focal point(s),
accentuating or drawing attention to these elements or objects. This can
be done through the manipulation of the elements or through the
assistance of other principles, especially that of contrast.
Contrast is the disparity between the elements that figure into the
composition. One object may be made stronger as compared to other
objects (hence emphasis). This can be done in a number of ways using the
elements of art. For instance, the use of negative and positive space is an
example of contrast. Another example is the use of complementary colors
in a particular work of art.

5-6. Unity and Variety

Unless intended to ne otherwise, compositions are intended to

imbue a sense of accord of completeness from the artwork. This is unity.

Variety on the other hand is the principles that aims to retain the
interest by allowing patches or areas that both excite and allow the eye to
rest.

7. Harmony

Like what is hinted above, unity and variety is related to the

principle of harmony, in which the elements or objects achieve a
sense of flow and interconnectedness.

8. Movement
This refers to the direction of the viewing eye as it goes through the
artwork, often guided by areas or elements that are emphasized.
These focal points can be lines, edges, shape, and color within the
work of art, among others.

9. Rhythm
This is created by an element is repeated, creating implied
movement. Variety of repetition helps in invigorating the rhythm
depicted in the artwork.
 10-11. Repetition and Pattern

Lines, shapes, colors, and other elements may appear in the artwork
in a recurring manner. This is repetition. While the image created out of
the repetition, is called pattern. With repetition, there is a sense of
predictable that is conveyed, which in turn imbue the feelings of security
and calm.

Combined or Hybrid Art

Looking at the elements and principles of art discussed above, it is

apparent that art maybe defined under strict lines that separate one art
form of style from another. In a broad sense, it is easy to depicter visual
arts from auditory arts. In the same vein, when looking at more specific
art forms, there is a considerable ease when one is confronted with the
challenge of differentiating a painting from a sculpture, a print from
drawing or a soundtrack from a poem. However, with the complexity of
contemporary times, in which experimentation and innovation are
encouraged, the arts are not production and their resultant consumption.
One of the buzzwords of the tail end of twentieth century is
interdisciplinary. Rooted on the realization that the problems of society are
becoming more and more complex, it is necessary that solutions become
just as innovative wherein alternative routes to what is familiar, common,
and customary is given premium. It was also a direct upshot of
postmodernist ideas in which barriers were more porous-strict delineation
of art forms were overthrown to make way for collaborations and
partnerships between fields, professionals, and creative. The idea of a
single-medium-based art seems like a strange past that no longer holds in
an interdisciplinary reality we live in.

In contemporary art, these developments were mirrored in the

multifaceted nature of artworks that were created. It is not surprising that
themes, subjects, and the problematic addressed shaped and produced
new kinds of articulation in which two or more art forms and styles are
combined. Some examples of combined arts include dance, theatre,
installation art, film, video art, documentary, photography, puppetry,
design, and other forms of products and productions.

These combined art forms are interesting that can be studied to

understand what art forms and styles have been combined, and
furthermore, what skills, techniques, or creative processes can be put
together in order to produce interesting and innovative compositions. In
combined arts, improvisation is often tapped in addition to practical and
logical considerations of creating an artwork. From a specific vista of an
art form, there is a seeming road map to creation. However, in combined
arts, the artist is challenged to deconstruct and idea or stimulus, to which
the content, narrative, technique, and art forms and styles will take from.
Often improvisation or inventiveness is necessary in order to create an
artwork that is to some extent unprecedented. As different art forms and
styles are tapped, inspiration may come from numerous sources, and
documenting the process of fusing these influences may be part of the
production. A clear example of combine art is a theatrical performance
that taps into a number of art forms such as music, 2D and 3D art,
literature, lighting and set design, among others.

Another movement that is reminiscent of the motivations of the

Renaissance Period, and whose emergence is hinged on the frontiers of
science and technology, is called hybrid arts. Referencing and tapping into
the fields of robotics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology, natural and
computer sciences, telecommunication, information, digital and interface
technologies (software, programs, speech and face recognition, social
media and online platforms, among many other emergent developments),
artists whose works tread under this movement disrupts the norms in
terms of what is considered as art, and even the way we envisage artistic
production. More than anything else, hybrid are driven the expansion of
the imagination and what is possible through the “blistering pace of
scientific and technological development” (Piirma, 2014). At its heart is an
inquiry-and through information and data; the capacity of the artist to
move around platforms; and the implementation and manipulation of
newfound tools in production- the artist is able to address that inquiry.

Let’s Wrap It Up

In any art appreciation course, the module or lesson on the

elements and principles of art are considered one of the most rudimentary
stages in easing the student into a meaningful experience with art,
regardless of its form. A familiarity with these building blocks of
composition and formal analysis will aid the viewer in his or her attempt to
come into terms with the intention of the artist.

The elements and principles of art are essential to any artwork.

Some of them will be more obvious than others, becoming the anchors in
which the viewer may latch on to engage with the artwork. The focal
point(s) that draw the attention of the viewer is also interesting to note, as
this provides insight as to the interests and values that are of most weight
to him or her. These perhaps will help create a bridge in which a person,
who may not normally find pleasure in looking at art, may consider future
engagements with it. In short, familiarity of the elements and principles
has the potential to break the barriers in which art becomes ineffable.

Let’s Work on This

1. What are the elements of art?

2. In two-dimension artworks such as paintings, cite the elements and
principles of art that when utilized in the composition of the artwork,
will help simulate or suggest the three-dimensional space?
3. What is the relevance of combined arts and hybrid art in the twenty-
first century?

Let’s Make It Happen

Create a poster for your favorite film.

Using the elements and principles of art as guide, redesign
the poster of your favorite film.
The poster must clearly reflect the use of the elements and
principles of art. It is not required that all elements and
principles be represented in the poster.
Prepare to show the poster in class. Without revealing so

Sources and References:

“Understanding Formal Analysis.” n.d. Accessed November 2, 2017.

http://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/building_lessons/formal_analysis.
html.

Esaak, Shelley. n.d. “What Should You Know About the Elements of Art?”
ThoughtCo. Accessed November 2, 2017.
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-are-the-elements-of-art-182704.

Estrella, Espie. n.d. “The Basic Elements of Music Explained.” ThoughtCo.

Accessed November 2, 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-elements-of-
music-2455913.

“BBC – GCSE Bitesize: Speed or Tempo.” n.d. Accessed November 2, 2017.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/music/elements_of_music/rhyth
m_metre1.shtml.
“The Principles of Art and Design.” n.d. Accessed November 2, 2017.
https://www.thoughtco.com/principles-of-art-and-design-2578740.
Editorial, The Artist. 2016. “10 Principles of Art.” The Artist – Art and Culture Magazine(blog).
November22, 2016. https://theartist-me/infographics/10-principles-of-art/.
Proceedings of Rhizope; Art and Science (Hybrid Art and Interdisciplinary Research, Estonia
Academy of Arts, Tallinn, Estonia Academy of Arts, 2014. Accessed November 13, 2017.
http://www.kelomees.net/texts/RHIZOPE_catalogue.pdf.
Tate. n.d. “Perspective – Art Term.” Tate. Accessed November 14, 2017.
http://www.tate,org.uk/art-terms/perspective.
Boddy-Evans, Marion. n.d. “Understanding Perspective in Art.” ThoughtCo. Accessed
November 14, 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/perspective-in-paintings-2578098.
Unit II. Western Art History
 Lesson 7
Art in Early Civilizations

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lessons, the students must be able to:

1. Discuss how art was used by pre-historic people to depict everyday

life;
2. Identify the central themes of pre-historic art;
3. Differentiate the techniques used during the three kingdoms of early
Egypt; and
4. Explain how art is linked with religion in early Egyptian civilization.

Introduction

Stone Age is a term used to describe a period of history when

stones were used to make tools for survival. The term “conjures an image
of men and women dressed in skins, huddling before a fire in a cave”
(Fitcher Rathus, 2013). Though prehistoric humans would not necessarily
possess the complex rational capabilities to tell their story through written
records and accounts, some artifacts in the form of cave paintings and
sculptures would serve as the “storytellers.”

In order to talk about pre-historic art, there is a need to situate them

within the context of the three periods of the Stone Age culture (which
roughly span the 14,000-2,000 BCE): Paleolithic (the late years of the
Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone
Age).

