Research paper:

Priyanseri: Francis Xavier

Ida: Robodi nobodi

Sunita: William Carrey

Ratna: John De britto

Purpose of study :

 The purpose of study is to introduce the beginning and the growth of Christianity
in India

 To get acquainted with some major problems associated with the growth of
Christianity

 To understand the nature of the church and Christianity in India

 To see the opportunity of evangelism in India today.

Course Outline

Righteous

Introduction

We will introduce ourselves briefly to the History of India, so that ground is prepared to
understand how Christianity came to India. This will also help to understand the Indian
context for the Christian faith, which should enable us to reach India in a much better way.

Chapter one

The beginning of Christianity in India

Tradition of St. Thomas

Tradition of St. Bartholomew

Chapter Two
India and the Church of the East upto 800 AD

Chapter 3

Christianity in India in the Middle Ages 800-1500 AD

Chapter 4

Christianity in India in modern age 1500 AD present

The period of Portuguese Domination 1500-1700 AD

 Expansion under Padroado

 Expansion inder propaganda

 Expansion through Jesuit mission

 Expansion through Madurai and Mougal Mission

 Expansion rite controversy and the Jesuit

 Portuguese and Syrian Christians

Chapter 5

Indian political situation in 18th & 19th centuries

Chapter 6

Christianity in India in 19th century

Chapter 7

Christianity in India in 20th century

Chapter 8

Other protestant mission

Chapter 9

The church of God in North India

General Introduction

1. Ancient India (Up to the Fourth century BC)

India is a peninsula which is bounded by the mountain ranges in the North and Northeast,
and the rest are bounded by the sea. It has a mountain barrier about 1600 miles and a
coastline of about 3400 miles.

Oral traditions lead the history of India back about 2500 BC, but unquestionable records
available only from about the six century BC

The Indus Valley Civilization, which thrived in the region of ancient India and their
influence over the period of Indian History down to about 500 BC. They settled in India and
are now a integral part of the country’s population.

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE;
mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to
Pakistan and northwest India (see map).[1] Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was
one of three early civilizations of the Old World, and of the three the most widespread.[2] It
flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the Ghaggar-
Hakra River, which once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan.[3]
At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants
of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products,
seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for
their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems,
and clusters of large non-residential buildings.[4]
The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after Harappa,
the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of
British India, and is now in Pakistan.[5] The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards,
Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the
Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj.[6] Excavation of Harappan sites has been
ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. [7] There
were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same
area of the Harappan Civilization. The Harappan civilization is sometimes called the Mature
Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures. By 1999, over 1,056 cities and
settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, [8] mainly in the general region
of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the
major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira,
Ganeriwala in Cholistan and Rakhigarhi.[9]
The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus
script is still undeciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language
family is favored by a section of scholars, [10][page needed][11] while others suggest an Austroasiatic
language related to Munda.[12]

Contents
  1 Discovery and history of excavation
 2 Chronology
 3 Geography
 4 Early Harappan
 5 Mature Harappan
o 5.1 Cities

o 5.2 Authority and governance

o 5.3 Technology

o 5.4 Arts and crafts

o 5.5 Trade and transportation

o 5.6 Subsistence

o 5.7 Writing system

o 5.8 Religion

 6 Collapse and Late Harappan

 7 Legacy
 8 Historical context and linguistic affiliation
 9 See also
 10 Notes
 11 References
 12 Bibliography
 13 External links

Discovery and history of excavation

Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with the Great Bath in the front

Early Harappan Period, c. 3300-2600 BCE

Mature Harappan Period, c. 2600-1900 BCE

Late Harappan Period, c. 1900-1300 BCE

The ruins of Harrappa were first described in 1842 by Charles Masson in his Narrative of
Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, where locals talked of an
ancient city extending "thirteen cosses" (about 25 miles), but no archaeological interest would
attach to this for nearly a century.[note 1]
In 1856, General Alexander Cunningham, later director general of the archaeological survey
of northern India, visited Harappa where the British engineers John and William Brunton
were laying the East Indian Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and
Lahore. John wrote: "I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the
line of the railway". They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called
Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, "convinced
that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted", the city of Brahminabad was reduced
to ballast.[14] A few months later, further north, John's brother William Brunton's "section of
the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which had already been used by villagers in
the nearby village of Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast along 93
miles (150 km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore".[14]
In 1872–75 Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an erroneous
identification as Brahmi letters).[15] It was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan
seals were discovered by J. Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert
Marshall in 1921–22 and resulting in the discovery of the civilization at Harappa by Sir John
Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats, and at Mohenjo-daro by
Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-
Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer
Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists
who worked on IVC sites before the partition of the subcontinent in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan
Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein.
Following the Partition of India, the bulk of the archaeological finds were inherited by
Pakistan where most of the IVC was based, and excavations from this time include those led
by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeological adviser to the Government of Pakistan.
Outposts of the Indus Valley civilization were excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in
Baluchistan, as far north as at Shortugai on the Amu Darya (the river's ancient name was
Oxus) in current Afghanistan, as far east as at Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, India and as far
south as at Malwan, Surat Dist., India.[16]
In 2010, heavy floods hit Haryana in India and damaged the archaeological site of
Jognakhera, where ancient copper smelting were found dating back almost 5,000 years. The
Indus Valley Civilization site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as the Sutlej Yamuna link
canal overflowed.[17]

Chronology
Indus Valley pottery, 2500-1900 BC
Main article: Periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization
The mature phase of the Harappan civilization lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE. With the
inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures—Early Harappan and Late Harappan,
respectively—the entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd
to the 14th centuries BCE. Two terms are employed for the periodization of the IVC: Phases
and Eras.[18][19] The Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases are also
called the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, respectively, with the
Regionalization era reaching back to the Neolithic Mehrgarh II period. "Discoveries at
Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization", according to Ahmad Hasan
Dani, professor emeritus at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. "There we have the whole
sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life."[20]
Dates Phase Era
7000–5500 Early Food-Producing
Mehrgarh I (aceramic Neolithic)
BCE Era
5500–3300 Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic Neolithic)
3300–2600 Early Harappan
3300–2800 Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase) Regionalisation Era
Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, Mehrgarh
2800–2600
VII)
2600–1900 Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilization) Integration Era
2600–2450 Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)
2450–2200 Harappan 3B
2200–1900 Harappan 3C
Late Harappan (Cemetery H); Ochre Coloured
1900–1300
Pottery
Localisation Era
1900–1700 Harappan 4
1700–1300 Harappan 5
Painted Gray Ware, Northern Black Polished Ware
1300–300 Indo-Gangetic Tradition
(Iron Age)

Geography
The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan and parts of northwestern India,
Afghanistan and Iran, extending from Balochistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the east,
northeastern Afghanistan to the north and Maharashtra to the south.[21] The geography of the
Indus Valley put the civilizations that arose there in a highly similar situation to those in
Egypt and Peru, with rich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands, desert, and
ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan's northwestern Frontier
Province as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated
colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal settlements
extended from Sutkagan Dor[22] in Western Baluchistan to Lothal[23] in Gujarat. An Indus
Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan,[24] in the
Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan,[25] at Manda,Jammu on the Beas River near
Jammu,[26] India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km from Delhi.[27] Indus
Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, [28] for
example, Balakot,[29] and on islands, for example, Dholavira.[30]
There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan and the
seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus Valley (or Harappan) sites have been
discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds.[31] Among them are: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi,
Kalibangan, and Ganwariwala.[32] According to J. G. Shaffer and D. A. Lichtenstein, [33] the
Harappan Civilization "is a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnic
groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan".[31]
According to some archaeologists, more than 500 Harappan sites have been discovered along
the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries, [34] in contrast to only
about 100 along the Indus and its tributaries;[35] consequently, in their opinion, the appellation
Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization or Indus-Saraswati civilization is justified. However, these
politically inspired arguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the
Ghaggar-Hakra desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the
end of the Indus period and hence shows more sites than found in the alluvium of the Indus
valley; second, that the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have
been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus,
so the new nomenclature is redundant.[36] "Harappan Civilization" remains the correct one,
according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilization after its first findspot.
Early Harappan
Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600-2450 BC. LACMA
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from circa 3300
BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River
Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named
after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo Daro. The earliest examples of the
Indus script date from around 3000 BCE.[37] Discoveries from Bhirrana, Rajasthan, in India,
by archeologist K. N. Dikshit indicate that Hakra ware from this area dates from as early as
7500 BC.[38]
The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri and Amri in
Pakistan.[39] Kot Diji (Harappan 2) represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with
the citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life.
Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River.[40]
Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw
materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. Villagers had, by this
time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well
as animals, including the water buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban
centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started.

Mature Harappan
By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban centres.
Such urban centres include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro in modern day Pakistan, and
Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern day India. In total, more
than 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus
Rivers and their tributaries.
Cities
Computer-aided reconstruction of coastal Harappan settlement at Sokhta Koh near Pasni,
Pakistan
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley
Civilization making them the first urban centres in the region. The quality of municipal town
planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments
which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of
religious ritual.
As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this
urban plan included the world's first known urban sanitation systems: see hydraulic
engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization. Within the city, individual homes or groups of
homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for
bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses
opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the
region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans.[41]
The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities
throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban
sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and
India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive
dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of
Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded
military conflicts.[citation needed]
So-called "Priest King" statue, Mohenjo-Daro, late Mature Harappan period, National
Museum, Karachi, Pakistan
The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's
contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built.
There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples—or of kings, armies, or priests. Some
structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built
bath (the "Great Bath"), which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were
walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to
divert flood waters.
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the
same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in
the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the artifacts discovered were
beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods),
and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus
Valley Civilization. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most
probably had other uses as well.
Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization cities were remarkable for
their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All the houses had access to water and drainage
facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration,
though clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments.
Authority and governance
Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a center of power or for depictions
of people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being
taken and implemented. For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts as
evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks. These are the major theories:
 There was a single state, given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence for planned
settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements
near sources of raw material.
 There was no single ruler but several: Mohenjo-daro had a separate ruler, Harappa
another, and so forth.
  Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.

