Technical Writing

TOMAS MESEDERIO PANCELES, PhD

Roger B. Rueda
Published by Binas Publishing
L5 B 16 Souk Phase 2
Mandurriao District
5000 Iloilo City

Copyright © Tomas M. Panceles, 2023

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be duplicated, amassed in a retrieval system, or sent out
in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise– without the
prior written permission of the author, save brief excerpts for a review.

Editor: Roger B. Rueda, PhD

Book design and layout: Bryan G. Gamarcha & Kevin F. Suganog

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the National Library of the Philippines

ISBN 978-621-8331-49-5
 Technical Writing

TOMAS MESEDERIO PANCELES, PhD

 Table of Contents
Page
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL WRITING 1
UNIT 2 BASIC GRAMMAR REVIEW 9
UNIT 3 ELEMENTS OF STYLES AND MECHANICS 27
UNIT 4 CIVILIAN LETTERS 38
UNIT 5 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES OF TECHNICAL WRITING 47
 Preface
Technical writing is a crucial skill for anyone working in a field that involves complex information and
processes. Whether you are an engineer, scientist, software developer, or business analyst, the ability to
communicate technical information clearly and effectively is essential to your success.

Effective technical writing requires a unique set of skills, including the ability to simplify complex
information, organize ideas logically, and write in a clear and concise style. Technical writers must also be
proficient in using various tools and technologies, such as word processing software, graphics programs,
and content management systems.

This book provides a comprehensive guide to technical writing, covering everything from the fundamentals
of grammar and style to advanced topics such as documentation standards and project management. It
includes practical advice and real-world examples to help you improve your technical writing skills and
create high-quality documentation that meets the needs of your audience.

Whether you are a seasoned technical writer looking to refine your skills or a beginner just starting out, this
book will provide you with the knowledge and tools you need to succeed in this important field.
 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL WRITING
Lesson 1: The Significance of Technical Writing

Technical writing, or technical documentation, has become an increasingly important topic in the field of
written communication. Due to the specialized nature of technical communication, it has evolved into a well-
defined profession, particularly in the industrialized world. Technical writing is an outgrowth of the
knowledge-based economy.

In a variety of areas, including software, telecommunications, financial services, and healthcare, qualified
technical writers are in high demand.

Businesses use the services of technical writers to translate and present industry-related information in
user-friendly forms and publications. Technical writing requires specific writing abilities.

Definition of Technical Writing

Technical writing describes the operation of services, goods, and procedures. It seeks to explain
complicated concepts and often entails writing about a topic or subject that requires instruction or guidance.

Historically, technical writing was connected with the documentation of procedures and the creation of
software manuals and how-to guides. With the fast growth of the technology industry, however, the scope
of technical writing has expanded to encompass documenting complicated procedures, creating executive
summaries, preparing briefings, and writing reports.

Technical writing encompasses any document that conveys technical information, and this type of content
is used in virtually every sector of the economy; tech info is especially prevalent in the global supply chain,
high-tech manufacturing, aerospace, biotech, energy, finance, engineering, and information technology.

Technical writing is no longer limited to lengthy user manuals or guides; it also requires transforming
complicated topics into text that is easy for readers to comprehend and connect to.

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Lesson 2: Basic Principles of Good Technical Writing
Occasionally, it is necessary to review the fundamentals of technical writing. Even though mediums of
communication have evolved since our founding in 1997, the fundamentals of technical writing have
remained the same.

Purpose and Audience

Before commencing any new writing assignment, a technical writer must examine the document's objective
and determine its target readership. The writer must inquire:

 Who will read the paperwork?

 What are their prejudices?
 What are my obligations while delivering information to an audience?
 Style Guide

If available, technical writers often use a business style guide to ensure that their documentation follows a
standardized format. A style guide (such as the AP Stylebook) gives rules for the appearance, phrasing,
and organization of a document. This structure provides consistency to a paper or set of documents,
allowing the reader to absorb the material with ease. As per the style standard, a technical writer may
record a procedure in chronological order. Without this framework, the reader would be overwhelmed and
unable to comprehend the procedure. Style guidelines improve the consistency and readability of writing.

Writing Style

The writing style of technical writers varies based on the intended audience and subject matter. If they are
writing technical documentation, then they should use a style that is formal and devoid of the passion seen
in creative writing. If they were composing an email to one of the project's top managers, their tone would
be more conversational.

Accessing the Information

Accessibility is the ease with which a document's target audience may acquire its information. A technical
document has a table of contents, headers, footers, and page numbers to aid the reader in navigating the
text and locating the desired information. A technical document also conforms to a certain layout of
headings and subheadings to divide the material into easily accessible parts.

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Lesson 3: The Purposes and Subject of Technical Writing

Every kind of writing has an objective. Some types of writing are designed to convey a tale, while others are
designed to communicate viewpoints. Technical writing does not serve any of these functions. The primary
objective of technical writing is to convey complicated information to readers in a manner that they can
comprehend and use, regardless of their existing understanding of the subject.

Technical writing describes how an item operates or how to execute a job or project.
It is intended for readers seeking knowledge about a certain subject, such as how to use a computer or the
technical specifications of a new medicine.

Technical writing must be clear, brief, and simple for the intended audience to grasp, comprehend, and
implement. These are the essential elements of excellent technical writing.

Technical writing, like any other kind of writing, has certain traits that set it apart from other forms. It differs
greatly from opinion articles, essays, prose, nonfiction, and fiction writing. Technical papers are produced in
a business manner as opposed to an academic or imaginative one.