The unearthing of archeological artifacts and remains provide

modern society a glimpse of the beliefs, practices and activities of early
civilizations. The motives and reasons behind the creation of ancient
materials such as sculptures, paintings and architectural structures may
not be clearly defined. Nevertheless, the early people produced such
materials that reflect their attitudes and belief systems on spiritual, social,
political, and economic matters. It can be noted that works of art and
architecture were created from a wide array of materials from limestone
to precious gems and metals to name few. As the early human started to
transition from being nomads to permanent settlers, their everyday
activities also had changes, which is evident through the materials and
even the works of art they have created. Despite changes as a result of
adapting to their environment, there are central themes in their artworks.
Most ancient artworks depict religious symbols, a wide array of organisms
from nature and activities of everyday life.

Let’s Get Started

Think-Pair-Share: Imagine yourself as an archaeologist in an excavation

site in France or Spain. You come across a hole and upon further
examination, the hole leads to a cave that has inscribed paintings on it.
What images do you see?
1. Think about the scenario and write down or draw the images or
figures that pop in your head. You may use the space below.

2. Pair up with your seatmate and share your answers.

3. Be prepared to share with the class the discussion you had with your
partner.

Let’s Get Down to Business

Prehistoric Art

Archeological explorations reveal that there has been a gradual shift

from a nomadic lifestyle of early humans to that of permanent
settlements, paving the way for the rise of early civilizations. The Stone
Age has witnessed how humans were able to lead more stable lives and
eventually come up with permanent shelters and tools for survival. To
complement this stability and sense of permanence, early humans also
turned to the creation of paintings and sculptures that depict humans,
animals, and their natural habitats. It would seem that there were
attempts to record the kind of lives they led within that period of time.
Central to the representation of early civilizations would be the
establishing of possible linkages among art, religion, and life.

Paleolithic Art is a product of climate change. As the climate got

colder, part of the early humans’ instinct is to look for shelters that would
provide them with warmth. Caves became protective havens for the early
humans and these caves paved the way for the birth of their first attempts
to create art. One cave painting can be trace back to Lascaux, France and
its discovery came as surprise. Two boys chased after their dog into a hole
where their ball got stuck in. When they followed the dog, they were
astonished to discover a cave with beautiful paintings. The cave paintings
would eventually be called the Hall of Bulls.

Figure 1. Hall of Bulls found in cave in Lascaux,

France
 The figures depicted on the walls were done with a certain level of
crispness and life that there was initial hesitations of the work’s
authentically. However, evidence would later on point out that the cave
paintings were created during the Paleolothic Period. It is also important to
take note that the paintings evoke naturalism, which is evidently seen
through the contours of the animals’ body and their dark colors. Although
most people would think that early humans were primitive, some of their
art techniques were considered advanced for their time. Some of the early
humans already used their own version of spray-painting techniques by
using ground pigments blown through reeds or hollowed-out bones since
these were the readily available materials for them. Aside from this spray-
painting technique, early humans also
worked with foreshortening and
contrasting of lights and shadows. These
techniques created the illusion of three-
dimensional forms and seemingly real
representation of animals.

Artworks can be considered

ornamental but there is little evidence to
fully back up this notion that early
humans created these cave paintings for
that very purpose. Most of these work
were discovered inside the deep, recesses of caves so they may not
necessarily be used as decorative items. Some would say that these caves
with paintings all over the walls and ceilings served as a kind of sanctuary
for the early humans. As a safe haven, religious rituals could have possibly
transpired within the confines of the caves. Some believed that there is a
linkage between what was drawn and what could happen in real life. For
example, drawing or painting the capture of Figure 2. Venus of Willendorf a
prey would translate to an actual capturing of
an animal in real life. In addition, some of the works found reflected some
of the early beliefs of humans especially with life and fertility. One of the
works that reflected such beliefs would be a sculpture called the Venus of
Willendorf. This figure is a highly abstracted woman from highlighted body
parts associated with fertility. The figure of the sculpture bellows shows
that the woman has oversized breasts, enlarged hips, and round
abdomen. The representation may show the importance of taking care of
these body parts for procreation and consequently the survival of species.

Neolithic art has developed especially when life for the early
humans has become more stable. They have learned to cultivate the land
and domesticate animals. By 4000 BCE there were several monumental
and architectural structures erected. One of them is the Stonehenge
located in Southern England. The purpose of this fascinating edifice
remains a mystery up to this day and age. Some regard it as temple while
others see it as complex calendar the tracked the movements of both Sun
and Moon. Others ascribe some magical element to it by associating it
with Merlin the magician from King Arthur’s story. Whatever purpose it
was built on, it still remains as one of the architectural wonders the world
has ever seen.

Figure 3. Stonehenge

As the Neolithic Period drew to a close, it was evident that different

elements of civilization flourished in various parts of the world. It is also
notable that most early civilizations emerged and flourished in river
valleys: the Nile in Egypt, Indus in India, Tigris and Euphrates in
Mesopotamia, and Yellow River in China.

Egyptian Art

The Fertile Ribbon starts from the banks of the Nile River, which
flows north to Africa and ventures into the Mediterranean. It is in this very
ribbon where early Egyptians recognized the integral role of the Nile River
to their daily lives. It is the indispensability and utility that eventually led
to the belief that the Nile is to be worshipped as a good. With his came the
notion that art was something that can be ascribed and associated with
religion. The Egyptian civilization can be divided into three periods. Old,
Middle, and New Kingdom. Looking at the three periods, it can be noticed
that for the Egyptians, art should be something religious and spiritual.
There may have been differences in the techniques used and style
emphasized, but there are common denominators among the artworks
created during their respective time periods.

During the Old Kingdom, it was evident that religion was bound to
the afterlife. A concrete manifestation of this would have to be the
erection of tombs. But the tombs were not just for keeping the dead
bodies of important people particularly the pharaohs; they served as a
shelter for the next journey, which is the afterlife. They decorated the
tombs with everyday objects that would reflect day-to-day activities as if
the afterlife is a mere continuation of what transpired on earth. The
human figures seen in the tombs were represented in such a way that the
profile of the head was evident, while the pelvis, legs, and upper torso
were prominent and the eyes are in frontal view. Inside the tombs, the
walls were also decorated and carved in very low relief and incised detail.
It can be noticed that the use of color was evident but may have not been
widely utilized because of its relative impermanence.

One of the cosmetic palate found in Egypt was called the Narmer
Palette. It was a palette that utilized and applied dark colors around King
Narmer’s eyes. The palette was also a symbol that commemorates the
unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The unification was significant
because it marked the beginning of their civilization.

Figure 4. Narmer Pallete

 At the back of the palette, King Narmer can be seen wearing the
crown of Upper Egypt looking victorious over a slain enemy. In addition,
two more dead warriors can the seen beneath him. To his right is a falcon,
the god Horus perched on papyrus stalks, which is a symbol of Lower
Egypt. The top is sculpted with bull-shaped heads with human features
that is a representation of Hathor. This god symbolizes love and joy. What
is very prominent is the king’s size in comparison with the objects in the
palette. Narmer, being the subject, is evidently larger than the people
around him. This is a clear indication and assertion of his royal status. The
front palette, on the other hand, shows lion-like figures with intertwined
necks bound on leashes and tamed by two men. King Narmer is still in
present at the front side and he is shown reviewing the captured enemies.
In this portrait, he is seen wearing the crown of Lower Egypt and holding
some objects that denote power. The Narmer palette is one of the artifacts
that emphasize the king’s supreme and absolute authority. In the most
cases, the king is not just an authority figure but can be depicted and
revered as a deity. This common notion among Egyptians is seen in
Egyptian tomb sculptures, which are basically large in dimensions and
proportions and made out of ahrd materials. The choice of materials is
deliberated since they want that sculptures to endure and withstand any
condition. Permanence was important because these sculptures would
serve as the house of the ka or soul once the remains of the mummy
disintegrate. One striking feature of most sculptures is that regardless of
the age of death, the ka figures highlight the prime life of the deceased.

During the Old Kingdom, one of the architectural wonders was also
constructed. The pyramids in Giza served as tombs since their main
purpose is to provide a resting place for the pharaohs. These pyramids are
massive in size and were constructed using roughly more than two million
limestone blocks. The stones used for the pyramids were quarried from a
nearby plateau. The construction of the pyramids highlighted the
ingenuity and advancement of the Egyptians for their time. Workers
painstakingly moved the stones from the plateau going to the
construction site using wooden rollers. Stonecutters on the site carved the
blocks in a fine way before stacking them. The stacking process also
shows the advancement of the Egyptians since they already used a
system of ropes and pulleys. They finished it off by applying the surface
with limestone for a more refined and flawless finish. The construction of
the pyramids did not only show the brilliance of the early Egyptians but it
also highlights the reverence of the people to their pharaoh at the
expense of the citizens. A lot of the workers died or punished for not
reaching the quota in the process of constructing these massive
architectural structures. But they did not stop ensuring the excellent
quality of the outsides. The Egyptians also ensured that them of the
pyramids would celebrate the life of their pharaoh by lavishly decorating
them. However, this would pose as a problem since thieves usually
plundered the valuable objects used to decorate the insides of the
pyramids.