Technology
Further information: Indian mathematics - Prehistory

Indus Valley seals, British Museum

The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and
time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. A
comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories.
Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was
approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age.
Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes,
including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights.[42]
These chert weights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20,
50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the
English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios
with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform
throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th
century BCE) are the same as those used in Lothal.[43]
Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead,
and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks.
In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, made the
discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappan periods,
had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific
journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human
teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns
from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates from
7,500–9,000 years ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of
proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.[44]
A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably used for
testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).[45]
Arts and crafts

The "dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro"

Chanhudaro. Fragment of Large Deep Vessel, circa 2500 B.C.E. Red pottery with red and
black slip-painted decoration, 415/16×6⅛ in. (12.5×15.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum
Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in
terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites.
A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence
of some dance form. Also, these terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and
dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been
clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of
speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had
religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether
or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.[46]
Sir John Marshall reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a
slender-limbed dancing girl in Mohenjo-Daro:

When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to
completely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modeling such as this was
unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore,
that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into
levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged .... Now, in these
statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether,
in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the
sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus.
[citation needed]

Many crafts "such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making"
were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of
Harappan sites and some of these crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today. [47] Some
make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of collyrium and a
special three-in-one toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar
counterparts in modern India.[48] Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800-2600 BCE)
which had red colour applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).[48]
Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another
sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga-like pose (see image, the so-called Pashupati,
below).
This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been variously identified. Sir John
Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.[49] If this can be validated, it
would be evidence that some aspects of Hinduism predate the earliest texts, the Veda.
A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal
indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made various toys and
games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in
sites like Mohenjo-Daro.[50]
Trade and transportation

The docks of ancient Lothal as they are today

Further information: Lothal and Meluhha
The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was
facilitated by major advances in transport technology. The IVC may have been the first
civilization to use wheeled transport.[51] These advances may have included bullock carts that
are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats
were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see
on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft.
Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking
facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal
network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H.-P. Francfort.
During 4300–3200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilization
area shows ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran which suggest
considerable mobility and trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 3200–2600 BCE),
similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade with
Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.[52]
Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilization artifacts, the trade networks, economically,
integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia,
northern and western India, and Mesopotamia.
There is some evidence that trade contacts extended to Crete and possibly to Egypt.[53]
There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and
Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce
being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain and Failaka located
in the Persian Gulf).[54] Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the innovative
development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail
of woven rushes or cloth.
Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta
Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with
Lothal in India testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbors located at
the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian
cities.
Subsistence
Some post-1980 studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the Indus
Valley. It is known that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats and barley,[55] and
the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row
barley (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245)
writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South
Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanization
and complex social organization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated,
cultural developments". Others, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that it took some
2000 years before Middle Eastern wheat was acclimatised to South Asian conditions.
Writing system
Main article: Indus script
Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols [56] have been found on seals, small
tablets, ceramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, including a "signboard" that
apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira.
Ten Indus Signs, dubbed Dholavira Signboard
Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which
(aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less
than 1 inch (2.54 cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three
different faces of a mass-produced object) has a length of 26 symbols.
While the Indus Valley Civilization is generally characterized as a literate society on the
evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged by Farmer, Sproat, and
Witzel (2004)[57] who argue that the Indus system did not encode language, but was instead
similar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East and other
societies, to symbolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts. Others have claimed on
occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim
leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which
were mass-produced in moulds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known
in any other early ancient civilizations.[58]
In a 2009 study by P. N. Rao et al. published in Science, computer scientists, comparing the
pattern of symbols to various linguistic scripts and non-linguistic systems, including DNA
and a computer programming language, found that the Indus script's pattern is closer to that
of spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as-yet-unknown language. [59]
[60]

Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding, pointing out that Rao et al. did not
actually compare the Indus signs with "real-world non-linguistic systems" but rather with
"two wholly artificial systems invented by the authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly
ordered signs and another of 200,000 fully ordered signs, that they spuriously claim represent
the structures of all real-world non-linguistic sign systems".[61] Farmer et al. have also
demonstrated that a comparison of a non-linguistic system like medieval heraldic signs with
natural languages yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtained with Indus signs.
They conclude that the method used by Rao et al. cannot distinguish linguistic systems from
non-linguistic ones.[62]
The messages on the seals have proved to be too short to be decoded by a computer. Each
seal has a distinctive combination of symbols and there are too few examples of each
sequence to provide a sufficient context. The symbols that accompany the images vary from
seal to seal, making it impossible to derive a meaning for the symbols from the images. There
have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the seals.
These interpretations have been marked by ambiguity and subjectivity.[62]:69
Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus
Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991, 2010), edited by Asko Parpola and his colleagues. The
final, third, volume, republished photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or
stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades. Formerly,
researchers had to supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the
excavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or
reproductions in more recent scattered sources.
Religion
The so-called Pashupati seal, showing a seated and possibly ithyphallic figure, surrounded by
animals.
Further information: Prehistoric religion
The religion and belief system of the Indus valley people have received considerable
attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices
of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However due to the sparsity of evidence,
which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains
undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective
view from a much later Hindu perspective. [63][64] An early and influential work in the area that
set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites [65]
was that of John Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the
Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals
and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of baths
and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and
sometimes disputed over the following decades.[66][67]
One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possibly ithyphallic and tricephalic, figure with a
horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of
the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded
as a lord of animal; and often depicted as having three heads. The seal has hence come to be
known as the Pashupati Seal, after Pashupati (lord of the beasts), an epithet of Shiva. [66][68]
While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have
raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three
faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals.
[69][70]
Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the
former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with
Mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for
the four cardinal directions.[71][72] Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it
would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo,
and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too
far.[68] Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it
has been interpreted by Jains and Buddhists as representing an early Tirthankara or an early
Buddha.[65]
Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon
excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect
of Shaktism. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people
remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be
"terribly robust".[73] Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic
representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while
the ring stones that were thought to symbolize yoni were determined to be architectural
features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be
eliminated.[74] Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being
carried in processions, while others show chimeric creations. One seal from Mohen-jodaro
shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the
Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh.[75]
In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, Indus valley lacks any
monumental temples or palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society
possessed the requisite engineering knowledge. [73][76] This may suggest that religious
ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or
the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly
devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely
thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.[73][77] The funerary practices of
the Harappan civilization is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional
burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before
final interment; and even cremation. [78][79]

Collapse and Late Harappan

Main article: Late Harappan
Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE,
most of the cities were abandoned. In 1953, Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the decline
of the Indus Civilization was caused by the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central
Asia called the "Aryans". As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts
of Mohenjo-Daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars
soon started to reject Wheeler's theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the
city's abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the
skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by
erosion, and not violent aggression.[80] Today, many scholars believe that the collapse of the
Indus Civilization was caused by drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and
Mesopotamia.[81] It has also been suggested that immigration by new peoples, deforestation,
floods, or changes in the course of the river may have contributed to the collapse of the IVC.
[82]

Previously, it was also believed that the decline of the Harappan civilization led to an
interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilization
did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later
cultures. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically
demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilizations.[83]
Current archaeological data suggest that material culture classified as Late Harappan may
have persisted until at least c. 1000–900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the
Painted Grey Ware culture.[84] Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late
Harappan settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the
invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE.[81]
Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people
eastward. After 1900 BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to 853.
Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that urban settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a
few centuries after the decline of Harappa and much earlier than previously expected. [81]
Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a
continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the so-called two major phases of
urbanization in South Asia".[84]
A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change[85] that is
also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East: The Indus valley climate grew
significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the
monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of
substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted
the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the
date of this event, as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been
dated. The actual reason for decline might be any combination of these factors. A 2004 paper
indicated that the isotopes of sediments carried by the Ghaggar-Hakra system over the last 20
thousand years do not come from the glaciated Higher Himalaya but have a Sub-Himalayan
source. They speculated that the river system was rain-fed instead and thus contradicted the
idea of a Harappan-time mighty "Sarasvati" river.[86] Recent geological research by a group
led by Peter Clift investigated how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since
8000 years ago, to test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline
of the Harappan. Using U-Pb dating of zircon sand grains they found that sediments typical
of the Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna rivers (Himalayan tributaries of the Indus) are actually
present in former Ghaggar-Hakra channels. However, sediment contributions from these
glacial-fed rivers stopped at least by 10,000 years ago, well before the development of the
Indus civilization.[87]
A research team led by the geologist Liviu Giosan of the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution also concluded that climate change in form of the easterward migration of the
monsoons led to the decline of the IVC. [88] The team's findings were published in PNAS in
May 2012.[89][90] According to their theory, the slow eastward migration of the monsoons
across Asia initially allowed the civilization to develop. The monsoon-supported farming led
to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC
residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons. As
the monsoons kept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricultural activities dried up.
The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established
smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities
did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out.[91]

Legacy
Main article: Iron Age India
In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying
degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of
Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H
culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into
the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation; a
practice dominant in Hinduism today.

Historical context and linguistic affiliation

See also: Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit and Harappan language
The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known from Sumerian
records. It has been compared in particular with the civilizations of Elam (also in the context
of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural
parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of bull-leaping).[92] The
mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is contemporary to the Early to Middle Bronze Age in
the Ancient Near East, in particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur III
Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period
Egypt.
After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was immediately associated with the
indigenous Dasyu inimical to the Rigvedic tribes in numerous hymns of the Rigveda.
Mortimer Wheeler interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels
of Mohenjo-Daro as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously stated that "Indra stands
accused" of the destruction of the IVC. The association of the IVC with the city-dwelling
Dasyus remains alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first Indo-Aryan migration
into India corresponds neatly with the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeological
record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC however changed the 19th-century view of
early Indo-Aryan migration as an "invasion" of an advanced culture at the expense of a
"primitive" aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic "barbarians" on an
advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome,
or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. This move away from simplistic "invasionist" scenarios
parallels similar developments in thinking about language transfer and population movement
in general, such as in the case of the migration of the proto-Greek speakers into Greece, or
the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe.
It was often suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to proto-Dravidians
linguistically, the breakup of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the breakup of the Late
Harappan culture.[93] Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern
India and northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of
India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory. Finnish
Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any
possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian
language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, in an interview with the
Deccan Herald on 12 August 2012, Asko Parpola clarified his position by admitting that
"Sanskrit has also preserved a very important part of the Indus heritage" and that even
Sangam Tamil had possible influences of the Brahmins .[94]
Proto-Munda (or Para-Munda) and a "lost phylum" (perhaps related or ancestral to the Nihali
language)[95] have been proposed as other candidates for the language of the IVC. Michael
Witzel suggests an underlying, prefixing language that is similar to Austroasiatic, notably
Khasi; he argues that the Rigveda (composed by the Indo-Aryans after the decline of the
Harappans) shows signs of this hypothetical Harappan influence in the earliest historic level,
and Dravidian only in later levels, suggesting that speakers of Austroasiatic were the original
inhabitants of Punjab and that the Indo-Aryans encountered speakers of Dravidian only in
later times.[96]
The civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization or the
Indus-Sarasvati civilization.[97][98]
Hindustan

2. Alexander the Great in India

Alexander the Great was the Macedonian ruler in the fourth century BC. He was a great
warrior and desired {and greatly achieved} to conquer the whole world. He crossed over the
Hindus Kush mountains around 327 BC and fought with the mighty and great worrier Poros,
who was the ruler over Northern India. Alexander achieved victory India {North-West} in
326 BC}.

Alexander the Great died suddenly in 323 BC and the Greek empire was divided among his
generals {in accordance with the prophecy of Daniel}. Sleukos, one of Alexander’s general
gained control the Babylonian region and thus tried to keep India under his control. But
because of the weakened power of the Greek, India could not kept under its rule.

3. The Mauryan Dynasty 322 BC :

The Mauryan Dynasty dawned in 322 BC with Chandragupta Maurya as the emperor. After
him followed Ashoka Maurya {the Great} in 273 BC, who was a man of peace and was the
influencing factor in the spread of Buddhism as a world religion. Ashoka was more involved
religiously than politically. He died in 232 BC and his grandsons took over the empire. The
last of Mauryana kings Bridhadratha, who was killed in 185 BC. After the downfall of the
Mauryan Dynasty the Sunga Dynasty came into power till 28 BC. During this period came
the Indo-Greeks and other foreign dynasties in North-Western India; the Kushans or Indo-
Sythians, during the second and first centuries BC.

The word “Arya” signifies Sanskrit speaking peoples. Sanskrit is an Indo-European language,
which is the root for many of the current Indian languages, although Sanskrit itself is found
mostly only in literature.

4. Greek influence and Other Foreigners {Second & First Century BC}

Around 250 BC the regions of Parthia and Bactria had become independent from the
Seleukidan empire { a division of the Greek empire}. These independent provinces then
spread their own influence to the East. The forth of the Bactrian kings, Demetrios, {about 200
BC} was able “even to annex considerable territories in the Punjab and Western India.”
Menander, later on {160-140 BC} ruled in North-Western India. The Bactrian rule ended
around 130 BC, with heliokles {the last of the Greek Kings in Bactaria}. Parthian kings had
also invaded parts of North-West India during the second and the first centuries BC. Vincent
Smith writes; “During the interval sundry ruling families of foreigners appear in the frontier
provinces, some of the princes having distinctly Parthian names. These details are too
obscure and doubtful for discussion in this word.”

