VIVAHA IN ANCIENT INDIA

CEREMONIES | CUSTOMS | CELEBRATIONS

The 3 C’s stand for Ceremonies, Customs, and Celebrations. In this research paper, I will be
critically analysing the concept of Vivaha in Ancient Indian Society along with the various
Hindu Samskaras associated with the entire concept of Vivaha and will have a glimpse into the
marriage ceremonies in ancient India with constructive touchpoints relating to celebrations and
customs associated with marriages, also towards the end of the research paper I will come up
with a comparison of how these traditions have changed over the years and highlight on the
Modern Indian marriages that prevail in the Indian society.

INTRODUCTION

Marriage has been an essential institution in Indian society for centuries. The ancient Indian
marriage system was based on Vedic principles and had a unique set of customs and rituals.
Arranged marriages were the norm in ancient India. The wedding ceremony was a grand affair
that involved several rituals and customs. The bride and groom would be adorned in traditional
attire and jewellery. The importance of the institution of marriage was emphasized by the
performance of various religious rituals, including chanting mantras, performing havans, and
seeking blessings from the deities. Ancient Indian marriages were steeped in tradition and played
a significant role in shaping the country's social and cultural fabric.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MARRIAGE

The most significant Hindu Samskara is the Vivaha1. It usually comes first in the Grhyasutras
since it serves as the starting point and central theme of all domestic sacrifices. A few of the
samskaras can be traced back to the Vedic period, where marriages were developed in
ceremonial form and found literary expansion in the Atharva Veda and the Rig Veda. Marriage
was seen as a sacrifice, and those who chose not to enter married life were referred to as "ones
without sacrifice." The Ashrama philosophy is supposed to have been developed during the
1
Raj Bali Pandey. (1949). HINDU SAMSKARAS - A Socio-religion Study of the Hindu Sacraments. Vikrama
Publications, Bhadaini, Banaras.

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Upanisadic period. A man should first lead a life as a student, after which he should be married,
after which he should lead a retired life, and in the final Ashrama he should give up all worldly
attachments and become a religious wanderer, according to the proponents of this doctrine. There
was no hostility towards marriage because it was seen as essential to personality development.

THE FORMS OF MARRIAGES

A young man and a young woman were united to lead the life of a householder. The Smritis2
have recognised eight methods through which it was done, These are Brahma, Daive, Arsa,
Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva, Raksasa and Paisacha. The Smritis have divided the eight forms
of marriage into two groups, Prasasta meaning ‘approved’ and Aprasasta meaning ‘disapproved’.
The first four forms come under Prasasta and the rest under Aprasasta.

THE SOCIAL CUSTOMS RELATED TO MARRIAGE

In the patriarchal system of family children were regarded as family property and the girls could
be given away in marriage for money. The custom of dowry3 to be offered by the father of the
bride to the bridegroom is not to be found in ancient literature of Hindus, however some
references where the guardians of the girl had to offer a dowry to the bridegroom. Equity of the
time required that the father of the girl should demand her price, but in course of time
circumstances changed. ‘Dowry4’ was regarded as ‘Daksina’ attending the main gift of a girl and
to this extent it was given willingly. In the form of dowry, the daughter got her share from the
property of her father.

In ancient times polyandry and polygyny types of marriage prevailed and it is still evident in
some of the religions it was believed that marriage bought two half-distinct lives together and
after marriage, husband and wife were not considered different entities but they were considered

2
Raj Bali Pandey. (1949). HINDU SAMSKARAS - A Socio-religion Study of the Hindu Sacraments. Vikrama
Publications, Bhadaini, Banaras.
3
ibid
4
Diwan, P. (2008). Modern Hindu Law. Allahabad Law Agency.