Figure 5. The Great Pyramid of Giza

One of the key features of the Middle Kingdom is a shift in the

political hierarchy. There is an emergence of powerful groups of landlords
that threatened the authority and rule of the pharaoh. Because of the
internal struggle between these two influential sides, art has taken a back
seat during the Middle Kingdom. In order for art to reemerge and flourish,
Egypt needed to have more stable situation. This happened during the
rule of King Mentuhotep when Egypt eventually got back on track. Art
during the Middle Kingdom had some experimentation in terms of style
that transpired during this period. Portrait sculptures and fresco paintings
that were freely drawn are some of the styles that emerged during this
period. To solve the problem of thieves that plunder the tombs, the
Egyptians made rock-cut tombs by carving out a living rock. The insides of
the tombs were still filled with chamber and the hallways were lavishly
decorated to celebrate the life of the deceased.

Egypt was not immune from foreign invaders and eventually fell into
the hands of the Hyksos. This Asiatic tribe introduced Bronze Age weapons
and horses to the Egyptians. When these foreign invaders were
overthrown, the Egyptians formed the New Kingdom. It was a time of
expansionism through territorial acquisition. Consequently, with the
expansion comes an increase in wealth leading not only to economic but
also political stability.

The art of the New Kingdom had references from both of the
preceding kingdoms. Monuments and sculptures were still linked with
death and reverence for the decreased. During the previous kingdoms,
tombs were just used for worshipping the dead but with the New Kingdom,
they started having mortuary temples. These temples, which were carved
out of living rocks, served not only a sanctuary for the dead but also a
place of worship for the living. During this period, Egypt has established
itself as a more advanced and powerful civilization. With this newly found
strength and power comes an inflated ego. Their high regard for their
people can be seen through their sculptures built on massive and
monumental scales.

After the New Kingdom, Egypt witnessed the Amana Revolution lead
by King Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti. He moved the capital to Tel El-
Amarna, thus the name Amarna. During his reign, King Amenhotep
wanted to revolutionize the arts and religion. He later on changed his
name to Akhenaton, which came from Aton who is the sun god. This
changing of names also signified the shift in religion. During this period
the only god to be revered was Aton. Egypt became monotheistic and
Akhenaton ordered all to tear down all monuments of other gods. He then
fervently ordered the creation and erection of new monuments in
reverence to Aton. Most sculptures during this period had curving lines
and full-bodied forms. There is emphasis to life-like features of the face
like an elongate jaw and thick-lidded eyes. Most artists created works that
are natural and seemingly real highlighting the features of their subjects.
Naturalism was not only used to depict the pharaoh but also was used for
members of the royal family. The bust of Queen Nefertiti (Figure 6) has a
long and sensuous neck. This figure was enhanced by applying paint to
the limestone.
 Figure 6. Queen Nefertiti

The use of naturalism in artworks was rather short-lived. When King

Akhenaton died, his successors returned to the more rigid and
conventional styles they employed during the period of the kingdoms.
They also destroyed images and figures of Aton and subscribed to
monotheism.

Probably one of the greatest discoveries from the Egyptians

civilization was the tomb of Tutankhamen. He became king at a very
young age and died at the age of eighteen. Howard Carter discovered his
tomb in 1922. They were astonished to find old artworks and that the
coffin was made out of solid gold. The body of the young king was coverer
in linen and a gold mask covered his face.
 Figure 7. King Tutankhamen

Let’s Wrap It Up

During the prehistoric period, the early humans have transitioned

from a nomadic lifestyle to that of a more permanent one, which lead to
early civilizations. Some of the works discovered from this period would
give modern society a glimpse of what was life like during that period.
One of the early civilizations where art flourished was the Egyptian
civilization. Throughout the three kingdoms all the way to the Amarna
Revolution, art has been directly used particularly in religious and spiritual
activities. Through these unearthed and discovered artworks, the modern
world could have a better understanding of the past and how can it affect
the present.

Let’s Work On This

To check your understanding, answer the following essay questions:

1. What was the importance and significance of art during the

prehistoric period?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 2. During the early Egyptian civilization, in what ways were art and
religion interconnected?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Let’s Make It Happen

Homework: Make a photo journal of three art pieces discovered

during the Stone Age or the Egyptian civilization that depict their beliefs
and practices. For each artwork, identify the key elements and features
consistent with the ones discussed in class. Share your insights as to how
these pieces help people from the modern context understand the
historical past.

Sources and References:

Images from Creative Commons

Brennan, Matthew. (Own work) Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3019459
Denisenkov,D. http://www.flickr.com/photos/ddenisen/7364440416/, CCBY-
SA 2.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25086034
Giovanni, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=8667900
Hitchcock, Don. (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons
Jean88 (Own work). CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=12308772
Kailerna (Own work). CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1216268
Parrot, A (Own work), CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=46239069
 Lesson 8
Art of Emerging Europe

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. identify the major periods in Western art history;
2. compare and contrast the artworks produced during the different
time periods and art movements; and
3. discuss the importance of art to the development of Western
culture.

Introduction

Art has been an integral part in European history. From the time of
the ancient civilizations like the Greeks and the Romans all the way to the
modern times have used art to communicate ideologies and belief
systems prevalent within their context. There are different art movements
that emerged within the different time periods in Europe. Each movement
has a distinctive characteristic to them highlighting the different trends
and changes as they transition from one period to the next.

Let’s Get Started

In the two boxes, draw two different images of something that you
consider beautiful.

In what ways are your drawings similar? In what ways are they
Let’s Get Down to Business
different?
Ancient Greece

The Greeks were known to place prime importance in the use of

reasons. For this civilization, man is at the center of society and how they
train their minds could be the very foundation of how they live their lives.
The humanist ideals of the Greeks were also reflected in their democratic
form of government. This certain level of freedom was also reflected in
their artworks, architecture, literature, and philosophy. The Greeks were
also passionate about natural phenomenon and belief that nature should
be in perfect order. These principles, belief systems, and ideologies are at
the core of Greek art and architecture.

The development of Greek art can be divided into four (4) periods:
Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The Geometric Period was a
time when Greece was starting to get back from the onslaught of what
seemed to be their Dark Ages. It was a period when geometric shapes and
patterns have taken the spotlight in most of the artworks. The Archaic
Period, on the other hand, placed importance on human figures. This was
primarily a result of Greece’s trading activities with other civilizations. The
peak of Greek sculpture and architecture was during the Classical Period.
It was during this time when the Greeks found themselves rebuilding their
temples and focusing on creating artworks. The time of Alexander the
Great was called the Hellenistic Period. During this time, art was primarily
focused on showcasing emotions and depicting reality.

Figure 8. Lacoon and his sons. This is an example of work wherein the
Greeks emphasized the details of the body. Most subjects of their work
included that of the gods from Greek mythology.
Rome

The Roman Catholic was established around 500 BCE. This

civilization would eventually transform into one of Western Europe’s
mightiest empires. Since they had expanded and covered a lot of
territories, they had interactions with neighboring civilizations, particularly
with the Greeks. The fusion of Greek and Roman cultures can be seen in
most Roman artworks. Some would argue that the Romans merely copied
Greek art. This eventually made the Romans produce artworks that are
often looking stern, harsh, and strong. They also invoked the principles of
realism in most of their works, highlighting the features of human beings.
Aside from this, the Romans were also known to be master builders, which
earned their reputation for grand monuments and architectural
infrastructures.

Figure 9. Poseidon and Medusa. Just like the Greeks, the Romans valued
their gods and this was evident with their sculptures and artworks.

Renaissance Art

During the Renaissance Period, artists valued the “individual” as a

subject of arts. The influence of humanism shifted the focus of some
artworks during the Renaissance Period to empower the “individual.” Most
artworks emphasized naturalism, which was also an influence of
humanism since there was a great emphasis on the proportionality of the
human body. Most artists also added perspective of depth wherein spaces
were explored in different artworks. This technique provided a three-
dimensional perspective of most Renaissance paintings. Renaissance
artists also gave importance to non-religious themes or subjects. This was
also brought by the privatizations of the art during the Renaissance
Period; however most artworks remained religious in its focus and theme.

Figure 10. Micahelangelo’s The Dvid. This scuplure is an example of how humanism was a
dominant belief system during the Renassaince. There is emphasis on the details of the body of
the human being.