The chronological order of the main powers in India from the first till the 20th century

The Gupta Period AD 320-647

The Medieval Hindu Kingdoms {Rajput Period} AD 647-1175
The Muslin and Mughal Period AD 1175-1740
The British Period AD 1740-1947
The Independent India Period AD 1947-The Present

Chapter : One

THE BEGINNING OF CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA

1.1. Over View of the Tradition of the St. Thomas

The early period starts with the tradition of the Apostle Thomas coming to India. This
period is known as the period of obscurity. This is an oral tradition both by Indians and
people out of India. The Indian tradition, there was no written document till the coming of the
Portuguese in the 16th century AD. The church started from Jerusalem, from Jesus and His
twelve disciples. There was small drop in the ocean of the world. Slowly, the movement of
Christianity spread out to West, South, North and to East. It was at the time of Roman empire
church began to grow in the cultural background of the respective places in different
languages, political environment, different races and there were differences in theology also.
Leadership of the church grew accordingly. The church spread out to Asia minor, Europe,
North Africa, Syria and than to East. It is believed that Christianity came to India by St.
Thomas. This is the tradition of Syria and than to East. It is believed that Christianity in
Malabar. They believed, that apostle Thomas came to India, especially to South India.

There is no book or monument to describe this record of apostle’s coming.

However, the tradition says that Thomas came to Socotra, a small Island in the
Arabian sea, North East coast of Africa. And from there he came to Cranganore of the
province of Kerala, which is North of Cochin, in the year 52 AD. He preached in the Jewish
colony and many became the followers of St. Thomas. He founded seven churches on the
coastal region, and some churches are still existing.
1.1.1. The Two Views/ Tradition of Christianity in India

There are two views among scholars about the origin of Christianity in India.
According to one, the foundations of Christianity in India were laid by St. Thomas, the
apostle or even by two apostles, St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew. The other would ascribe
the arrival of Christianity in India to the enterprise of merchants and missionaries of the east
Syrian or Persian Church.

There are two main tradition regarding the coming of Christianity in India. But we
have no contemporary records to establish the matter beyond this.

1.1.1.1.Western Tradition/North Indian Tradition

According to this tradition, St. Thomas following the well establish trade routes
reached India sometime in the middle of first century. He the gospel in Parthia and India,
converted many into Christianity, including members of royal families, suffered martyrdom
in India, and was buried there, later his mortal remains were transferred to the Edessa where
they were deposited paying due respect and venerated. The Acts of Thomas describes the
journey and activities of the Apostle. According to this the apostle cast lots to decide where
each should go and preach. India fell to the lot of Thomas. But he was most unwilling to go.
But Christ appeared to a merchant from India named Hubban, who was in the employ of king
Gudnaphar and offered to sell him a slave who was a carpenter. Hubban bought Thomas for
twenty pieces of silver and took him to India. There the king wanted him to build a palace for
him. The king gave money for building a palace at a particular place.

But Thomas gave away the money to the poor. When king knew about this he was
very angry. Thomas declared that he had built a heavenly palace for him by helping the poor.
King Gudnaphar put him in prison. At that time the king’s brother, who was very ill, dream
that he died and went to heaven. There the angels showed him a grand palace which Thomas
had built for the king. Next morning he spoke to the king about the dream and of the beautiful
palace in heaven. There upon the king released Thomas from prison. The king and his brother
believed and they were baptized as Christian. Also Thomas was given freedom to preach the
gospel in their kingdom.
 From the 3th century A.D. to the 19th century the name of Thomas and Gudnaphar
were connected by tradition, but there was no known king having such a name in Indian
history. But the close of the 19th century, excavations in Punjab resulted in the discovery of
coins and other evidence leading to the inference that Gudnaphar was a historical person, an
Indo Parthian king who live in the first century A.D., chronologically a contemporary of St.
Thomas.

1.1.1.2.South Indian Tradition{Malabar Tradition/Syrian Tradition}

According to this tradition, St. Thomas came by sea and first landed at Cranganore
about the year A.D. 52. He is said to have preached to the Jewish colony settled there and to
have made converts both among them and among their neighbours. He travelled in the coastal
region Southwards, founded churches in seven places, i.e., Crangamore {Maliankara},
Palayur, Quilon, Panar, Kokamangalam, Niranaim and Chaya.

St. Thomas, by his simplicity and saintly life could win converts from the high caste
of Hindus. He ordained Presbyters for the churches from the four Brahmin families called
Pakalomattan, Kalli, Sankarapuri and Kaliankal. After this he is said to have crossed over to
the east coast and to have travelled eastwards from there to Malacca and he went to China
and finally to have returned to Mylapore where he was speared to death in 72 AD by the
Brahmins.

This tradition is supported by Portuguese who came to India in the 16 th century and
they heard this tradition from the local people. Also the great traveller Marco Pollo, speaks
about the tomb of St. Thomas in South India. It was the place of pilgrimage for Christian and
Muhammadeans. Other European travellers, who came to India in 1517, wrote that he was
stole by Muhammadean about the chapel and the tomb of St. Thomas, which was located at
Malpuria. The early church also speaks about Thomas coming to India. There is no written
history about it. But by the church fathers of the third century confirmed that Thomas was
send to India.
 The body of St. Thomas is supposed to have been buried in Mylapore. It is believed
that a merchant took away the bones of St. Thomas from Mylapore and buried them in
Edessa in Persia because St. Thomas establish churches in Persia on the way to India. The
Christians in South India celebrate July 3rd as St. Thomas Day to commemorates the day of
the removal of the remains of St. Thomas to Edessa.

1.1.1.3.The three foundations

 Belief of Syrian Christian community mainly Kerala established seven churches.

Four Brahmin families were converted. Visitors to Tiruvilla Mission Hospital are
often taken to Niranam, the site of one of the churches purported to have been
established by Thomas. Since no tradition is without some basis and since it is not
possible to show by what means Christianity came to India, we need to give
credibility to this tradtion.

 Thomas is usually mentioned in Jerome’s writing as the disciple of Christ and His
presence with Thomas in India.

 The name of Thomas is mentioned along with a king who ruled North India from
21 AD-60 AD. Thomas finally King was Mideus put to death following the
conversion of the king’s wife and son.

Beside this, Eusabius speaks Thomas that he came to Parthis, in the Persian empire,
and Bartholomew came to India. In those days there was no such clear picture of India in the
ancient Near East. Parthia may also refer to India. There is no record in the Acts of Apostles
concerning Thomas. In Apocryphal there is “Acts of Thomas” which gives a different story
of Thomas coming to India.

We need to take tradition for granted as King Gudnaphor rule Punjab is a historical
fact. So that Thomas preached in North India is a certainty but his coming to South India is
unprovable, though not impossible.
 But the question is, how far this tradition is true? In 1834, they found some coins in
Punjab and Afghanistan, bearing the name of Gudnaphorus. It is believed that he was the
king of the North Western India.

The tradition, which is spoken by the Malabar Christians advocates St. Thomas in
South India. But some historian is rejected this tradition, that Thomas came to India. Among
these historians French and Roman Catholics. But it has been found out that in the Roman
period there was a definite link with India. There were evidences of Palestinian Jewish in
India. Some people accepted that Thomas visited North and not South India. But the Syrian
Christians strongly believe Thomas tradition is South India, because there was trade between
Roman Empire and South India, especially Dravidians.

There is also the Malabar church tradition. They accepted the South India tradition of
St. Thomas. However none of the views are absolute. But majority of the people believe the
South India Tradition.

One thing to note is that Thomas came to India not because he had much in common
with the people but because he had a message to tell them.

The Tradition Of Bartholomew

There are two ancient testimonies, which represent the tradition of Bartholomew in
India. It is by Eusabius of Caesaria and Jerome, fourth century Latin church fathers. They
reported that Pantaenus was sent to India by Bishop Demetrius from Alexandria in around
180 AD. Who found the gospel of Matthew in Hebrew left by Bartholomew. The recent
scholars, like Perumalil has argued in favour of the gospel of Matthew, which was found in
Kalyana near Bombay. In Latin it is known as Felix. But majority of the scholars are against
this tradition. However there is no certain historical evidence in regard to the beginning of
Christianity in India

Chapter-Two

INDIA AND THE CHURCH OF THE EAST UP TO 800 AD

Introduction
The church in India does not have any complete history of the church for this period. The
sources are very vague. There are some evidences which speaks about the Christian
community in India, from the early period, who were connected with the Syrian church.

2.1. Church of East {How it had a link in the church of India}:

It speaks about the Persian empire which includes the modern Iran and Iraq. This was the
Persian empire which made the road for trade and business with the west. The commercial
language was Chaldean or Aramic. People from this part were known as Armaneans. They
had different stories concerning the beginning of Christianity in Persia.

 Is believed it that St. Thomas came to Persia and established churches in Persia.

 Others believe that Agai and Mari were the founders of Christianity in the Persian
empire.

Antioch of Syria was the centre of Christianity for the Mesopotamia. It was the bishop of
Antioch of the Patrich, regarded as the ruler of the churches in this region. Christianity a
spread on the Eastern side. It spread very rapidly two cities in this area became famous
Christian centers. The churches were affected by the politics in the early period, then later out
they became independent. They became orthodox in their doctrine. Because of the language
problem, the church got separated. There was differences between Greek an Syria. Also there
were theological differences with regard to the teaching of Christ. In 7th century Muslims
swept into Eastern church. Christianity was reduced. Many were forced to abandon
Christianity.

2.2. The Evidence Of Christianity In India

An Indian writer wrote in 18th century AD. That after the death of Thomas, India and Malabar
became without a preacher and leader for 92 years. This may be a vague account of
Christianity in India. The only record we find is from Eusebius and Jerome mentioning about
Pantaenus from Alexandria visited India in 189 AD. He happened to find out the gospel of
Matthew in Hebrew language most probably left by Bartholomew according to the tradition.

But certain people believe that Christianity came to India during 4 th & 5th century AD. At the
time of the Roman emperor Constantine. The more clear evidences come from the 3th
century AD. Between 295-300 AD. Dudi, bishop of Bazra of Mesopotamia came to India and
evangelized many people. This is an evidence of show the link of Eastern church with India.

In first general council meeting at Nicea {325 AD}, there was a representative from India. He
called himself as John of Persia.

In 324 AD, the Roman emperor, Constantinius sent a Christian embassy to certain Countries
boarding on the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea, under the leadership of Theophilus, the India.

A Syrian scholar Mana, bishop of Rowardashir of Persia sent out all the books, which he
translated to India in 470 AD.

This proves the existence of Christianity in India.

In 522 AD. A Christian merchant of Alaxendria named Cosmos records that there were
Christians in India, Malabar and Kalyana which have close connection with Persia.

All this show that there were Christians in India from a very early time. But we do not have
enough historical records about it. However it shows that India Christians were closely
connected with Persia. Also there were evidences of the inter-marriage between Syrian and
Indians. And due to Muslim persecution in Persia Christians came to India in 4 th & 5th
centuries and later in 7th century AD. These are the solid evidences of church existing in
South India at that time which was composed of partly by Syrians and connected with Persia.
Chapter-Three

CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA IN MIDDLE AGES {800-1500 AD}

Introduction

In the previous section we have found out some of the evidences and proofs of the existence
of Christianity in India which had close connection with the Christians of Persia. In this
chapter we shall study the evidences of Christian church up to 1500 AD. It was the time of
Muslim rule in the Eastern region, especially in central Asia and North India. The churches in
these places suffered a lot from the Muslims. Only a few Christians could survive under the
Muslim rule. Islam became a hindrance to the growth of Christianity till the 19 th century.
Christians were tolerated because of their superiority in education. Though this they could
have some influence of the people. But slowly restrictions were imposed upon the Christians.