2
to be one soul. The main function of Marriage was the continuity of the race by bearing children
and imparting cultural heritage. There were several factors in selecting a bridegroom such as
intelligence, wealth, good character, etc. There are some factors based on which brides were
selected such as a girl should be endowed with beauty, intelligence, a good family absence of
disease and possession of a brother. After marriage, the girl has to give up her father's gotra and
she had to adopt her husband's gotra. A boy was allowed to marry only when he had finished his
Vedic studies5. The minimum age of marriage for boys was 20 and the minimum age for girls
was 15. The society was patriarchal but the status of women was better than in the later ages as
women were given education, freedom of movement, niyoga and widow remarriage prevailed,
Divorce was allowed under very special conditions, and it was rarely seen in the practice.

VIVAHA SAMSKARAS

In ancient India, "Samskaras" referred to a series of rituals or sacraments that marked the various
stages of life. One of the most important samskaras was "Vivaha," which referred to the
sacrament of marriage6.

The samskaras associated with vivaha varied across different regions and communities in ancient
India, but some common elements included:

Kanyadaan: The father of the bride would give away his daughter to the groom, symbolizing
the transfer of responsibility for her from the father to the husband.

Panigrahana: The groom would take the bride's hand and lead her around the sacred fire (Agni),
which symbolized their union and the beginning of their life together.

5
Kapadia, K. M. (1947). HINDU KINSHIP - An Important Chapter in Hindu Social History. The Popular Book
Deopt, Lamington Road, Bombay 7.
6
Sharma, A. (1991). Samskaras: A Systematic Approach to the Ancient Indian Sacraments. Motilal Banarsidass.

3
Saptapadi: The couple would take seven steps together, each step accompanied by a vow or
promise to each other. These vows were meant to be taken seriously and were considered binding
for the rest of their lives.

Homa: A ritual fire sacrifice was performed to invoke the blessings of the gods and seek their
protection for the couple.

Sindoor and Mangalsutra: The groom would apply sindoor (vermilion powder) on the bride's
forehead and tie a mangalsutra (sacred thread or necklace) around her neck. These were
considered symbols of the woman's married status and her commitment to her husband

Ashirvada: The couple would seek the blessings of their elders, including parents, grandparents,
and other respected members of the community.

These samskaras7 were not just rituals; they were seen as essential for ensuring the success and
longevity of the marriage. They were believed to create a spiritual bond between the couple and
invoke the blessings of the gods, which would protect the couple from harm and bring them
happiness and prosperity.

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS IN ANCIENT INDIAN SOCIETIES

The Rig Veda is the earliest among Vedas8. It contains 1,028 hymns in all, 10,600 verses. The
Sama Veda is a book of tunes, and the Yajur Veda is a ritual manual. The Atharva Veda is a much
later and more popular collection and it consists of spells, charms, marriage hymns,
philosophical reflections..etc.

The bride's marriage for all practical purposes was to a family. Apastambha Dharmasutra a bride
is given to a family of brothers and not a brother alone. That the girl was married by the brother
7
Olivelle, P. (2005). The Samnyasa Upanisads: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation. Oxford
University Press.
8
Sur, A. K. (1973). Sex and Marriage in India - An Ethnohistorical Survey. Allied Publishers. p. 34

4
and sexually enjoyed by the younger brothers as we also indicated by certain passes of the Rig
Veda traced to both the Rig Veda and the Athara Veda. That the younger brother had some sort of
sexual intimacy with the wife of the elder brother is also suggested by the marriage hymn of the
Rig Veda dear to the Devri. The right given to the younger brother in the Vedas was the right of
cohabitation. The earlier literature does not refer to the remarriage of the widows. When the
elder brother died, the younger would simply live with her as a husband.

Ritualistic formalities for marriage evolved for the first time in the age of the Atharvaveda. In the
age of the Rigveda, the Putrika (a brotherless girl) could perform the sacrifice of offering
oblations to the deceased ancestors, but in the later Vedic age of the Brahmanas, she could not. It
could be offered only by a son, but now came to be added other rituals like Saptapadigamana or
pacing of the seven steps and the showing of the pole star to the bride. Sometimes a king could
have as many as one hundred wives. Unless one had taken a vow of celibacy, marriage and
procreation of children were a positive duty for those who returned home after finishing their
education. This was at least the duty of those belonging to the Brahman caste.