Mannerism

Mannerism was a period in art history, which was a product of the

Renaissnce Period. During the Renaissance, artists would observe nature
and try their best to emulate it based from their observations. As the
Renaissance drew to a close, artists started directly copying the subjects
from existing works of art. Most artworks during this period showcased
distorted figures, two-dimensional spaces, discordant hues and colors, and
lack of defined local point.

Baroque and the Rococo

Rome was the birthplace of the Baroque Period, which according to

some historians was a response to Protestantism. This was a time when
Italy in particular strengthened not only their religion but also other
aspects like politics and art. Expansion was the central theme of this
period, which became very much evident in the artworks produced during
this time.

Figure 11. The Assumption of Virgin. A painting by Titan located at Venice, Italy. The Biblical
event in the said painting shows how this period reverted back to having religious subjects in
Neoclassicism their works.

Neoclassicism was a movement in Europe that transpired during the

late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was the dominant art movement that
time which basically aims to revive and rekindle the influences of Greek
and Roman into art and architecture. The ancient Greeks and Europeans
have placed emphasis on human reason and keeping society in order.
These very principles were also the dominant principles during the
Enlightenment period. Some historians would also say that this movement
was a reaction to the artworks produced during the Baroque period. There
was a call to veer away from such extravagance in terms of style and form
of the Baroque period.

Romanticism

Romanticism, as an art movement, used the central themes of

Neoclassicists have highlighted heroic elements into their work. During
the Age of Revolutions, there has been a tremendous focus on patriotic
and nationalistic movements. One of the major revolutions in history
would be the French Revolution. Such revolutionary movements became
the focal point of most Romantic works.

The major and central themes of this movement include the

emphasis on the goodness of mankind. Most works also promoted justice,
equality, and social order. Artist also emphasized emotions and feelings of
man, which was a deviation from the humanist principles of rationalism.

Realism

Realism as a style of work focuses on the accuracy of details that

depict and somehow mirror reality. There is little room for imagination in
this movement since emphasis is placed in observable traits that can
concretize through artworks. Realism was heavily influenced by Hellenistic
Greek culture since most works during that period placed emphasis on the
human body.

Impressionism

Impressionism is a style of painting that emerged in the mid to late

1800s. The distinctive characteristic of this style is that allows the artist to
emphasize the immediate impression he has of a particular event or
scene. The said impression is communicated by the artist through his
work and can be seen through the brushstrokes, distinction of colors, and
the lights and shadows used by the artist.

Let’s Wrap It Up

Western Europe has seen tremendous changes in their political

landscape and social makeup. Throughout history, Europe has witnessed
transitions of different art movements on different timeframes. The
beginning of using art as a medium of communication of different cultural
elements originated with the Greek and Roman civilizations. These two
civilizations have greatly influenced the succeeding periods in art. There
were movements like realism that highlights the primacy of individuality.
Man being the focal point of most work is not new since the Greeks and
even during the Renaissance highlighted the centrality of man in any
society. The evolution of art in Europe has shaped not only their culture
but is also a reflection of their socities.

Let’s Work On This

To check your understanding of the lesson, answer the following essay
questions:

1. Compare and contrast Greek and Roman artworks.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Discuss how Mannerism art became an offshoot of works from the
Renaissance.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. Explain why Neoclassicism served as a response or reaction to the

Baroque period.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Let’s Make It Happen

Homework
Pretend that you are a commissioned artist and you are asked to
create an artwork (any form or medium) that depicts love. Using the
different periods and art movements in Western Europe, describe (or
draw) how you will execute and create the artwork based on the period
you chose.

Sources and References:

Fichner-Rathus. Understanding Art. Wadsworth CengageL Learning, 2015

Images from Creative Commons
Hagesandros, Athenedoros, and Polydoros – LivioAndronico (2014), CC BY-
SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=36412978
Laocoon and his sons, also known as the Laocoon Group. Marble, copy
after an Hellenistic original from ca. 200 BC. Found in the Baths of Trajan,
1506
Poseidon and Medusa, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=431689
By Jorg Bittner Unna – Own work, CC BY 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46495986
By Peter Paul Rubens – Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork,
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=5100387
 Lesson 9
Contemporary Art
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. differentiate modern and contemporary art;
2. show the interrelated of modern and contemporary art;
3. isolate and discuss significant historical events that informed and
inspired the different movements under movements under
contemporary art; and
4. classify specific artworks into the different movements under
contemporary art.

This history of art is one of the most difficult tasks to pin down. As
what previous chapters have shown, significant ideas, canons and
tradition, preferences and dominance of styles, media, and mode of
production were the definitive characteristics that segment art history into
identifiable periods and movements; identifiable, but not necessarily
precise. It is important to note that the periods and movements of art are
themselves testament to the connection of art and culture in the everyday
life. As it is examined and analysed in context, it becomes increasingly
apparent that art is not detached from the affairs of the society but rather
embedded in it, in which it exists. It offers a glimpse as to the beliefs of
specific eras and how these beliefs were translated into how people saw
themselves and the world and how they chose to come into terms with it-
all in flux.
This lesson attempts to provide a glimpse of contemporary art and
how it was understood, defined, and represented, not only within the
bounds of the art world, but also beyond it.

Let’s Get Started

Pop Art
Pop art as a movement drew inspiration, sources, and even
materials from commercial culture, making it one of the most identifiable
and relatable movements in art history.
Based on what you know about pop art, select one item from your
bag that you think
Let’s Get Down will serve as an inspiration or your takeoff point for an
to Business
artwork? Describe how you will make use of this item and what your

Defining the Contemporary

 The term “contemporary” seems simple and straightforward enough
to define. There is this assumption that it need be asked, rather it must
already be understood. But attempt to do so and one finds it is a lot
harder to grasp. The complexity of defining the term is attributed to the
fact that people have dissenting views on the interpretation of the
“present,” or the “now” means-these are often ideas that follow the word
contemporary. Even more so, is when it is hinged on the word “art” and
suddenly it becomes a bit fuzzy.
An interesting example is that even museums that claim its use in
their institution’s name seem to include artists, art forms and artworks
that seem to champion those that arguably fall under the earlier period.
For example, the institute of Contemporary Art in London which was
founded in 1947 includes in its mandate ‘the promotion of art that came
to be form that year onward.” Clearly the timeline is a bit skewed if the
assumption is that contemporary art started decades later. For the New
Museum of Contemporary Art in New York, its starting point is dated at
1977, while the TATE framed contemporaneity in a ten-year rolling basis
and was placed under the bounds of their Museum of Contemporary Art.
Another source of confusion is the fact that in the colloquial,
“modern” and “contemporary” are considered synonyms. This however is
not the case when these terms are used in the context of art. Therein,
they refer to two different (but consecutive) periods qualified by different
approaches to artmaking and the functions that art served. To better make
sense of contemporary art, perhaps it is best to dial back to its
predecessor, modern art.
Modern art saw the digression of artists away from past conventions
and traditions and toward freedom. Roughly between the 1860s to late
1970s, they celebrated the novel opportunities in art, from the materials
to its manipulation and ways of seeing and thinking about art. The
devotion of artists to a strict narrative was often illustrated in their
figurative works; however, these artists gave their nod to abstraction. The
tenets of this period was not only reflected in its art, but it was also
evident in the way people live and conducted themselves, the social
issues that were relevant, fashion, music and the wide range of images
and activities they engaged in. This period saw the heavy mass production
of goods, along with the encouraging environment made possible by
industrialization, new technology, urbanization, and rise of commercially
driven culture. There was also a palpable secularization of society, interest
in nature, and primacy of the self and individuality. Artists were committed
to developing a language their own-original but representative. What this
means is that artists drew the world but in his own terms. It was no
wonder that within this period grew a vast number of different
movements.
 This period that ensued was touted contemporary art. In order to
move forward, it is necessary to underscore that this can be better
understood after a starting point has been established. Compared to the
dense taxonomy of modern art, contemporary art had fewer-isms under
its wing. Perhaps, this was also due to the fact that it is still unfolding.
Effectively, this period can be traced from the 1970s to the present.
There is a reason behind this cut off. The cut off from was hinged on two
reasons.
1. 1970s saw the emergence of “postmodernism.” The affix was a clue
that whatever followed was segregated from it precursor.
2. 1970s saw the decline of the clearer identified artistic movements.

Social Context: In Between Modern and Contemporary Art

Reaping the benefits and drawbacks of the dramatic changes that

occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century, the social, political,
and cultural context continued to provoke the artist to create. There is a
potent source of reference for his works so that he may continue to
question the existing and emergent values of society. This multiplicity of
perspectives brought to light a more difficult terrain to map out in terms of
clear and distinct movements because what compelled artists’ works were
not prevailing medium, technique, or style: rather, it was the themes and
concerns they addressed.