3.1. The Restrictions

 The Christians were to pay a special tax

 They had to put distinctive dress to differentiate between Christians and Muslim

 They could not build a new church building

 They should not ring the bell to call people for worship

 Christians could not convert a Muslim and if they do they will be killed

On the other hand, the crusaders spoiled the relation between Muslins and Christians.
Muslims became more bitter towards Christians. As a result, Christians became increasingly
weak.

The rise of the Turks an Mugals in 11 th & 12th centuries was the tie of eruption of Turks and
Mugals in central Asia. In the 11th century, the Turks invaded Persia and they spread out the
whole of Western Asia. But these Turks were conquered religiously by Islam. They became
Muslims. In 13th century Mongolians united with Chankish Khan conquered the vast land
from China to central Asia. Afterward the Mugal accepted Islam at the end of the 13 th
century, and they became enemy to Christianity. From this time Mugals lemur carried out a
continuous attack against North India in 14th century AD. And finally North India came under
the Muslim rule.

However, the South India was not attack by the Mugals. Because of this the church of East
was not attacked by the small community both in Mesopotamia and India.

3.2. Church In India

It was a troubled time for the church in India. Because of this the communication with
Eastern church. For years Church in India was left without any leaders and bishops. But on
the other hand, the church of South India was not affected by this. However, there is no much
information about the church situation of India during this period, except the Indian tradition
from Malabar, e.i.,…from the 9th to the 16th century. According to their tradition, the
Christian community and church in India {South}, enjoy certain freedom under the Hindu
Rajas.

When the Portuguese came to India, they found the Christian as prosperous community in
trace and land owing, equivalent to the high caste Hindus.

The crusaders had brought a bitter feeling between Christian and Muslims, yet it brought
Europe and East to a closer friendship. Through the Pope’s diplomatic relationship the Turks
and the Mughals opened the way between East and West. Once again travel became easier to
the western world.

In 1289, john Corvino was sent to India as an emissary {agent or representative} of Pope. He
stayed in India for 13th months. In three of his letters, he has mentioned of the churches in
India and these have preserved. He visited the church of St. Thomas, and baptized many
people. Afterward he went to China and stayed there for many years.

Marco Polo, a layman, a great traveller visited India in 1292. He went to the place where
people believed the body of St. Thomas was buried near Madras. His place had become a
place of pilgrimage both the Christians and Muslims. Also he found number of Christians in
Quilon.
In 1321, a French Dominicans known as Jordan came to India along with four Fransiscans
Friars on the way to China. On the way they landed in Thana, a small place near Bombay,
where they found 15 families of Nestorian Christians. While waiting for the another ship,
Jordan set out for the main land of India. In the mean time these Fransciscans were called
before Dadi, the Muslim judge. They were martyred because they did not agree with the
Muslims. Jordan collected the remains of his friends and buried in a place called Sefa, where
they have a church now. Jordan continued to work in the midst of this opposition and
baptized many. These reports speak of the Christianity in North-West India. Christians at that
time in India did widely spread.

Another witness is John De Marignolli who came to India in 1348 stayed for 16 th months. He
wrote his Chronicles of Bohmia and had mentioned about the Christian in India, who were
the followers of St. Thomas. Also found church of Latin order.

In 1324, a Friar, Odoric Pordenone on his way to China visited Thana, where four
Franciscans martyr were buried.

3.3. Conclusion

We have only one vague Indian Tradition about the existence of Christians in
Malabar.

From 13th to 15th century we have the reports of the western travellers who did
say much about the Indian Christians.

These Christians mostly are Syrian Christians and Nestorian Christian,

scattered in various places without any leaders, knowledge of faith and many of them
had not baptized.

But there was strong Christian community in Malabar who had respectable
standing and who been from the higher castes.

The Muslim rule in Asia had affected the Christians in Asia.

It was the dark period for the Indian Church and yet the church continued to exit.
Frairs : Latin ‘Fraire’ meaning Brethren. These Friars are members of the ‘Mendicant order’
or Sanyasis founded by St. Francis and St. Dminic. These were main vowed to poverty,
celibacy and obedience inured {hardened} to hardship and ready to endure all thing for the
sake of Christ and His Church.

Chapter 4

CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA IN MODERN AGE 1500 AD PRESENT

 4.1. The period of Portuguese domination 1500-1700

The Mugals rule in India in the early 15th century and the coming of the Portuguese at the end
of the 15th century changes the history of India. “Within no time” the Mugals established
their empire in India. Babur was a Muslim and yet has tolerant to other religions of state.
Mugals just loved people and also they looked for welfare of the people. These they tried to
do through political unity. That time India was ruled by different or many kings. By nature
Mugals were autocratic, but they were not like the Muslims of the Afghan who were rough
kind of people. It was during the Mugal rule, the Portuguese landed in India. It was with this
Mugals, the Portuguese had to make link for trade and business.

 15th century in world history was the greatest century of voyages and
the discovered of new lands and establishments of new colonies.

 It was the time of industrial revolution and colonial expansion. Also it

was the time of power struggle between different countries of the west
like England, France, Spain and Portuguese.

 It was at this time Europe was rule by Pope and Europeans were the
Christians and under papal authority.

 In 1498, Wasco-De-Gama, a Portuguese Sailor, sailed round the ‘Cape

of Good Hope’ and arrived Calicut on the Malabar coast.

Since then there were continuous visitors who made their way to India from Portugal for
trade. This was the beginning of the link of the west with the India sub-continent. And during
this time Roman Catholic mission started their work in India. This was also the period of
Christian dependence upon secular powers.

The Portuguese had three things in their minds.

 Primarily they came for trade and business. But later they decided to
establish Portuguese settlements in India.

 Secondly, they also had desire to Christianize to their influences.

 Thirdly to bring the Syrian Christians to their influence.

The power of Portuguese spread rapidly in India. They became rival to the Mohammedians
and the Mohammedians began to instigate the local Raja against Portuguese. Bitter enmity
grew between these two. On the other hand, though the Portuguese came only for the trade,
they also sought to establish the colonies in India. In 1510, they captured Goa from the Sultan
of Bijapur. By 1531, the Portuguese were in control of Choul, Damun, Salsettem, Culicat,
Mangalore, Bassin, Cochin, Quilon. Goa became the quarter of the Portuguese in India.

They extended their territory and finally the sea of India came under their control. The
Portuguese began to establish the Portuguese colonies and introduce their life-style, culture
and Church Worship. By religion they were Christians under the Pope i.e., the Roman
Catholic Church. They opened schools and convents for the educational purpose. In 1534, the
first Portuguese bishop was placed in Goa. He became the head of Roman Catholic Churches
in the discovered countries and in future which were to discovered in Asia and Africa,
because Pope was considered as the ruler of the earth in the behalf of Christ. It was granted
by Pope Leo X in 1514. It was called Portuguese Padroado.

The term ‘Padroado’ means the right select/present candidate to bishoprics and other
ecclesisastical offices and correspondingly an obligation to maintain staff and equip churches
and mission.

4.1.1. Expansion under Padroado

The church in India continued to expand under this Portuguese padroado. This
Padroado gave the right to send the church officials and also made them obligated to maintain
through finance. The church was controlled by the government. The Padroada became a
weapon in spreading of the Christianity. In 1558, the Arch bishopric of Goa was established.
The Hindus and Muslims of the Portuguese settlement came under the Portuguese rule in
India. The Portuguese being the Roman Catholic did not allow any non-Christian worship in
their settlement. Temples and Mosques were demolished. Hindu and Muslim worships were
forbidden under the Portuguese under the Portuguese rule. Violation to their rule led them to
severe punishment. There was no force converts, but it is the Christians who could hold the
public offices. Also the converts enjoyed the same privilege as the Portuguese.

The main trust became the impose political power than the preaching of the gospel for
the establishment of the church in India. Especially the low caste from the Hindu religion
became the followers of the portuguese’s religion. The Church and its activities were
controlled by the government. It was government who appoints clergies and paid their
expenses. Most of the church expenses came from the king’s fund. When Hindu and Muslim
slaves were converted, they must be sold to the Christians for a suitable price. Officer’s Posts
were given only to the Christians. From 1539, there were reference of tithes. Non Christians
were exempted from the tithes. But as soon as they became Christians tithes were demanded
and collected by the government from door to door. In 1561, Queen Catherine made a law
that no tithe was to be required during the first ten years of conversion.

By 1555, mission work was properly organized. Different religious orders began to
send missionaries to India. Franciscan came to India in 1518, Dominicans by 1548, the Jesuit
by 1542, the Augustinians by 1572.

4.1.1.1. The Evaluation

When Padroada was established there was no other means for spreading the
Catholic faith except what the Spanish and Portuguese government paid. Rome
{Pop} did not give any single money. And Indian Jesuit, Padro Luis criticized
cardinals, who built showy places but had nothing for mission. Whereas the
Portuguese King had the zeal for spreading out the Catholic faith.

4.1.1.2. The Weakness of Padroado :

The term Frangius or Paragis was applied to the Portuguese on India. Even the
converts were called by the same term, which means, they were meat eater,
drunkards and loose living. Even some of the Portuguese soldiers were cruel and
destructive. They wanted to put their own men in the church and in the mission
work. Often they used to stop money and as a result, the missionaries in the fields
in India had to suffer.

In the 1665, the Portuguese power declined. As a result, there was no sufficient finance and
persons to maintain the Pardroado. Also there was conflicts between king and Pope.

4.1.2. Expansion under propaganda

In 1622, the sacred congregation for the propagation faith organized by Pope Gregory IV. It
was known as the Propaganda. The society had three ends

 To keep Rome informed of missions,

  To extent the missionary episcopates

 To bring secular clergy into mission work

4.1.2.1. The Mission work of Propaganda

4.1.2.1.1. Surat

This mission started in 1639 {by propaganda society} by the Capuchinne {a

branch of Franciscans}. But their mission ended in 1825 when the last of the
father died.

4.1.2.1.2. Pondicherry

In 1663, the foreign missionary society of Pasrish founded. Seminaries to train

missionaries. In 1874, they established a mission in Pondy. Thus this was the
beginning of the mission work by the other countries and this also brought
conflict between the Portuguese Padroado. The conflict was because

 France was an alien power

 The secular priests were disliked by the religions.

 The propaganda missionaries were under the vicar, apostolic

independent of Portugal.

In 1595, under Padroado, the Portuguese Jesuit father Fernandez had begun the Madurai
mission. Later this mission spread to Mysore and Karnataka area. The mission was known as
Coromondel mission.

After the separation of Jesuit in 1773, these missions were handed over the foreign
missionary society in Parish under propaganda in 1776. The society provided only one Vicar
and 5-6 secular priests.

The efforts were made for making the mission indiginus under propaganda Indians were
recruited of the priesthood but very late. Whereas in Padroada it was early. The training was
western. They had several literatures like dictionaries, grammar, and gospels, Bible histories
and hymnals, which were written in Indian language. Indian medical knowledge was written
in western language for the western people. But the whole work was limited.