Marriage, therefore, occupied a prominent place in the life of a man of the Brahman caste, and
the Grihyasutras which deal with rituals beneficial to a householder lay special stress on it. Each
Vedic school had its Grihyasutras9. Thus the Gribyasutras of Asvalayana and Sankhayana belong
to the Rigvedic school, that of Paraskara to the White Yajurveda, those of Baudhayana and
Apastambha to the Black Yajurveda, those of Gobhila and Khadira to the Samaveda and that of
Vaitana to the Atharvaveda. In actual practice, however, they did not strictly adhere to the texts
of their own school, and in the rituals of marriage prescribed by them, one would find
side-by-side recitations of hymns from the Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Mantra-Brahmana and
Mantra-patha, irrespective of their affiliation to any particular school of the Vedas. Further, in as
much as these schools prevailed in different parts of the country, the rituals prescribed by them
came to be influenced by local customs and peculiarities.

9
Shrinivasan, A. (2019). The vedic wedding book. Penguin Random House India Private.

5
Both Asvalayana and Sankhayana10 makes no mention of any restriction as to caste or country in
marriage. Baudhayana urges only distinction between the people of the north and the south. But
Apastambha introduces restrictions on the country and gotra. Apas- tambha may, therefore, be
described as the father of the gotra- pravara rule. The rituals as prescribed by the principal
authors of the Grihya- sutras postulate adult marriage. But in the works of some of the minor
authors, there is mention of child marriage as well. Hiranya- kesin11, for instance, urges that the
girl should be married while she is still naked (nagnika), that is to say, before she has learnt to
wear cloth. Polygamy also continued, and Paraskara was the law-giver who first gave a legal
sanction to it by prescribing three wives for a Brahman, two for a Rajanya or Kshatriya, and one
for a Vaisya.

VIDHIS ASSOCIATED WITH MARRIAGE

Marriage in ancient India was governed by various religious and cultural traditions.

The Vedas: The Vedas are the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, composed between 1500-1000
BCE. They contain references to various marriage rituals, including the Kanyadaan ceremony, in
which the father of the bride gives her away to the groom, and the Saptapadi, in which the bride
and groom take seven vows while walking around a sacred fire.

The Dharmashastras: The Dharmashastras are a set of texts that contain the ethical and legal
codes of ancient India. They provide detailed information on the rituals and customs associated
with marriage, including the exchange of gifts, the performance of sacred rites, and the role of
the priests.

The Grihya Sutras: The Grihya Sutras are a collection of texts that provide guidance on
domestic rituals, including marriage. They contain detailed instructions on the various steps

10
Shrinivasan, A. (2019). The vedic wedding book. Penguin Random House India Private.
11
Raj Bali Pandey. (1949). HINDU SAMSKARAS - A Socio-religion Study of the Hindu Sacraments. Vikrama
Publications, Bhadaini, Banaras.

6
involved in a Hindu wedding, such as the selection of an auspicious date and time, the
performance of pre-wedding ceremonies, and the conduct of the wedding itself.

The Manusmriti: The Manusmriti is a Hindu legal text that provides guidance on various
aspects of life, including marriage. It contains rules and regulations for conducting marriages,
such as the appropriate age for marriage, the eligibility of the bride and groom, and the role of
the families in the marriage.

The Arthashastra: The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian political treatise that provides
information on various aspects of social life, including marriage. It contains information on the
customs and rituals associated with marriage, as well as the role of the state in regulating
marriage and family life.