Contemporary art was also driven by ideas and theories, and the
even the blurring of notions of what is and can be considered as “art.”
with the involvement of television, photography, cinema, digital
technology, performance, and even objects of the everyday.

Three art movements were caught in the midst of modern and

contemporary art: minimalism, pop art, and postmodernism. Minimalism
cropped up in the early 1960s in New York, where artists tested with the
boundaries of various media. It was seen as an extreme type of
abstraction that favored geometric shapes, color fields, and the use of
objects and materials that had an “industrial” the sparse.

“The new art favored the cool ever the ‘dramatic’ their sculptures
were frequently fabricated from industrial materials and emphasized
anonymity over the expressive excess the Abstract Expressionism.
Painters and sculptors avoided overt symbolism and emotional content,
but instead called attention to the materiality of the works.”

Another assumption was that its subtext was deference the truth, as
a thing was presented at itself, without pretensions or embellishment. It
also had a very utopic aura about it. Some of the key figures in this
movement were Agnes Martin, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, Dan Flavin, Carl
Andre and Donald Judd.

The other movement is pop art. It first emerged in the 1950s but
found its footing in the 1960s. It drew inspiration, sources, and even
materials from commercial culture, making it one of the most identifiable
and relatable movements in art history. Artists became increasingly
critical about how what was being exhibited in art spaces had no
relationship with real life. What could be more real than what you saw,
used, ate, watched, heard, and read! Hence, they turned to commodities
designed and made for the masses, particularly drawing inspiration and
material from ads, packaging, comic books, movies, and movie posters,
and pop music. The aim was to also elevate popular culture as something
at par with fine art. A defining picture was the discussion on the hierarchy
(and divide between) of “high culture”; “fine art” and “low art.”

“Pop art is: popular (designed for a mass audience), transient (short-
term solution), expendable (easily forgotten), low cost, mass produced,
young (aimed at youth), witty, sexy, gimmicky, glamorous, big business”
(Hamilton, 1957).

The above was an excerpt from a letter written by Richard Hamilton,

a pop artist, addressed to his friends Peter and Alison Smithson.

Perhaps, one of the most critical statements against pop art was its
use of very banal and “low” objects and subject matters, lacking the
elevate aura that other believed art required. It was also seen as an
absence of critically in that objects appeared as it is, seemingly no
different from how they were used in the daily life. If at all, it ironically
seemed too “cool” as well that it also became somewhat detached to the
life it purportedly talked about. Some of the artists that are most identified
with pop art is Andy Warhol, James Rosenquist, Claes Oldenburg, Richard
Hamilton, Tom Wesselman, Ed Ruscha and Roy Lichtenstein, with a
number of them coming from careers in the commercial art as illustrators,
graphic designers, and even billboard painters. It is because of this that
their works had the seamless quality about it.

But perhaps the most pertinent movement that solidified the move
to contemporary art was postmodernism. It is considered as a socio-
cultural and intellectual movement.

By the very name, it was a nudge to formalize the critique toward

modernism and its claim over art for the better of the twentieth century.
More than anything, it was grounded on the shifts in the belief systems
that were in place in the 1960s. First used in 1970, the term was difficult
to affix to any style or theory and perhaps that was the point.
Postmodernism encroaches on other smaller movements that included
conceptual art, neo-expressionism, feminist art, and the Young British
Artists the 1990s, among others.

Grounded on scepticism about ideals and grand narratives, it was

rooted in analytic philosophy during the mid to late twentieth century,
which highlighted the importance of individual experience and was often
steeped in complexity and contradiction. As an upshot, formerly
established rules, barriers, and distinctions were abolished. In a sense, the
artist’s creativity was in its most free with an “anything goes” disposition,
artworks fell within the broad spectrum of the humorous to controversial
works that challenged not only taste but also former sensibilities and
styles. Their awareness of styles was not for them to copy or be governed
by them, but to borrow, critique, and even to turn on their heads. During
this time, some of the guiding principles were the multiplicity of
narratives, relativity, and even interdisciplinary. It is important to note that
there were attempts to overturn the notion that all progress was positive,
the hierarchy of races, and that art has definitive goal. In relation to the
last one, one emergent aspect was also underscored in the experience
and engagement with art and that was the importance of the viewer.
Here, the idea of the sole authorship of the artist is put to the test.

It is the intention of the artist during the time of creation that it

becomes the end-all and be-all of the appreciation of work because it is
where the sole meaning lie, which is deputed.

Some of the sub-movements under this broad umbrella were

minimalism, conceptual art, video art, performance art, installation art,
and even feminist art. Although they were widely accepted and
recognized to be formal movements during the 1970s, they were in fact
already in existence as early as the 1920s.

Contemporary Art

We can observe that there were overlaps with the acceptance and
practice of these movements. They were not only overlapping with each
other, but they were embedded in a social order that was in fact
somewhat “disordered.”

One of the main developments during this time is the turn from the
traditional notions of what art is: from paintings and sculptures to the
more experimental formats. These included film, photography, video,
performance, installations and site-specific works, and earth works. Even
these formats tended to overlap, leading to interesting and dynamic, and
otherwise unheard of combinations of concepts, subjects, materials,
techniques and methods of creation, experience, and even analysis.
Compared to other periods, it can be argued that contemporary art is the
most socially aware and involved form of art. The subject matter of its
works were some of the most pressing, heated, and even controversial
issues of contemporary society.

Other Contemporary Art Movements

Neo-Pop Art

In the 1980s, there was a renewed interest in pop art specifically to

Andy Warhol’s works and his contemporaries. What made it different from
pop art, was that it appropriated some of the first ideas of Dada in which
ready-made materials were used for the artwork. Aside from this, it does
not only referenced popular culture, but more importantly, criticized and
evaluated it, often using popular cultural icons such as Marilyn Monroe,
Jackie O, Madonna, and Michael Jackson, among many others. Some of the
artists involved in the revival of pop art was Katharina Fritsch, Daniel
Edwards, Jeff Koon, Keith Haring, Mark Kostabi, and Damien Hirst, to name
a few. Compared to their predecessors, they were more affront about their
evaluations about the world through the works.

Photorealism

The resurgence of figurative art, where realistic depictions is a

choice, is a proof of how varied and fragmented postmodernism is. In
photorealism, a painstaking attention detail is aimed, without asserting an
artist’s personal style. These drawings and paintings are so immaculate in
their precision that it starts to look like it is a photo without a direct
reference to the artist who created it. Two of the known photorealist artists
are Chuck Close and Gerhard Richter.

Conceptualism

Other movements were informed and shaped by pop art such as

conceptualism. As opposed to celebrating commodities as references to
real life, conceptualism fought against the idea that art is a commodity.
This movement also brought to the fore issues brought about by art
institutions such as museums and galleries where works are peddled and
circulated. Some of the major conceptual artists are Jenny Holzer, Damien
Hirst, and Ai Wei Wei.

“In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect
of the work. When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all
of the planning and decisions are, made beforehand and the execution is a
perfunctory affair” (LeWitt, 1967).
Performance Art

Performance art is related to conceptual art, whose roster of well-

known artists include the likes of Marina Abramovic, Yoko Ono, and Joseph
Beuys. As a movement, it began in the 1960s and instead of being
concerned with entertaining its audience, the heart of the artwork is the
idea or message. Here, the audience may even be an accomplice to the
realization of the work. Performance art may be planned or spontaneous
and done live or recorded. Since it is also durational in nature, it is also is
not about the medium or the format; rather , it is how a specific context is
made in which through engagement or interaction, questions, concerns,
and conditions will be fleshed out.

Compared to traditional art formats, installation arts is a kind of

immersive work where the environment or the space in which the viewer
steps into or interacts with (going around the installative art) is
transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation art makes use of a
host of objects, materials, conditions, and even light and aural
components. These works may also be considered site-specific and may
be temporary or ephemeral in nature. Well-known installation artsist are
Allan Kaprow, Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.

Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art,

earth art (or land art) is when the natural environment or a specific site or
space is transformed by artists. It is a kind of human intervention into a
specific landscape or terrain. Earth art is different from environmental art
in a sense that it does not focus on the subject (environmental issues or
concerns) but rather on landscape manipulation and the materials used,
taken directly from the ground or vegetation (rocks or twigs). Artists
known for Earth Art are Robert Smithson, Christo, Richard Long, Andy
Goldsworthy and Jeanne-Claude.

Installation Art

Compared to traditional art formats, installation art is a kind of an

immersive work where the environment or the space in which the viewer
steps into or interacts with (going around the installative art), is
transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation make use of a host
of objects, materials, conditions and even light and aural components.
These works may also be considered site-specific and may be temporary
or ephemeral in nature. Well-known installation artsist are Allan Kaprow,
Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.