The propagandas missionaries were few and they were not able to do much work. Even they
could not experiment and of their work. There was conflict between Jurisdiction of Padroada
and propaganda. And therefore, the work could not continues in and indigenous way. But
when they were allowed to do the work in 19th century, the Jesuit who were in charge of the
work began to gave emphasis on education and this indigenization was neglected.

4.1.3. Expansion through Jesuit mission

In propagandas a new society was started. It was the society of Jesus. The founder of this
society was Ignatius Loyola {1506-1556}. He was a Spanish soldier, had an extra ordinary
spiritual experience while he was in the hospital with broken leg. Later on he formulate a
course of spiritual struggles. This was on the motto: “To conquer oneself and order one’s life
without being influence on one’s decisions by any ordinate affection.” Ignatius himself was a
devoted of God and for his service.

5. Expansion through Madurai and Mougal Mission

6. Expansion rite controversy and the Jesuit

7. Portuguese and Syrian Christians

Ignatius went a University in Paris, and there with his spiritual experience he could influence
other young men to undertake the same spiritual training for the service of God. In 1534,
Ignatius and six of his friends solemnly committed themselves to the brotherhood of celibacy
and poverty. They wanted to go Palestine as missionaries, to work among the Turks, and also
they decided that if they fail to go to Palestine, then they would surrender to the Pope as
those, “Prepared to preach the gospel anywhere in the world at his direction, including the
land of the Turks and other tyrants hostile to the Christian name.” as they were waiting in
Venice, to go to the Palestine, they started their work by taking care of the sick and did any
lowly work.

They could not go to Palestine as they have planned. In 1540, the Pope approved as a society
vowed to obedience to their superior. They also appointed society general for life term. There
first general was Loyola. Thus the Jesuit society came to existence. First of all started from
brotherhood then became Jesuit. Their vows were celibacy, poverty, obedience and the work
under the command of the Pope.

One of their men,

Francis Xavier {1506-1552} was sent as a missionary to India. He was a Spanish noble. He
went to Parish for studies at the age of 19 th, and there he was influenced by Loyola. He was
one of the six who along with Loyola founded “the society of Jesus.” In this time the king of
Portugal had requested the Pope to permit some of the Jesuits to go to India for the mission
work. 1n 1541, Francis Xavier and Paul-DeCamerino were sent to India by the king of
Portuguese to the Victor De Sozua in India. The Pope appointed Xavier and Apostolic
Nuncio, which means special messenger of the Pope, to India and the other countries of the
India oceans. He came to India under Padroado. It took 13 th months to Xavier to reach India.
The voyage was rough. There was death on the board. He cared for the sick and buried the
dead. People called him a saint.4.1.3.1. Xavier’s Work

He reached at Goa. At that time it was an organized town with bishops, clergy, churches,
hospitals and school. On the other hand, the Portuguese were worldly, loosed living, ill
disciplined. Thus Xavier faced two opposite things. On the one hand an organized town and
on the other hand, a low moral life. He worked in Goa for 5 months in the hospitals and
prisons. Also he had concerned for the children. He used to go out into the streets, ringing the
bell and calling out the people to send their children to the holy teaching of the love of God.
He used to teach them hymns and used to explain them in a simple way. So in God he had
ministry in hospitals and prison and among the children.

The Xavier went to the fishery coast in the southeast India. The Paravas, who were pearl
fishers had turned to Christians seeking Portuguese protection from sea pirate. They were left
without any teaching and Christian leaders. They were hard working people, but ignorant and
illiterate. The Portuguese failed to provide Christian teaching and care. Xavier came to
Manapad, which is at the cape Comorin along with three Indian Christians and baptized the
people inn these villages. Then he translated the creed, the Commandments, the Lord’s prayer
to Mary and the confession into Tamil language. He alse made the catechetical material
translated into Tamil and made the children to learn the by heart. He also made the children
to teach others. It became easy for the children to do it. On Sunday, Xavier used to gather all
the people and teach them the prayer in their own language. He also taught them to pray to
Mary to obtain mercy from her son on their behalf. His method was to teach everyone in
their own language and made them to memorize by repetition and carefully explained to each
one of them.

In 1543, two Europeans and two Goans Priests joined Xavier. Xavier began to maintain strict
disciplined life among the Christians. He opposed the mistreatment of the Portuguese and of
the Rajas over the common people. Thus Xavier’s work’s in the fishery coast was baptism
instruction, regular worship, and relief for the poor. He work among the Christians and also
among the new converts. Now he became conscious of his responsibility as an Apostolic
Nuncio for the whole of Asia. In 1545 he left for Malacca {Indonesia}.

In 1548, Xavier came back to India and stayed for 15 months. He brought with him a
Japanese convert, Anjiro. At this time there were many missionary fathers who came to help
Xavier’s work. Xavier became their head and counsellor. It was during this time, the Jesuits
began to replace the Franciscans. Xavier appointed them in different places with a superior in
each area and gave them detail instruction for their work. Also he visited the fishery coast
and Bassein several times.

In 1549, he went to Japan, and in 1552, when he returned to India, he was appointed
provincial of the society of Jesus in India and the East. During his absence, things had gone
wrong in India. The St. Paul College was converted into university for the Protuguese. But
later Xavier put the things right. After this he went to China. There he had difficult time. He
felt sick and on 2nd Dec. 1552, he died. Later his body was brought to India and kept in India

4.3.1.2. the Evaluation of Xavier’s Work :

By 16th century Jesuits had work in 16 large villages. In 8 of them they had Jesuit priest
headquarters. These priests had authority over people’s lives. They were to have fishing on
Sunday and apart of Friday’s catch must be given for the Church support. No education was
done and the majority remained illiterate. One of the weak points was the convert Christians
failed to influence other non-Christians. Caste system was maintained among Christians.
After Xavier in 1577, the Jesuit work was firmly established in India. They made Malabar as
their headquarter. They also founded a seminary at Vaipicota {Chennamagalam}.

4.1.4. Expansion of Christianity Inside and Outside Portuguese Territories

 I. In both areas, conversion to Christianity resulted in change from
oppression and degradation to at least some measure of dignity and justice.

II. In both areas, the converts faced contempt and hatred of the non-Christians
because many became Christians due to economic reasons.

III. In both areas, Church organization was set us and missionaries providing
teaching to the people.

CAUSE INSIDE OUTSIDE

Cause of conversion Favour, marriage, position protection

Propagation of Christians majority minority

Cultural integration Westernized Indian Caste

Status privileged low-caste

Persecution by non-Christians Prevented by authority no

protected by authority

Influence of non-Christians Not much Practically nil

4.1.5. The Madurai and Moghul Missions

4.1.5.1. Madurai Mission

The main person of this mission was Robert De Nobili {1517-1656}. He was an Italian Jesuit
from a noble family, intelligent and had a zeal for mission in India. He came to India in 1605
and at first he was sent to fishery coast to learn Tamil. Then in 1606 then he was sent to
Madurai {Madura-the center of Tamil culture}. Before the coming of Robert De Nobili to
Madura, they had father Fernancez in Madurai responsible for the Christians congregation of
Paravas, who had migrated to Madurai. Fernandez had a school for boys under a Hindu
master, he had a small dispensary. However the Christian work could not touch the main
body of Hindus. The Hindus used to hate chrisitans and looked them contempt. It was due to
the cruelty of some chrisitans rulers and Christians were meat eaters and loose living and
moreover Christianity was foreign religion. It was in this situation Robert De Nobili came to
Madurai. He kept a Brahmin book and ate vegetarian food. By 1607 he began to teach some
young people and also some school teachers.

They continued a long discussion about Christianity for 20 days, for 4 or 5 hours daily. As a
result to this 3 Nayak young men and school teachers took baptism. Within one year 10
people were baptized. In 1607 Robert De-Nobili changed his dress to Saffron clothes and
wooden sandals. He built a mud house and a chapel and this became his mutt, religion center.
People began to call him guru. The visiting time was restricted after several attempts the
visitors could get a change to meet him. He learned Tamil and people were impressed by his
Tamil language. He requested Telegu Brahmin Pandit to teach him Sanskrit and Hindu
Vedas. By 1608, the Pandit was baptized and in the same year 63 people took baptism.

4.1.5.2. The Method of Robert De-Nobili

Every preacher of the gospel tries to apply the Christian faith to the culture and social context
of the people. From the beginning of the Church history Christians have used many method
to make Christian faith relevant. They had used local language expression and also the
worship system. This can be called as indigenization. In same case they tried to re-interpret
Christian living and worship in a local life. That is called contextualization. Robert De-Nobili
began to follow as method of accommodation.

The converts in Madurai during the time of Robert De-Nobili were from different castes.
Nayakas cultivators, Brahmin and all these people took water baptism according to Latin rite.
But they were allowed to stay with their family members with their old life style and caste
system. Only they were not to worship any idol. They were allowed to keep sacred cord and
Kudumi {hair tuft}. Also they were allowed to observe some of the festivals like Pongal.
Cerenmonial bathing. They were taught prayers instead of Hindus mantras. Thus the converts
had no total break from caste and culture except in idol worship.

Robert De-Nobili argued that

I. When a person became Christian there was no need for him to renounce
his caste and customs. The idea of such break is of devil
 II. Caste was a social custom, which is parallel to the class distinction in
Europe.

III. Caste system of India was inevitable feature of India life similar to the
slavery system in Rome, which the apostles did not oppose.

IV. The Syrian Christians of South India had their own cast community and
therefore Robert De-Nobili advocated for the caste system among the
Christian for the expansion of the Church.

IV.1.5.3. Growth of Madurai Mission

In 1610, father of Vico came to help Robert De-Nobili and he became on of his strong
supporters. In the same year there arose a strong opposition over the method of
accommodation. In 1623, they got freedom to use this method. However, the struggle
continued till 1744. In this struggle the freedom taken away. This struggle was known as the
“Rite of controversy.” On the other hand De-Nobili’s work extended to Trichinopolu. Some
of the Madurai converts migrated there. At this time the work was less among the Brahmin
but it was more among the low caste-shudras and Adi-Dravidas. In 37 years there were only
600 converts from among the higher casts. But a big group joined among the Adi-Dravidas.
The other mission workers took the caste system seriously. In some cases it became
hindrance to the work. Even the missionaries began to work among the higher caste during
the daytime and among the lower caste at night. The Brahmin Sanyasi worked among the
Brahmins only the Pandaraswamis worked mostly among the low caste. In 1644 the mission
suffered a lot of persecutions. In 1645 De-Nobili was old and blind, spen 2 years in jaffina as
a Jesuit superior. Rest of his time he spen in Mylapore as a Sanyasi. He died in 1656 at the
age of 79.

The Tamil scholars will never forget the name of De-Nobili. He wrote several books in Tamil
like theology, dialogues on God, apologetics, the life of Mary in Sanskrit, a summary of
Christian doctrine and he composed several Tamil and Telegu hymns.

IV.1.5.4. Cormondel Mission

In 1595 under Padroado, Jesuit father Fernandez had begun the Madurai mission; also to
Tanjabur and Socyamangalam. In 1648 as Italian father began to work in Mysire which
spread south-eastern as present Karnataka state. In 1689, a French Jesuit from Pondy began
Karnatic mission and this mission work extended towards Andra Pradesh. When the Jesuits
were suppressed in 1773, the mission work suffered a lot. In the vast mission area very few
trained workers were there. During this time many were persecuted and therefore could not
come for the teaching and instruction openly. The Madurai mission had both good and wak
points. They learned the language and led a sanyasi life, learned Hindu scriptures, they had
division of works for the rapid growth of Christianity among different castes.