THE EPIC EVIDENCES OF ANCIENT MARRIAGE SYSTEMS

Marriages, among the warrior caste, as among the other castes, were occasions of great rejoicing,
accompanied by festive processions, music and dancing. Marriages in royal families were
generally occasions of public rejoicing. At the ‘swayamvara12’ marriage, all the chiefs of the land
were invited and in the specially decorated hall, they were seated in order. As the bride passed in
front of the princes assembled, with a white garland of flowers, her lady-in-waiting would state
briefly to her the name of each prince and his achievements. The prince when she garlanded
became her husband, the elect. And then marriage was celebrated for which all the rejected
princes were invited to participate. Classical instances of a swayamvara are furnished by the
marriage of Nala and Damayanti, and that of Rama and Sita.

The Varna system13 did not operate as a restriction on marriage. Women of the higher caste could
marry men of lower caste, such marriages became hereditary (the jati), there developed the
inter-caste marriage practices known as Pratiloma, The Kadamba king, a Brahman by caste, gave

12
Shrinivasan, A. (2019). The vedic wedding book. Penguin Random House India Private.
13
Sur, A. K. (1973). Sex and Marriage in India - An Ethnohistorical Survey. Allied Publishers.

7
his daughter in marriage to the Gupta prince, who was the Vaishya. Marriage between a man of a
higher caste with a woman of a lower caste was also possible and it was known as the Anuloma.
Vakataka King, Rudra Sena, a scion of the orthodox Brahma family, married Prabhavati Gupta
who was a Vaishya. There existed no restriction in regard to interracial marriages. The Ikshvaku
king who was Brahman accepted the bride from the Saka royal family of Ujjayini. The
Satavahan. Brahma king accepted the bride from the Saka royal family. Successively, however,
with the growing social complexities, the choice of selecting a spouse came to be restricted
within the tribe, clan, sub caste. With this came into the vogue the endogamous marriage.

THE ANCIENT INDIAN MARRIAGE RITUALS

(1) Circumambulation of fire and mounting on stone: The husband would lead the wife three
times around the fire, chanting a verse from the Atharva Veda.

(2) Lajahoma: This is a rite in which the brother of the bride, or somebody representing him,
would pour into the joined palm of the bride first clarified butter and over it fried grain. Three
verses are chanted in course of this rite. The hair of the bride which up to this time remains
fastened with two tufts of wool is now untied with the chanting of a verse from the Rigveda,
which signifies her separation from the parental family.

(3) Saptapadigamana: The bridegroom leads the bride to pace seven steps in a north-easterly
direction, chanting a verse mentioning the significance of each step.

(4) Madhuparka or the Argha ceremony: The bridegroom adorns the body of the bride with
madhuka flowers while chanting a verse from the Rigveda. This rite is omitted in Asvalayana
Grihyasutra but is prescribed by Paraskara and Gobhila.

14
Sur, A. K. (1973). Sex and Marriage in India - An Ethnohistorical Survey. Allied Publishers.

8
(5) Panigrahana: In Baudhayana the madhuparka ceremony is followed by the panigrahana
ceremony in which the bridegroom touching the heart of the maiden with his right-hand says:
"May thy heart be my heart; may thy mind be my mind; may thou listen to my words with all thy
heart, may thou follow me and my companions."

(6) Bathing the bride: Before she departs for the husband's place, a rite takes place in which the
bride has to take a bath and then sit before the holy fire. The priest would then offer oblations
with prayers to all gods.

(7) Sitting on a bull's hide: On reaching the husband's place the couple would sit on a bull's
hide spread to the west of the holy fire and offer oblations.

(8) Observance of abstinence: For three consecutive nights the couple would observe austerities
by sleeping on the floor and abstaining from intercourse. After that, they would consummate the
marriage. Baudhayana, however, says that strict silence is to be observed on the first day until
dusk when the husband after breaking the silence would bring the bride out of the room into the
open and show her the star Anuradha (Scorpionis) which is an emblem of steadfastness and
fidelity, chanting at the same time a verse urging the wife to remain firm in life and steady in
character like the star of the heaven.