Earth Art

Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art, Earth Art

(or Land Art) is when the natural environment − a specific site or space −
is transformed by artists. It is a kind of human intervention into a specific
landscape or terrain. Earth Art is different from Environmental in that it is
not in the subject (environmental issues or concerns); rather it is the
landscape manipulation and the materials used, taken directly from the
ground or vegetation (rocks or twigs) that makes it such. Artists known for
Earth Art are Robert Smithson, Christo, Richard Long, Andy Goldsworthy
and Jeanne-Claude.

Street Art

This art movements is related to graffiti art it is a by-product of the

rise of graffiti in the 1980s. Artworks created are not traditional in format
but are informed by the illustrative, painterly and print techniques and
even a variety of media (even video projections). Some of the examples of
this include murals, stencilled images, stickers, and installations or
installative/sculptural objects usually out of common objects and
techniques. Since these works are most commonly found in the public
sphere, various people who have access to them have formed the
impression and perception of the artworks themselves.

These works operate under interesting circumstances since they are

unsanctioned and do not enjoy the invigilated environments of museums
and galleries. However, these works also end up in them, as street artists
also hold more traditional exhibitionary formats in the while cube.

If it is in the open space, there are no governing rules in its

production and sometimes, in the interaction. Known street artists include
Micahel Basquiat, Keith Haring, Shepard Fairey, and Bankey’s popularity is
evidenced by the creation of a film documentary that spoke about film
and his works. Gordon Matta-Clark, Jenny Holzer, and Barba Kruger are
other street artists.

Let’s Wrap It Up

Some of the artists and movements discussed are but examples of

the rich array of works produced and are still being produced today. The
twenty-first century is stepped in promise and excitement. Although some
of the movements discussed may have waned or are no longer being
practiced, new artists with their own creative imagination and ways of
producing art are changing the landscape once again. It would not be
surprising if in the future, art students like you will be confronted with
even more diverse movements that attempt to come into terms with
himself, society, and the world in which he lives.

Let’s Work on This

 1. What do you think are the most important contributions of
contemporary art as a period and the numerous movements under
it in the lives of men today?
2. Out of all the movements mentioned are discussed, what do you
think are no longer relevant to the times?

Let’s Make It Happen

With the different art movements across history, what do you think
does the future hold for art and art production? Looking into the next 20
years, what do you think are the new trends that will emerge?

Create your own art movement and describe its main tenets. Give it a
name.

What does this movement attempts to do? What are the concerns or
questions will it attempt to answer? Imagine what kind of materials/media
and techniques will be used to create and realize the concepts behind
artists’ works.

Sources and References:

“What is Contemporary Art and How Can We Define It Today?” n.d.

Widewalls. Accessed November 3, 2017. https://www.widewalls.ch//what-
is-contemporary-art/.

“About Contemporary Art (Education at the Getty).” n.d. Accessed

November 3, 2017.
https://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/c
ontemporary_art/background1.html.

Esaak, Shelley. n.d. “Learn the Definition of Contemporary Art, Works

Created Contemporarily.” ThoughtCo. Accessed November 3, 2017.
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-contemporary-art-182971

“Art History: What is Contemporary Art?” 2017. My Modern Met (blog).

May 11, 2017. http://mymodernmet.com/what-is-contemporary-art-
definition/.

Tate. n.d. “Pop Art – Art Term.” Tate.Accessed November 3, 2017.

http://www.tate.org.uk/art-terms/p/pop-art.

Tate. n.d. “Minimalism – Art Term.” Tate. Accessed November 3, 2017.

http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/m/minimalism

Tate. n.d. “Postmodernism – Art Term.” Tate. Accessed November 3, 2017.

http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/postmodernism.

“Postmodern Art – Modern Art Terms and Concepts.” n.d. The Art Story.
Accessed November 3, 2017. http://www.theartstory.org/definition-
postmodernism.htm.
“Khan Academy.” n.d. Khan Academy. Accessed November 3, 2017.
http://www.khanacademy.org.

“Neo-Pop Art – The Art History Archive.” n.d. Accessed November 3, 2017.
http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/popart/Neo-Pop-Art.html.

Tate. n.d. “Performance Art – Art Term.” Tate. Accessed November 3, 2017.
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/performance-art.

Tate. n.d. “Street Art – Art Term.” Tate. Accessed November 3, 2017.
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/s/street-art.
 Unit III. Culture and the Arts

Lesson 10
Soulmaking, Appropriation, and Improvisation
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. explain how meanings can be derived from art;
2. discuss how improvisation can make an artwork distinctive; and
3. identify the issues and problems that can arise because of
appropriation of art.

Introduction

Throughout history, art has played an integral role to capture,

record, and communicate events, activities, traditions, and even belief
systems of various groups of people. Even Paleolithic societies have found
ways to record events despite the unavailability or limited access to
various tools. In essence, art has been an instrument to reflect the things
and events that transpired in the past so that the future generations can
have a glimpse of that past. With the advent of technological
advancements, societies have improved the ways and means through
which art can be a communicative tool. If an artwork is an avenue for an
artist to express narratives through symbols, then it follows that the artist
is the author of the work. But during the twentieth century, issues on
ownership and authorship have emerged primarily because of the value
ascribed to the viewer of the work.

Let’s Get Started

4Pics1word: Look at the four pictures below and think of a word that
you can associate with them. Write three sentences explaining why you
chose that word to describe them.
Let’s Get Down to Business

Soul-Making: Making and Deriving Meaning From Art

In order for humans to make sense of language and derive

meanings from words, semantics and grammatical rules are important
elements to be considered. Aside from this, context and symbolisms are
also considered to interpret and analyse either oral or written works.
When it comes to art, in order for people to make sense of the work, it
would require understanding the visual elements where art was grounded
on, especially the principles of design. It is important to note that the
audience of the artwork must have a certain level of awareness to the
style, form, and content of the said work. Without such understanding, it
would be difficult to appreciate the visual arts in its fullness and entirety.

Style refers to the distinctive handling elements and media

associated with the work of an individual artist, a school, movement, or a
specific culture or time period (Fichner-Rathus, 2013). Throughout history,
there have been developments in art styles that depict different and
varied methods of expression. Artworks also have a certain form. This
form is what the audience sees—a finished product put harmoniously (or
not) according to the different principles of design. In essence, form is the
totality of the artwork, which includes the textures, colors, and shapes
utilized by the artist. The content of an artwork includes not only form but
also its subject matter and its underlying meanings or themes (Fichner-
Rathus, 2013). The perceiver of the artwork must take into consideration
the totality of elements, underlying themes and motifs, and composition.

Improvisation

Improvisation can be defined as doing something without prior

preparation. There is a decision to act upon something that may not
necessarily be planned. Within the present context, improvisation has
become an integral part of the arts. Some would say that it is a reaction
against the stiffness in the arts during the twentieth century. There is a
call for liberation from monotony that aims to rekindle the creative spirits
of people in the arts.

For some artists, infusing spontaneity and improvisation adds up to

the totality of the work of art. The unexpectedness of the changes brought
about by improvisation makes of the artwork to have a distinctive quality
of the crafts its individuality and identity. Some of the artists subscribe to
the idea of the allowing chances in the process of producing the work. For
example, artists would want to capture the gloom brought about by an
approaching storm or the beauty of meteor shower at night. Since they do
not necessarily have absolute control over natural phenomena, their
reliance on chances may not necessarily produce their expected outcome.
Artists allowing their subjects do improvisation may have totally different
results as well.

When the artists makes his work, he has an idea of the elements
that will be included in his work. For example, a painter would know would
be included in his painting. But as he begins to craft his work, he may
have deviated from his original plan. So in essence, improvisation is
evident in the process of making the painting. During the 1900s, art
improvisation has taken form in the galleries around New York City.
Performance arts, dance, and visual arts were combined to create new
forms of artworks using a new medium. These performances were known
as the “Happenings” which later on paved the way for modern body art
and performance art. One of central figures in the improvisation
movement was Georges Matthieu. He started the “action painting”
wherein the process is seen real-time. In this scenario, the process is more
important that the finished product.

Figure 1. Maria Minunjin Performance Art

Figure 1 above shows how improvisation allows for a certain extent of

freedom for the artist to improves and allow the subject to perform and
embody the artwork itself. To a certain extent, it allows the artist to
explore and think about how the audience can actually be a part of the
artwork in itself. Improvisation may have been a revolutionary concept
when it comes to art because it blurs the line of reality and that of
imagination.
 Figure 2. An example of an action painting

Appropriation

For instance, if an artist created a painting and displayed it in a

museum, who owns the artwork: the artist or his intended audience?
During the twentieth century, people started raising the question whether
or not the act of deriving meaning gives the ownership of the artwork to
the viewer rather than the artist himself. This notion paved the way for the
emergence of appreciation artists who seem to promote the idea that the
authorship relies on the viewer. If this is the case, then appropriation
artists can take as much as he wants from an existing artwork.