IV.1.5.5. John De Britto

He was a Portuguese noble. He had a missionary heart. He was known for his apostolic zeal/
he had a gift to win souls. In 1673, he vane to India and joined the Madurai mission. First of
all he was in mission district, the Thanjavur and the Gingee kingdom. In that place he was
opposed by the local rulers. In the midst of this opposition Britto continued his work. The
Christians came to visit him during the night only and he baptized people at night. Afterward
there was persecution even at the time of De-Nobili, but in the case of Britto, from the
beginning rulers were against the Christian mission. And in spite of that the Church
expanded. In 1686, Britto came to Marva, visited the Christian family and baptized the
children. Later on he and the converts were beaten, arrested and imprisoned. Afterward he
and the people were released by the local king. But were warned not to enter the countries
again. For two years Britto went to Portugual for mission work. On his return to India, he was
given the office fo the archbishopric of Cranganore. But he refused and came to Marva. In
this time Britto claimed to have baptized 4000 people. Most of the work had done in hiding.
In 1693 Britto and other three of his friend imprisoned tied to horses tails and were dragged.
Later on Thadia rescued Britto and was expelled from the country. Later on by the command
of the king he was beheaded publicly.

4.1.5.6. Joseph Beschi

Another notable worker of the Madurai mission was Joseph Beschi. He was an Italian. He
served the mission from 1711-1742. At first he had hard and difficult times. After that he
won the confidence of the Moghul General Chandrasahin. He was a diwari, he was incharge
to collect the revenues. He established his main center at Yella Kurichi. Also he started a
festival of ‘one lady refuge.’ It was stated at the time of famine to keep the Roman Catholic
Christians from becoming Protestants. At that time there was already a Protestant work in
Tranguekar. So Beschi and his friends did their best the Catholics to keep them in Catholic
Church. Beschi mastered Tamil language. He composed the best Tamil poems to tell the
history of the Bible, the life of Joseph and Mary.

IV.1.5.6. The Moghul Mission

Now we will go back to the history of in 1500, when Portuguese came to India
and the establishment of Moghul empire and since then in India Portuguese had
Moghuls become the great power. They developed political relation with each
other and later on in the field of religion. In 1579 as St. Paul’s College in Goa
established firmly for the teaching purpose of Christians. It happened that the
great Moghul emperor Akbar became interested in Christianity. And therefore the
requested the Portuguese to send missionaries for conversion. These were the first
history in India, the Moghuls were interested in Christian religion. The Jesuit
missionaries took it as an opportunity because in the European histry it was the
kings who were interested for the Christianity and later on they became Christians
and the whole country. So the first batch of missionaries were sent to Akbar’s
court. He received them with kindness and honour. He arranged public debate
between Christian missionaries and Muslim Mullah. Even he expressed good
feeling towards Christians, he asked the people to respect the Bible. Thus in
Akbar’s court Christianity got touch for Moghul culture. After Akbar his
successor Jahangir also was friendly with the Christian missionaries. But after him
Shah Jehan and Auragazed were strong Muslims. Christian mission continued till
18th century, but it was mostly among the Christians. Christians had some freedom
because some missionaries were from the royal family in the European court and
Christians were also working in the emperor’s court.

4.5.1.6.1.The Rite controversy and the Jesuit

The history of the rite controversy we find from the book of C.B. Firth pg. 114-116. It says
the father Fernandez who was working in Madurai where De-Nobili arrived, did not like the
method of the De-Nobili. He reported the matter to the superior. The provincials and the
archbishop however did not agree with the report of Fernandez because De-Nobili had the
full approval for his work. Also the provincial stayed with

De-Noblili for a month and he linked the method of De-Noblili. However , the other
clergy sided with Fernandez and the matter was brought to the head in 1610. The
complain was that De-Nobili repudiating the name Parangi(Portuguese), and which
gives a bad report of Christianity. On the other hand, he was making the Christianity
corrupt by accept Hindus practices. The head consulted the theologians in Goa and sent
a report to Rome advising that Madurai mission must be suppressed. De-Nobili hearing
this allegation, he replied a letter carefully with arguments the reason of his method in
the field. However the correspondence of the letter was slow. Meanwhile, provincial,
head was changed and the person who came to power was in strong opposition to De-
Nobili to abandon his method and not to baptize any converts. De-Nobili did not agree
on this order and once again he wrote to Rome for further clarification. The
controversy went on. However in the course of time the issue was narrowed down to 4
points. Whether the high caste converts should wear the cord, the hair tuft, and the
sandal paste and continue their customary bathing.

In 1623, Pope GregoryXV gave the order in favor of De-Nobili, that the Brahmin and
other high caste converts can use the external marks pf their noble rank (the cord,
haircut & sandal paste). But they must give up their Hindu ceremonial and mantras
connected with these marks.

SECOND PHASE OF THE RITE CONTROVERSY

The rite controversy was not over in 1623. The opposition party did not agree with the
decision of 1623. Jesuit were disliked by the other groups because in their practice, they
had accepted Hindu culture. In other course of time there were increasing members of
complaints sent to Rome from India and China. In 1793, pope clement XI send
patriarch De-Tournon to India. Tournon was ignorant of India culture and practices.
He forbade 16 practices. He made a list and asked the superior to enforce it.

1. At baptism the priest should breath on the candidate and touch his lips and
ears with saliva.

2. Hindu name should not be given.

3. Child marriage should be forbidden.

4. Coconut should not be broken for good luck.

 5. Women and girls should be allowed to come to church.

6. Priest should not refuse to enter the huts of the low caste.

7. Christian musician should not participate in the Hindu festivals.

8. Caste marks should not be allowed.

9. Christian should not read Hindu book.

The rite controversy shows the deep- rooted system and the weakness of
Christian mission. It shows the danger of identifying the gospel with a
particular culture. If one is not aware of a particular culture and its danger,
it may bring Christo-pagan religion.

THE SUPPRESSION OF THE JESUITS

Towards the end of the 18th century the Jesuit suffered a great blow due to rite

Controversy. In 1759, the Portugal government ordered the suppression of the society
in its territories. In India Jesuits were sent away like criminals. Also in France & Spain
the society was banded. As a result the ministry in India suffered a lot. No one could
give and provide the sufficient leadership in the missionary work in India. In east coast
the coromondal mission and the mission in Mysore began to decline. In 1814, the Jesuits
were allowed to come back. But they could not do the work freely because of conflict
between Padroado and Propagonda. Thus R.C.C. suffered a lot due to rite controversy
and the suppression of Jesuits.

The evaluation of Jesuit work: The Jesuits were responsible and pioneer in carrying
gospel in to the corners of India. They were jealous for the Lord. They were accused of
accumulating the wealth. Also they were accused for not respecting the authority. Their
standard was so high that no Indian could be trained. At the college of St. Paul many
young people were trained. But most of them lived in luxuary and loose moral life.
Scripture translation was not done due to the restriction of the council of Trent.

PORTUGESE AND SYRIAN CHRISTIANS

Before the arrival of Portuguese the Syrian Christians were there in Malabar. The
history of Syrian Christians goes back to 250 AD. By 1500 AD Syrian Christians were
developed and secured. But there church life was not very organized. They hade no one
to lok after. One the one hand, they were quite eager Christians, but on the other hand,
they had no depend on some one. The Portuguese were Catholics, whereas the Syrian
Christians were Nestorians. The Portuguese and the Syrian Christians were friendly,
they met each o ther in trade and business. They accepted each other as fellow
Christians. But a the time passed, they found out the differences between Portugueses
and Syrian. The Portuguese had their rituals and practices, which were different than
Syrians. The Portuguese had their seven sacraments: baptism, confirmation, ordination,
penance, marriage and extreme unction for the dying.

The Syrian Christians had baptism and confirmation and some of the perforations on
the sick for the healing. In concern tho the Holy Communion, the Portuguese lay people
get only the bread. But the Syrian had both bread and wine. In Portuguese system, the
clergies were celibate, whereas the Syrian clergies were expected to be married. The
Portuguese believbed in Purgatory and also they worshipped images. Whereas the
Syrian had nothing except the sign of Cross. And therefore, knowing these differences
the Syrian Christians never accepted the Portuguese, in their close fellowship. On the
other hand, the Portugueses felt that the Christianity of Syrians needs to be corrected.
Also they felt that it is their duty to bring the Syrians into a more meaning full life and
practices by making them to accept the western Roman Catholicism. For this reason the
Portugueses and the Syrians had three synod meetings, and in third meeting in 1579,
the Syrian bishop joined hand ith the Portuguese and took the following decisions.

1. Syrian Priest would be ordained with the permission of the bishop of Cochin.

2. The appointment must be made by Portuguese.

3. Syrian bishops would be appointed by the King of Portugal.

4. Roman Catholic, service book would be translated into Syriac.

5. The Syriack books would be examined and corrected.

In 1595, Archbishop Menezes of Goa was appointed. He was a cleaver man and
determined to establish Roman Catholic Church in Asia. He had no sympathy
 for eastern Christianity. In this time Syrians lacked bishops. On the other side,
there was force applied by Menezes. His goals were:

1. To have Jesuit bishop for the Syrian Diocese.

2. To correct Nestorianism.

3. To replace Syriac with Latin

Summary of Methods of Menezes

Why Menezes was successful in bringing the Syrian Christians under Catholic rule?

1. Menezes had Portuguese support.

2. He made the local Rajas to influences the people to accept him.

3. The Syrian Christians had no one to give them instruction in their doctrine.

4. Mesopotamia seems for away and out of the touch of his people.

5. The Syrians had no bishop of their own.

6. The Syrian Christians had no proper organization.

On the other hand Menezes strongly believed in vigorous expansion of

Christianity. In his view Roman Catholicism was the true from of Christianity.
Also it must be pointed out what Menezes accepted the methods of Robert De-
Nobili. During his time many social work and social organizations were set up
for the people.

THE SYNOD AT DIAMPER

Menezes went ahead to plan for the Synod at Diamper (Udayamperur) near
Cochin. In 1599, all the people lay members of the church invited for the
Church. According to the circular sent to the people the purpose of the Synod
was as follows:

1. To honor God,

2. To exalt the Catholic faith,

 3. To see the good of the Church,

4. To reform the Syrian Christian Church,

5. For the profit and peace of the souls of the Syrians.

Menezes appointed bishop for the Syrian Christians. The center was shifted
to Cochin diocese. The archdeacon of Syrians and few of their priests
rebelled. They were excommunicated and thus Syrian Christians came under
the control of the Portuguese Padroado. At last in 1652, a Mesopotamian
bishop Ahatalt reached Malabar. And this gave a protest by the Syrians
against and Catholics.

JACOBITES IN INDIA

IN 431 ad. At the council of Ephesus it was condemned those who affirmed that Christ
had only one person, it was agreed that Christ is both God and Man. Since godhead and
Manhood are so combined in Christ that Mary can be called Mother of God. But the
orthodox Christians they never agreed this doctrine of council of Ephesus. They agreed
to acdcept two natures in two persons. This doctrine spread in the Eastern Church and
his doctrine is called “Monophysite.”

In 16th century AD. In Syria, Their leader became Jacob Baradi. So this became
Jacobite sect. they had their own Church.

INDIAN POLITICVAL SITUATION IN 18TH AND 19TH CENTURY

In 18th century the Mugal Empire began to break up. There were constant wars among
the various leaders and they wanted to be free from the bondn of great rulers. Then
there was the coming of the European trading companies such as Dutch, British, French
occupied most of the important coastal places. French were Roman Catholics whereas
others were Protestants. There were struggles among the companies and they sought
friendship with the local rulers to establish their own colonies. The fight was mainly
between British and France. It was Clive who brought victory to England over France
by defeating Duplieix in the battle of Plassey in 1757. British power was finally
established. In South British had the frreidnly relationship with the local rulers,
because they had helped the rulers against the Muslims.
Thus we see four different things:

1. The Muslim empire which was breaking up,

2. Local Indian rulers fighting among them,

3. European trading companies competing for supremacy,

4. The British who became the mistress of India.

CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA IN 19TH CENTURY

In the 19th century there were three main branches of Christianity in India: Syrian
Christians, Roman Catholics, and Protestants.