THE ANCIENT HINDU MARRIAGE TRADITIONS

Some of the ancient traditions which prevailed during the early ages of Hindu marriages are still
prevalent in today’s era, hinduism has many marriage traditions that have remained throughout
history. The Knot explains that before ceremonies begin there must be a blessing or prayer to
Ganesh, the Hindu god of wisdom. the most common practice for a Hindu wedding begins with
the bride’s father giving her away to the groom and the groom’s father. To do this, the bride’s
parents must perform the ritual of Kanyadan15, in which they wash the bride and groom’s feet
with water and milk. This is meant to purify the couple so that they may begin their marriage and

15
Dikshitar, V. R. (1999). War in Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt.

9
the rest of their lives together. During the ceremony, there is a holy fire called Agni which
explains that sacrifices will be offered on the fire throughout the ceremony. The offerings
typically include some kind of food or herb. To symbolize the couple’s unbreakable bond the
bride and groom will have their wrist tied with thread wrapped multiple times because one thread
may be broken easily but many threads form a much harder-to-break bond. To symbolise fidelity,
the bride must step onto the grinding stone owned by the groom’s family, This represents their
sexual relationship as a foundation for marriage. Together, the couple takes seven steps around
the fire. Each step is for one of 7 sacred vows for the marriage also know as Saptapadi16. After
this, the groom will present an offering to the fire.

CRITIQUE

While ancient Indian society placed great importance on marriage and had elaborate customs and
ceremonies associated with it, there were also certain practices that can be critiqued from a
modern perspective. Here are some examples;

Arranged marriages: In ancient India, most marriages were arranged by the parents or elders of
the families involved. While this may have been practical for ensuring compatibility and social
standing, it also meant that the wishes and preferences of the individuals involved were often
ignored.

Dowry system: The practice of giving a dowry to the groom's family was prevalent in ancient
India and is still present in some parts of the country. This custom has often led to exploitation of
the bride's family and has been a cause of violence against women.

Gender roles: The traditional marriage customs in ancient India perpetuated gender roles where
women were expected to be submissive and obedient to their husbands. There were also many
rituals and customs that discriminated against women, such as not allowing widows to remarry
or requiring them to shave their heads.

16
Sharma, M. (1993). MARRIAGE IN ANCIENT INDIA. Agam Kala Prakashan.

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Extravagant celebrations: Ancient Indian weddings were often extravagant and costly affairs
that required extensive planning and resources. While this was seen as a way of showing social
status and wealth, it could also lead to the financial burdens for the families involved and
contribute to materialism and extravagance.

Overall, while some aspects of ancient Indian marriage customs17 and celebrations were positive,
there were also practices that can be critiqued for perpetuating discrimination, inequality, and
materialism.

CONCLUSION

Thus this research paper helped in analysing the different Customs, Traditions, Celebrations, and
Ceremonies associated with Vivaha in Ancient Indian Society and gave an insight into the
various forms of marriages that prevailed during early ages, also literature sources such as Vedas,
Upanishads, Epics, and Puranas helped in analysing the theoretical basis of such existence of
vivid diversity in marriages among different sectors of the economy. An overview into the Social
customs and Rituals which were followed at that time and how the Vidhis and Samskaras have
evolved over the years and still some traditions remain the same, This indicates that we are still
connected with our ancient living in some or another way, even though modernisation has bought
in a lot of changes in the ceremonies and celebration of marriages, but still some ancient rituals
and customs are practised even today, thus connecting ourselves to our roots of ancient times is
as important as connecting ourselves to the developing world.

17
Kapadia, K. (2002). Marriage and Family in India. Oxford University Press.

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● Kapadia, K. M. (1947). HINDU KINSHIP - An Important Chapter in Hindu Social
History. The Popular Book Deopt, Lamington Road, Bombay 7.
● Sur, A. K. (1973). Sex and Marriage in India - An Ethnohistorical Survey. Allied
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● Dikshitar, V. R. (1999). War in Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt.
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