Appropriation of art has been a common practice throughout history.

In the past, if an apprentice painter needs to hone his skills in his craft, he
would be allowed to use his master’s work to copy. It is as if the
apprentice is trying to explore his personal application of techniques to
something he is more familiar with. However, there are some people who
go to the extreme by believing that copying the exact artwork of an artist
and attributing it to his own. This could pose a problem especially with
authorship. The problem especially arises when the appropriation artist
would get bits and pieces from other works and incorporate these
elements into his own work. In addition, when appropriation artists
eschew the responsibility for putting up the details of other works and
integrating them into their own, their voices and perspectives of the other
artists get lost with that of the appropriation art and forgery. Traditionally,
forgery can be classified into two forms: outright copies of existing works
and pastiches, which are works that bring together elements from a work
and infusing them to a new work. But in contemporary times, forgery can
be in the form of creating an approximate of what an artist would do by
prediction. This can be done by observing the techniques and style the
artist employed and even the focal points highlighted in his previous and
existing works.

The intentions of the appropriation artists are often questioned since

issues of plagiarism or forgery sometimes arise. Some would argue that
the reason behind the appropriation is that they want the audience to
recognize the images they copied. There is a hope on the part of the artist
for the viewers to see the original work in a new perspective. That
appropriation would bring about a new context to the original work. One of
the most famous works of appropriation would have to be Andy Warhol’s
“Campbell Soup Can Series” (1961). Warhol copied the original labels of
the soup can but can but deliberately filled up the entire picture plane.
The idea of putting together of the soup cans is something new for the
audience. Just like any product, the brand is integral to Campbell’s
identity. As an artist, Warhol decided to isolate the image of the product.
This attempt could in turn stimulate product recognition. A common
viewer would associate the Campbell soup with the portraits of the soup
cans. This association would bring about a certain kind of craving for the
said product. In a way, it is a subtle form of advertising that would entice
the consumer to buy and patronize the product.

Figure 3 Andy Warhol’s Campbell Soup Can

Figure 3. Andy Warhol’s Campbell Soup Can

Let’s Wrap It Up
 When an artist creates something, there is a desire for him or her to
elicit a certain kind of response from his audience. To a certain extent, the
artist is considered as the first and primary audience of the work. There is
this notion that art should be perceived as something that would engage
and enrich the experience of the audience as the artist tries to piece
together all the elements grounded on design rules. However, there have
been art movements throughout history that tried to break away from the
norms of visual arts. Improvisations have led artists to find other medium
and avenues to showcase their creative expression. The certain level of
freedom and creativity experienced in art can also lead to appropriations.
When it comes to art appropriation, there seems to be a debate whether
or not something is just an appropriation of an existing work or just plain
forgery.

Let’s Work on This

To check your understanding of the lesson, answer the following questions:

What are the important things the viewer or audience must consider to
derive meaning from the artwork?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
How can improvisation contribute to the distinctive quality of the
Let’s Work On This
artwork?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
What is the reason why artists appropriate art?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 Let’s Make It Happen
Research on one (1) appropriation artist and highlight his or her artwork.
Using that artwork, answer this essay question: To what extent is art
appropriation a form of forgery?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Sources and Reference:

Appropriation and Authorship in Contemporary Art, Sherri Irvin, 2005

https://www.academia.edu/3085695/Appropriation_and_Authorship_in_Con
temporary_Art

Improvisation: The New Spirits in the Arts, William Harris

http://community.middleybury.edu/-harris/improvisation.html

Images from Creative Commons

Unknown – Arte de accion, Public Domain,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=27423208

By Dr. Avishal Teicher Pikiwiki Israel, CC BY 2.5,

hhtps://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25930853

By Klima Kilbane – Photographic reproduction of a work art, Public

Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6199396

https://static.pexels.com/photos/6989/city-love-rainbow-nyc.jpg

By bazaar art –
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1600_1699/jah
angir/anarkali/anarkali.html, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19174000

By Maurizio Pesce from Milan, Italia – Andy Warhol: Campbell’s Soup Cans
(1962), CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=51058885

By Gmhofmann – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29825698

Lesson 11
Art in Asia

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:

1. identify key influences to Chinese art;

 2. identify key characteristics of Japanese art;
3. compare and contrast Chinese and Japanese artworks;
4. trace the development of Philippine art;
5. discuss the concept of Okir; and
6. explain how art can be a key element in the formation of a society’s
culture.

Introduction
When ancient civilizations in Asia flourished, trade became a very
important activity. In the process of establishing trading relationships
among the Asian countries, they started sharing their cultures and belief
systems. China, being one of the oldest civilizations in Asia, has a rich
history when it comes to culture and the arts. Most of their cultural and
even religious beliefs and practices are represented through different
artworks. Japan was initially influenced by China in terms of the arts. Later
on, they opened themselves to the Western world, allowing for the fusion
of East and West. Both Chinese and Japanese artworks are concrete
manifestations of their cultural identity as a people. Philippine art was a
product of several periods in history spanning from the pre-colonial period
to the contemporary times. Depending on a given context, art in the
Philippines has served various uses from everyday living to expression of
belief systems and advocacies.

Let’s Get Started

Think of a belief that you hold strongly to. Then think of a way how
you can represent that particular belief system. You may write a paragraph
or draw an illustration as a means of representation of your answer.

Let’s Get Down to Business

Chinese Art
In the present context, China is at the forefront of economic
development. Its booming economy has led to its modernization. In
addition, history shows that China has been at the leading edge of
development especially in cultural development. Inhabitants of China in
the past were able to produce primitive artisan works. Excavated pieces
show bronze vessels with intricate designs depicting a lot of imagery
dating from the second millennium BCE. The Chinese during the Chou
Dynasty was under a feudal kind of social system. It was a parallel period
with that of Greece’s Golden Age: a period when culture particularly art
flourished. During this period, metal works befitting the royal family were
produced in abundance. Jade was also a popular choice of material for
artworks.
Confucianism was the dominant way of life subscribed to by the
general public. Those who subscribed to principles espoused by Confucius
believed that in order for society to work, one must learn how to
sympathize to others. These principles became evident in most artworks
depicting everyday life and how these social interactions come to play.
The Chinese also had interactions with Western missionaries who
came from India and brought some of the Indian influences to China.
Because of this, Indian models inspired a lot of Chinese artists for a few
centuries. By the start of the sixth century, Chinese artists started making
art that highlighted their very own culture. Paintings usually depicted
magical places and realms that were born out of sheer imagination while
still infusing the Chinese characters that define their culture. It was a
dominant belief that a great power coming from a higher spirit is the one
moving the artist and his work together.
Most paintings were done in monumental styles wherein rocks and
mountains served as a barrier that made the viewer distracted initially
from the main subject of the work. Rounded forms rise in a way that it
flows from the background into the foreground. Artists also used sharp
brushstrokes to provide detail in their works. Western landscapes would
usually had a single vanishing point while Chinese paintings had the
opposite since most paintings aimed to give the audience a multiple
perspective on the subject.
Porcelain is one of the commonly used to make decorative
ornaments such as vases and jars. Some artifacts from excavation sites
show the intricate work of the Chinese in these porcelain vases. This can
be attributed to the tradition of passing down the artistry from one
generation to the next. Just like most Chinese artworks, the focal point in
these vases depicts a central theme: nature. They believe that man is an
integral part of nature ensuring that there is a certain balance in it. But
part of their culture is emphasizing a form of social life, giving importance
to communities and interactions among people. In addition, some of the
common overarching themes of Chinese artworks would include everyday
activities, war and violence, death and nature. It can be noted also that
Chinese artworks are infused with a lot of symbolisms. Art becomes an
avenue for the artist to convey his reflection of the things he is aware of.

Figure 4. A porcelain vase from China

It is customary for the ancient Chinese people to show respect for

their ancestors and departed relatives. From a Western point of view, this
reverence of the Chinese can be mistaken for as that of worshipping gods.
Most of the departed of the ancient Chinese were placed in either gold or
bronze vessels, depending on their social status.

Japanese Art

Art in Japan has undergone a series of transitions and periodization.

From being an isolated nation to that of embracing Western influences and
modernization. Japan has transitioned into a modern cultural mixing pot. It
is evident how the Japanese were able to infuse local and indigenous
materials with modern Western subjects and focal points.