1. Syrian Christians; These were the ancient Thomas Christians of South Indian
who had later been influenced by the Nestorian faith and thus were called
Nestorian. By the 19th century, Syrian Christians, who were mostly on the
Malabar Coast had three different groups:

a. Those who had joined the Roman Catholic Church under the Portuguese but
were allowed to use Latin for liturgy.

b. Those who were allowed to join Roman Catholic Chruch but were allowed to use
Syriac or local dialect and other old/local traditions. Such churches under the
Roman Catholic Church were known as Uniat Church.

c. Those who joined the Jacobites and also usede Syriac for liturgy. The jacobites
were Monophysite of Syria who had been named under Jacob Baradaeus
(Antiochian).

2. Roman Catholic: The roman Catholic faith had been rbought to India by
Portugese. In the 19th century there were four constituencies in India.

a. Roman Catholics in Portuguese Territory,

b. Syrian Christians who had joined the roman Catholic Church,

c. Roman Catholics outside Portuguese territory and other than the Syrians,

d. Roman Catholics in French Territory.

The total population of Roman Catholic in India in 1901 reached to 1,860,876.
Most of the growth wasw biological and due to an excess of births over deaths.
More and more Indians were used for priestly work in 19 th century. In 1912
there were 966 European priests, 1, 142 Indian priests, 440 lay brothers, and
2778 sisters. The various olders that were involved in the Roman Catholic
Church in Inda were the Benedictines, the Augustinians, the Carmelites, the
Capuchins, and the Jesuits. Newer groups that wer involved were the Oblates of
Mary Immaculate, the Selasians, the Sisters of St. Joseph of Annecy, the Society
of Divine Word, and the Holy Ghost Fathers. Still other groups involved were
the Missions Etrangeres of Paris, the Mill Hill Fathers, The Salvatorians, and the
Milan Society. Countries from most of the Roman Catholic missionaries came
were France, Itaqly, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, England, Holland, and
Ireland.

The Goam Schism (1832): The Portuguese clashed with missionaries from other
European countries. The Holy See and Portugal clashed due to this. Portugal
had lost most of its power in India and was unable to take care of dioceses under
the Padroado. The Padroado had four sees that were vacant in 1831.

The college of Propaganda was a committee of cardinals established in 1622 by

Pope Gregory XV that supervised foreign fo the Roman Catholic Church. It was
also responsible for the training of priest for these missions. In 1832 the
Propaganda requested the King (Portugal) either to fill the dioceses or to
renounce hid privileges. The king did nto reply and Rome created vicariates
apostolic by abolishing three of the four sees of the Padroado. This brought
about the Gaon Schism.

The Goan Ecclesiastical Authorities expelled the missionaries of Propaganda and

the Archbishop of Goa excommunicated the vicars apostolic and ordained six
hundred priests, some of whom were unworthy. Efforts were made to teaqch a
settlement, and in 1857, 1860, and 1861 agreements were made between Pius IX,
the Pope, and the kind of Portugal. But the friction continued. In 1886 a fresh
agreement in which Portugal was given more control than before.

On the other hand, in 1884, in order to expand the Roman Catholic Chruch, Leo
XIII, the Pope, had appointed an apostolic delegate to India. In 1886 He set up a
 hierarcvhy for India. Seven ecclesiastical provinces were with an archbishop at
the head of each. It was Leo XIII who in India separated the churches of Syrian
rite if those of Latin rite on the Malabar coast.

The Roman Catholic Chruch grew from conversions mainly among the
depressed classes. Several thousands of converts were made of the semi –
nomadic Khonds, in the hills of central India. In Chota Nagupur (Bihar regio), a
Jesuit named Constant Lievens, who arrived in India in 1885, made many
converts. There were 170, 000 Catholics in Chota Nagpur in 1921. Convers wer
from Protestants as well as from other religions. The Roman Catholic Church
tolerated the cvaste system as the social evil.

3. The Protestants: The First Protestants missionaries to India were Germans who
came to India in 1706 under the Danish-Halle Mission. When the British East
India company first came to India, it forbade missionaries. Butj in 1739, under
the new chater, a provision was made for the chaplains. During this time,
through the English Baptist missionary Society, William Carey came to India. In
1813, when the charter was to renewed, Wilberforce, who was an Evangelical,
obtained permission for an Anglical ecclesiasticval establishment in India.

Protestantism grew rapidly because the British government was Christain and
Britain was predominantly Protestant. Protestant missionaries came to India
mainly from British Isles and USA. Anglicans were the majority in India. The
most prominent mission boards were the society for the propagation fo the
Gospel in Foregin parts (SPG, which was Anglican), and the Chruch Missionary
Society (CMS, which was Evangelical). The Society for the promoting Christian
Knowledge (SPCK), which had some to India in 18 th century with the Danish-
Halle Mission, turned over its interests to the SPG.

The Angelicans caused the formation of the Mar Thoma Syrian Church in the
1880’s from Syrian Church. In 1889 the Mar Thoma Evangelistic Association
was formed. Other groups and denominations that were involved in India were
the Baptist Missionary Society (William Carey), the London Missionary Societ,
the Wesleyan Methodists, the English Presbyterians, the Plymouth Brethren, the
Salvation Army, the Scottish Presbyterians, the Chruch of Scotland (Alexander
Duff- came to India in 1829). From the USA the Methodist Episcopal Church
sent William Butler (1856), William Taylor (1870), and James Mills Thoburn
(1859), who were active mainly in North India.

The American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society (Northern Baptists) had the
most baptized members other than the Anglican, and joined the MEC. US
Presbyterians came in through the Americvan Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions. The Dutch Reformed Church in Americva was also
represented in India. Lutheranism came to India from Germany, Sweden,
Denmark, and USDA. It was mainly influential in the South East, but also
worked in Assam and Chota Nagpur are under the Gossner Mission (GEL). The
YMCA came to India in Sherwood Eddy in 1896.

Protestantism also strived mainly among the poor. Education was stressed upon
and encouraged even among women by Protestants. Even the government
provided aid for education of all regadless of religious affiliation.

Mor ethan CVatholics and Protestants translated the Bible into all the major
languages. The various Bible societies involoved were the British and Foreign
Society, The Americvan Bible Society, the National Bible Society of Scotland,
The Bible Translation Society, The Society for Promotion of Christian
Knowledge, Tranquebar Tamil Bible Society, Christian Literature Society.
Other efforts of the Protestant churches included social activities like the
establishment of hospitals, dispensaries, care for lepers, famine relief,
agricultural colonies, missions to railway workers, homes for boys, etc.

CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA IN 20TH CENTURY

Major events of the 20th century were two known as World War I (1914-1919)
and World War II (1939-1941). India won its independence from the British |Raj
in 1947.
With the independence of India came the restrictions of Missionary Visas. This
affected the Roman Catholic Church more than the Protestant Churches. The
Protestants had more local people in charge of the work. Reasons for restrictions
for Missionary Visas were:

 National Spirit- To incorporate people into a predominantly Hindu

State.

 Guerilla Activity – in the North East, as the hill people became

Christians (Protestants), they wished to become autonomous and
sometimes engagted in Guerilla warfare.

 Opposition to ‘Proselyting’-

 In 1956 an Enquiry committee was appointed by the government of

Madhya Pradesh to enquire into Christian missionary activities.

 The Committee had high praise for missionary activity of

establishing school, hospitals, dispensaries, orphanages, handicapt
institutions, etc.

 The committee also gave credit to missionary activity for elevating

neglected classes to better social status and for the improvement of
the status of women in society.

 The committee objected the changing the religious orientations of

Indians and charged that non-religious inducements were offered to
produce conversions especially among hill tribes and depressed
classes. It accused missionaries as obstancles to the creation of the
Secular Welfare State.

 The committee recommended a check on the inflex of missionaries.

The Central Government did not adopt the report, but restrictions
were applied in granting visas especially to Americvans due to the
Cold War between Russia and USA.

1. Syrian Christians: they constituted one-fourth of the population

of the state of Travancore (Cochin). Among the Syrian Christians
 were (as seen before) the Roman Catholic Uniat churches. The
non Roman Catholic Syrian Christians had two main divisions:
The Orthodox Syrian Church of Malabar (with a member of 4,
50, 000 in the 1950’s) and Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church
(with a membership of 7,00,000 in the 1950’s).

In December 1958, both these groups were brought together by a court decision as the
Syrian Orthodox Church of Malabar. In the 1960’s and onwards they began using
Malayalam language more than Syrian did in their liturgy.

The Mar Thoma Syrian Church began in the 1880’s and was the Anglican (Protestant)
branch of Syrian Church. It was much larger than any other Evangelical body in the
Middle East that had emerged from the Eastern Church through contanct with
Protestant missionaries (with a membership of 2, 57, 000 in the 1950’s).

The Maramon Convention of the Syrian Christian Church began in 1895 with
gathering going up to fifty thousands people in the 1960’s. in 1961 a division occurred in
mar Thoma Syrian Church. The St. Thomas Evangelical Church of india came out of
the Syrian Church. The Church of Trichur of Mellusian Church was a branch of the
Church of East (Nestorian), also as the Chaldean Syrian Church.

2. Roman Catholic Church: The population of Roman Catholic

Christians grew to 6,000,000 by 1961, again mainly due to briths
over deaths, and also some from conversions. More and more
Indian priests were ordained. In 1958 Indian priests continued
75%, while 70% of the brothers and 88% of the sisters were
Indians. Seminaries were opened for the training fog the priests
with the major ones being in Emakular (Kerala) and Poona
(Pune). Pune had six semianaries out of which one was named
after Robert De-Nobili. By the middle of the 20 th century a large
proportion of the Roman Cathoics were south of a line between
Goa and Madras (Chennai). The three main constituencies of the
Roman Catholic Church were:

The Portugese blood of Territories

The Unaistes of the Syrian Christians

 The Latin rite

OTHER PROTESTANT MISSIONS

MADRAS: Regular work in of mission sarted in Madras in 1726. Outside fo the Danish
territory mission, work was continued by Halle missionaries, supported by S.P.R.K. it
was known as English mission. Fabricius was missionary in Madras from 1742-’88.
During this time Madras wasw attacked by France. Many Christians fled to pulicat.
Afterward Hyder Ali invaded Madras. In 1752 the English mission gave away the
property to him. Thus it was during FElicious, the work progressed in Madras. He
translateld several German hymns into Tamil. He compiled Tamil-English and English-
Tamil dictionaries. He translated the whole Bible. Thus in Madras the Protestant work
was carried on by German supported by Angelican society.

TRICHINAPALLY & THANJAVUR: In 1750, Schwart arrived in Tranquebar and

woekd for 12 years. He visited Trichinapply and continued his fruitful ministry till
1778. Afterward, he becae a chaplin for the British troops. He lived simple life and gave
away most of his income for the mission work. He learnt Arabic and Persian to converse
with the Nawab. He also made friendship with the Raja of Thanjavur. He moved his
station to Thanjavur. In 1779 on behalf of the British to Hyder Ali for peace agreement
because he had trust on the Christians. Also he ordered his troops not to do any harm to
Schwartz. The Raja or Thanjavur entrusted the young prince under Schwartz’s care.
Also Schwart was appointed to assist in the administration fo the state. He also visited
Thirunelveli and began a Church. He ordained a local man and gave him the
resonsbility. He worked till 1798.