Based from artifacts such as ceramic figures and ornaments, it is

important take note that there are Korean and Chinese influences evident
in Japanese artworks. One of the ceramic products created by the
Japanese is called Haniwa. These are ceramic figures that are made up of
clay. They are placed beside burial spots for reasons that are unknown.
 Figure 5. Haniwa House

The native religion of Japan is Shintoism. Although, this religion

subscribes to beliefs such as being one with nature and embracing the
notion of the existence of many gods, it did not use art to communicate its
beliefs. When Japan established trading relations with China, they did not
only trade goods with them but they were also influenced with religious
beliefs and practice. Buddhism became an integral part of Japanese
culture. Artworks such as images and sculptures of Buddha were
produced. Buddhist temples also became staples in key places. Art in
essence became an expression of worship for the Japanese.

As mentioned earlier, Japan and China had a long-standing

relationship. In addition to Buddhism, China also influenced Japan in terms
of paintings. After the fourteenth century, Japan would isolate itself from
the rest of the world, which in effect gave them the avenue to let their
culture flourish. The Japanese style of painting leaned toward abstract and
naturalistic handling. In essence, the artist is given the free reign for his
work, which had more room for spontaneity and individuality. A lot of
works focused on individual portraits, elements of nature, and scenes from
everyday life. Although the Chinese influenced them, the Japanese
adopted a more minimalist take on their paintings. This is stark contrast
with the extravagant and sometimes over the top designs of the Chinese.
The Japanese also developed a kind of painting called the Ukiyo-e, which
was crafted through woodcut prints. The artists developed a technique
that used lines and colors in a very distinctive manner. Some Western
artists were intrigued and influenced by these Ukiyo-e paintings. An
example would be like Vincent Van Gogh and Edouard Manet.
 Figure 6. An Ukiyo-e painting entitled Ase fuku
onna (Woman Wiping Face) Print: Color and
Woodcut

Philippine Art

Throughout Philippine history, spanning from the pre-colonial period

to the contemporary periods, different art forms have emerged in the
Philippine art scene. Before the colonizers came to the Philippines, ethnic
minorities have used art not only for daily activities but also for religious
rituals and practices. Most art forms used by ethnic communities would
include pottery, weaving, carving, and the use of metalwork and jewelry.

Pottery is said to be as one of the earliest art forms used by the

early Filipino people. One of the most prominent artifacts is the
Manunggal Jar found in Palawan. This jar is a representation of the early
Filipinos’ religious beliefs and practices. It serves as a burial jar, which
depicts two men rowing a boat. This reflects their belief of an afterlife,
that the crossing of the body of water is transition from life here on earth
unto the next. Eventually, pottery produced items that are of practical
value for the early Filipinos such as pots for cooking and large vases for
storing. Weaving was also one of the earliest forms of art expressions in
the Philippines. One of the most popular artisans of weaving is the people
from the Cordilleras. They are known for their colorful woven cloth, which
also have both religious and practical value. The T’boli from Mindanao are
also known for their woven abaca cloth called t’nalak. They use this
particular cloth to make ornaments, which also represent their beliefs
through symbols. One example is the image of the frog, which is their
representation for fertility. Woodcarvings from Palawan also depict animals
like birds, which are representations of their religious beliefs. According to
local stories, the birds serve as the messengers of the people to the
heavens and vice versa. In Mindanao, the Tausug and Maranao people are
known for their okir, which are designs applied to their woodcarvings.
Their common subjects include the sarimanok, naga, and the pako
rabong. Each subject is a representation for a certain theme or motif but
generally these symbols depict their beliefs as a people. The sarimanok is
a stylized design of a mythical bird either standing on a fish or holding a
piece of fish on its beak. The story of the sarimanok was a central figure to
a number of legends. One narrative tells the origin of the word sarimanok.
A sultan of Lanao once threw a party for his daughter named Sari who was
beautiful but seemed to be unhappy with her situation. On the day of her
party, a rooster crashed and the princess ran off with the rooster. She was
never found. In memory of Sari, the Sultan had carved a rooster. This
would pave the way for the term sarimanok. Initially, jewelry was used as
amulets for protection to drive away evil spirits. Eventually some minority
groups from the Cordilleras and Cotabato utilized jewelry as ornaments
integrated in their clothing. The naga forms an S-shape depicting an
elaborate figure of mythical dragon or serpent. The numerous curved lines
serving as detail for the figure depicts the scales. The pako rabong, on the
other hand, is like a growing fern with a broad base. The fern gracefully
stems and tapers upward. The sarimanok and naga are usually used as
ornamental designs for the houses of the sultans.

Figure 7. Maranao Okir in 3D

When the Spaniards discovered the Philippines during the sixteenth

century, they introduced their religion to the local people. Aside from
acquiring resources, they had a goal to replace the existing indigenous
cultural practices and beliefs of the early Filipinos. Art was used by the
Spaniards to propagate their Christian faith while at the same time subtly
establishing their foothold in the country. The Church, just like in Western
Europe at one point, became the sole patron of the arts. This can be
evidently seen through the construction of churches, which house various
relics and paintings. There is an underlying move to integrate Western
culture and ideals in the Philippine setting. Being under colonial rule, it is
not surprising for Filipinos to express their indignation and desire for
liberation. Art became one of the avenues for Filipino patriots and
nationalists. Probably the most famous work that expressed Filipino
nationalism and stand against the colonizers would be Juan Luna’s
“Spoliarium.” This large-scale academic painting garnered a gold medal
and signified that the reformists could come at par with their European
counterparts. At the same time, Luna’s win signalled the start of the
Filipino’s call for equality.

Figure 8. Juan Luna’s Spolarium displayed at the

National Museum

When the Philippines was liberated from the Spanish rule, the
Americans took over to establish a colonial government. They also
propagated their culture and beliefs through the implementation of public
school systems. Art had a new role in advertising American-controlled
markets. After World War II, the Philippines saw itself as an independent
state transitioning into the formation of its national identity. Artists
focused on modern takes when it comes to content, form, and subject
matter. In addition, there emerged a debate on whether art should be
done as “proletarian art” or “art for art’s sake.” As modern paintings
started to emerge, a triumvirate of artists was formed-Carlos Francisco,
Galo B. Ocampo, and Edades.

The 1960s proved to be a period of modernism and dynamism with

a lot of styles, techniques, and methods emerging. Most artworks were
reflections of the political, social, and economic situation of the Philippines
during the Marcos administration. It was period wherein people embodied
and advocated for nationalist ideals. This is the reason why there was a
paradigm shifts of subjects in the artworks. Beautiful and idealistic
imagery was replaced with aggressive undertones. The works were
reflections of the general feel of the people based on the political situation
during that time. When former President Ferdinand Marcos declared
Martial Law, social realism became the norm. Most artworks were forms of
protest against the government’s suppression of freedom of speech and
expression. In addition, some of the works reflected issues like economic
problems, land reforms, gender rights, worker’s rights, and cultural
minorities plaguing the Filipino people brought about by the Martial Law.
Eventually, photography has evolved into an art form, which highlights
various artistic expressions evident in a variety of events, scenes, and
activities.

Let’s Wrap It Up

Asian art, particularly Chinese and Japanese, have helped in the

establishment of their identities as a people. A common thread between
the two cultures is the emphasis on religion and how man is integral part
of society. China may have influenced Japan during the early part but later
on, Japan would welcome Western ideas. There is a difference in terms of
allowing Western influences to be integrated in their works: China
remained conventional whereas Japan chose to let Western ideals be
embodied to the art scene. From the time of the early Filipinos to the
contemporary times, art has been used in a myriad of ways.

Let’s Work On This

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the central themes of Chinese artworks? Explain why did
the Chinese focus on these themes.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. In what ways are Chinese and Japanese art similar? In what ways
are they different?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. What were some the uses or roles of art during the pre-colonial
period?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4. How did art become a reflection of Philippine society?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Let’s Make It Happen

Write an essay answering this question: To what extent can art help
in the formation of a society’s culture?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Sources and References:

Fichner-Rathus. Understanding Art. Wadsworth CengageL Learning, 2015.

CCP Encyclopedia of Philippines Visual Arts. Volume IV. Cultural Center of

the Philippines, 1994.

http://opinion.inquirer.net/71820/tales-of-the-sarimanok (Retrieved 09
November 2017)

Images from Creative Commons

Anonymous (China) – Walters Art Museum: Home page info about artwork,
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid-
18843950

Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?

curid=102257

Kitagawa Utamaro – Library of Congress[2], Public Domain,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5794884

By Juan Luna – Own work, Public Domain,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=220131998By Ryan
khadaffy – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
httpd://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17137932