KANYAKUMARI: It was the English mission, which grew up in Kanyakumari and

Thirunelveli. The actual work in Kanyakumari was started by an Indian. It was
Vedamanickan from Adi Dravida caste of Kanyakumar, who was a religious man. He
went to Chitambara, for pilgrimage. There in his dream he was instructed by an old
man to return home. On his way back, he visited some of his Christian relatives in
Thanjavur and he became a Christian. After reaching home in Kanyakumari he taught
his relatives. He requested the Thanjavur missionary to send the missionaries to
Kanyakumari. And thus the Christianity grew in Kanyakumari.
THIRUNELVELI: The Church started by Schwartz by baptizing a few Indian soldiers.
He ordained a Tamil for the Church responsibility. Afterward missionaries were sent.
In 1802 Gericke baptized 1, 300 people. The mission work was joined by Anglican and
there was a mass movement.

SERAMPORE MISSION: The TRIO William Carey (1761-1834)

He was a self-educated pastor in England. He earned his living by working as a village

schoolmaster and a cobbler. At the age of 18 he was baptized. He had a desire to preach
the Word of God to the non-Christians. Even he used to pray for those who had not
heard the Gospel. In May 17, he preached in a church from Is 54:2 and he spoke on the
points “Attempt great things for God and expect great things from God.” This sermon
challenged some of his people and they joined together and formed Baptist Misionary
Societiy. Form this society William Carey and Dr. John Thomas were the first
missionaries to be sent out. carey was an English man. The people of England were not
so much mission-minded, especially during the time of Carey. The Church rebuked him
and discouraged the mission work. On the other hand the British East India Company
(B.E.I.C) In 1973, did not allow him to enter the Indian territory because one
missionary work may disturb their busness. Finally, he and his family were brught to
Calcutta by a Danish captian. They stayed in Danish territory in Bengal. They had
money enough for one year only. But the poor management of Thomas emptied the
pocket within few weeks. It was a real hard time for Carey’s family. Sickness strck the
family. His child died, his wife became mentally deranged.

Thomas tried to contact British residence in North Bengal and got a job as manager in
factory, both for himelf and Carey. The missionaries moved to Madnapati in Malda
district. The British chief got a place for them. Afterward Carey with his savings bought
a factory He learned Bengali and Sanksrit. Also he was engaged in preaching and
translating the Bible. In 1799, four more families arrived. But they were not allowed to
enter Bengal. It became serious problem for the missionaries. Later on these
missionaries were advised to move upto Hoogly, Serampore. It is 25 miles from
Calcutta. It was Danish governor of the settlement welcomed them. In this time Carey
and Dr. Thomas decided to move from Manapati to Serampore. This is how Serampore
mission started. Now in the group there were two families, Joshua Marshman and
William Ward. Marsman and his wife oepend a free school for the Anglo-Indians.
William Ward set up a printing press. In 1801 the Bengali N.T. was published. In this
time a college was established on Fort William in Calcutta for the company officers of
the three presidencies, Bombay, CValcutta, and Madras. When Bengali N.T. was
published, Carey’s ability in Bengali was marked by the government and he was a
teacher’s post to teach Bengali. Later on the taught Marathi and Sanksrit.

Seeing Carey’s language abilities an English Evangelical Chapel and serampore

missionaries made out a fund for the transgression work. By 1834, 6 versions of the
whole Bible and 23 languages or the N.T., 10 languages fo a book of the whole Bible had
been published. Besides this cArey revised the Bengali O.T. 3 times and N.T. 8 times.
The Serampore mission was called “Serampore Trio” Carey, Ward and Marshman.

They planned to make Serampore Mission as a base to sned out missionaries to various
part of India and abroad (Eastern side). In 1803, Wesley, the governor general allowed
the new missionaries to come to Calcutta for the mission works. Thus the Serampore
mission was extended to Dinashpur, Malda and Karwa. By 1834, there were 18
missionaries. All these missionaries worked under the Serampore Trio. The problem
came with British Missionary Society because Serampore Mission did the work
independent of Baptist Mission Society. In 1816, Baptist Mission Society separated from
the Trio. By 1818 Serampore Mission established 126 elementary schools. They raised
the fund for themselves and were not depended on any other missions. In 1818,
Marsman started a Bengali weekly “samachar Darpan” along with his won and then an
English monthly “Friend of India.” Thus this media began to educate the public
openion on social justicve. Serampore Trio also went ahead to bring social reformation
in India, like child sacrifice to Gangas; also on window burning. They published the
report in Newspaper. The orthodox Hindus opposed these reports. But some ediucated
Hindus like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and others joined William Carey to stop these evil
practices.

In Serampore the first convert was Krishna Pal. He was a Shudra carpenter. He was
treated by Dr. Thomas for a broken arm and then he was baptized. Soon aftr his wife,
sister-in-law, and neighboring families were baptized. Slowly converts from different
castes joined Serampore Christian community. From the very beginning no caste
distinctions were given, all were treated equally. A covnert, Krishna Prasad who was a
Brahmin received Holy communion from Krishna Pal. Later on Krishna Pal married
his daughter.

THE CHURCH OF GOD IN NORTH INDIA

The work of Chruch of God (|Cleveland, TN) started in the South. Efforts deem to have
been made by the Chruch of God missionaries and the local ministers to reach Northern
India (which is a Hindi speaking region). The first church of God missionaries to North
India seem to have been William Pospisil (U.S. missionary) and T.M. Varughese (field
secretary, indigenous missionary), who “went into Central and northern India and
oepend missions in four areas.” Even thorugh it is nor clear as to what areas these
exactly were. Dr. Conn adds later in his records that “a few churches have now been
established int eh for north around Delhi and in the east near Calcutta.” That William
Pospisil was able to reach out into others parts of India can also be sustaintiated by the
record of Wade H. Horton. So the Chuirch was trying to reach the north, only it was
taking a longer time.

The Church of God fellowship India: in the late 1950’s Later. Rev Samuel John (The
former overseer of the Church of God in North India), who was born and brought up in
Kerala state (South India), moved up north to Delhi (The capital city of India) in search
of a vocation (North India seems to offer more job opportunities), with his wife,
Marimma Samuel. In Delhi he worked for ht eIndian Airlines (domestic airline in
India), while Mrs. John stayed home as a house wife. North India being a Hindi
speaking are, Samuel John and his wife had to learn the local dialect of Hindi. Along
with his job, S. John served the Lord by preaching and teaching. While in Delhi they
had four sons born to them, whim they named as Charles Johnson, Febby Samson,
Thomson, and Soul (eldest to the younger in order).

The call of God: The Lord had been speaking to S. John’s heart and had asked him to
leave his job and to come out for full time ministry. S. John seems to have been
reluctant, and remembers asking the Lord for a definite a sign in order to be sure
whether the Lord really wanted him to quit his job and go for full time ministry. S.
John would work two sifts on Saturdays in order to be able to go to Church on Sunday
morninings. One Saturyda night as S. John was at work, Mrs. John was home with the
children. During the night hours the youngest son named ‘Soul’ got sick and passed out
in his mother’s arms. Mrs. John and their servant Rajan prayed earnestly before th
Lord, to spare Soul’s life. Mrs. John remembers asking the Lord for Soul’s life at least
till the morning so that his father could see him once (S. John seems to have loved this
son the most at that time). The Lrod brought Soul back to life. In the morning when S.
John came to home, his wife told him about the night. S. John saw his son Soul, but had
to leave to teach his Sunday School class. As he was on his way tempted to go back to
home, yet he decided to go on to the Church to teach his class. As soon as he had
finished teaching his class, he saw his servant, Rajan, coming toward him, and
immediately he knew what the matter was. Soul had passed away. S. John’s heart was
broken, but he realized that this was God’s way of touching his heart, and that this was
a sign from God confirming his call.

Samuel John resigned his job, and he and his wife sent the three boys to Kerala
(Grandparents’ home in South India) and decide to fast and pray for forty days, to seek
God’s will as to where they should go. On the tenth day the Lord spoke and gave the
direction to move to CVhandigarh, 160 mils (approximately; about 250 Kms), north –
west of Delhi. This move was made in 1963. Chandigarh was a relatively new city at that
time. This was a big step of faith.

Through a lot of struggle, a new ministry was begun in this city. There were a few
Christians in the city at that time, and the Lord provided the contacts. Some of the
problems faced were because of cultural differences.

In 1965, S. John went around “The whole of Punjab on a used bicycle, with the gospel,”
and the Lord saved many souls and churches were planted. Wherever he went with the
gospel at that time, there are congregations established now in those places. Although he
had to face opposition, people were being saved and brought to the saving knowledge of
Jesus Christ.

After having come to Chandigarh Mr. and Mrs. John were blessed with two daughters,
Elizabeth and Ruth, and another son, Stanley. It was very difficult to serve the Lord full
time without any support, having a family of six children (the odler three boys had
joined the parents by now; mid-sixties), but they went on believing in God’s
faithfulness. The lord indeed is faithful. While S. John went out preaching and
evangelizing, his wife took care fo children at home and prayed for the ministry. The
Lord supplied all their needs through various channels.
Initially the work was slow, but gradually it started flourishing in both the states of
Punjab and Haryana, and later extended to Jammu and Kashmir. In the late sixties
S.De-Nobili for a month and he linked the method of De-Nobili. However, the other
clergy sided with Fernandez and the matter was brought to the head in 1610. The
complain was that De-Nobili repudiating the name Parangi (Portuguese), and which
gives a bad report of Christianity. On the other hand, he was making the Christianity
corrupt by accepeting Hindus practices. The head consulted the theologians in Goa and
sent a report to Rome advising that Madurai mission must be suppressed. De-Nobili
hearing this allegation, he replied a letter carefully with arguments the reason of his
method in the field. However the correspondence of the letter was slow. Meanwhile,
provincial head was changed and the person who came to power was in strong
opposition to De-Nobili to abandon his method and nto to baptize any converts. De-
Nobili did not agree on this order and once again he wrote to Rome for further
cvlarification. The controversy went on. However in the course of time the issue was
narrowed down to 4 points. Whether the high caste converts should weat the cord, the
hair tuft, and the sandal paste and continue their customary bathing.

In 1623, Pope Gregory XV gave the order in favor of De-Nobili, that the

Brahmins and other high caste converts can use the external marks of their noble rank
(the cord, haircut & sandal paste). But they must give up their Hindu ceremonial and
mantras connected with these marks.

SECOND PHASE OF THE RITE CONTROVERSY

The rite controversy was not over in 1623. The opposition party did not agree with the
decision of 1623. Jesuit were disliked by the other groups because in their practice, they
had accepted Hindu culture. Int eh course of time there were increasing members of
complaints sent to Rome from India and China. In 1793, Pope clement XI send
partriarch De-Tournon to India. Tournon was ignorant of Indian culture and practices.
He forbade 16 practices. He made a list and asked the superior to enforce it.

1. At baptism the prist should breath on the candidate and touch his lips and ears
with saliva.

2. Hindu name should not be given .

3. Child marriage should be forbidden.

4. Coconut should not be broken for good luck.

5. Women and girls should be allowed to come to Church.

6. Priest should not refuse to enter the huts of the low caste.

7. Christian musician should not participate in the Hindu festivals.

8. Caste marks should not be allowed.

9. Christians should not read Hindu book.

The rite controversy shows the deep – rooted caste system and the
weakness of Christian mission. It shows the danger of identifying the gospel with
particular culture. If one is not aware of a particular culture and its danger, it
may bring Christo-pagan religion.