Clear - The material in technical writing is presented clearly, leaving minimal possibility for
misinterpretation. It demands a clear, simple sentence structure.

Straightforward - This sort of writing is plain; it needs to convey information in a clear and direct manner
without the use of literary tricks.

Precise - The language used in technical writing should be very precise, precisely defining things and
operations.

Easily understood - Effective technical writers avoid using difficult-to-understand terms and have an
elegant writing style.

Denotative meanings - This form of writing depends on the denotative meanings of words to avoid
misunderstandings caused by divergent connotative interpretations.

Detailed - Technical writing is very specific and instructive, leaving no room for speculation. A textbook is
the ideal example of technical writing. The majority of textbooks include exhaustive topical descriptions.

Very structured - Technical writing is very organized. This style of writing must have a clear structure
that makes it easy for the reader to follow along. The target audience must be able to depend on technical
writing for detailed guidance.

Skimmable - Technical documentation should be created with skimmability in mind so that readers may
quickly scan the whole text and locate the information they want. Technical authors must offer relevant,
descriptive headers and a comprehensive table of contents and/or index.

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Problem-solving focus - Creating technical documentation with problem-solving in mind is essential.
These papers are used by readers to learn how to execute certain activities or acquire technical
knowledge; therefore, they should be straightforward and arranged in a manner that makes it simple to go
back to them when issues arise.

Lesson 4: Qualities of Good Technical Report

Technical writing is an integral aspect of any profession. Writing effectively is tough and time-consuming,
and writing in a technical manner about technical topics makes it much more so. People write to suggest
ideas, chronicle their own acts, assist others in comprehending research, evaluate and solve issues, and
explain processes and things. If done effectively, technical writing may be an interesting and rewarding
experience, but if done badly, it can be frustrating and even detrimental to professional progress.
Technicality in writing depends on the following factors:

There are six fundamental characteristics of Technical writing:

1. Clarity

A technical paper must express a single, easily understood message. The cost of technical writing is high.
Typically, the report serves as the crucial communication link between personnel; if this link is poor, the
whole project might be compromised. Uncertain attributes Technical Writing Characteristics of technical
writing may be hazardous, such as poor instructions on how to operate equipment.

2. Accuracy

Unintelligible writing might result in several difficulties and even inaccuracies in the report. If you want to
write 40,000, avoid writing 400,000. If you want to refer to figure 3.1, avoid referencing figure 3.2. The
smallest inaccuracy might mislead or even irritate the report's reader. If the reader feels that you have
slanted facts, he or she has the right to question the validity of the whole paper.

3. Comprehensiveness

When writing technically, it is important to provide all relevant information, define the context, and offer a
detailed explanation of any procedures or methods used to complete a certain task. In addition, it contains
findings, conclusions, and suggestions.

4. Accessibility

It refers to the simplicity with which readers may find the desired information. To improve the report's
accessibility, incorporate headers and lists. The desired format includes a table of contents, a list of
images, a glossary, and an index.

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5. Conciseness

Technical writing is intended to be informative. A document becomes increasingly difficult to use as its
length increases. Even so, it requires more time from the user. Concision undermines clarity and
comprehensiveness. The solution to this issue is to strike a balance between clarity, conciseness, and
comprehensiveness. In T.W., every part of the topic is carefully explored in depth. The document must be
lengthy enough to be comprehensible. It must provide the audience's purpose and objective, but no further
information. By eliminating superfluous phrases and selecting concise words and sentences, you may
reduce the length of your work by 10 to 20%.

6. Correctness

Also included among the qualities of technical report writing is accuracy. A good technical report must be
accurate. It must be free of grammatical and punctuation issues and adhere to the proper format standard.
If a report has grammatical faults, the veracity of the material will be questioned by the reader. The purpose
of technical writing is to deliver knowledge and convince the reader. To achieve these objectives, the
information must be precise, simple to acquire, cost-effective, and correct. If you write "the three persons:
person 1, person 2, and person 3 attended a session" using commas instead of a colon, your readers may
believe there were six attendees, not three.

Lesson 5: The Technical Communication

Technical communication encompasses any of the following forms of communication that may assist users
in achieving a predetermined objective or job: The primary objective of technical communication is to
provide consumers with explicit instructions for executing tasks, using goods, and so on. It also benefits
businesses in several ways:

To be more efficient and consumer-focused.

Employers define objectives correctly, comprehend the duties, and fulfill them effectively.

Technical communication gives context so that employers may generate new concepts.
Technical communication encompasses all forms of communication, not only manuals and instructions, as
one would assume.

 Communicating using technological means, including assistance files, web pages, and even social
media.
 Communicating on technical subjects.
 Providing paperwork with use instructions for a product.
 Technical communicators work in several fields to make knowledge available to those who need it:
 Product manuals facilitate users' attainment of their objectives.
 Training programs teach new skills to participants.
 Medical instructions assist medical personnel in providing the right treatment, thereby lowering the
dangers associated with inappropriate care.
 Usability studies aid in identifying faults with a product and improving its usability.

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  Recognize that technical communication is distinct from expressive writing, journalistic writing, and
creative writing, as it pertains to diverse realms. There are no ambiguous literary allusions. The
language used in technical communication is dry, straightforward, and succinct so that individuals
may easily grasp the core point.

Lesson 6: The Technical Communicator

A technical communicator supplies end consumers with easy-to-understand documentation that explains
the goods or services of a corporation. As a technical communicator, you are responsible for doing
research and authoring documentation using software tools, revising and reviewing materials, and using
charts and visuals to promote understanding. Technical communicator jobs are available in several areas,
including information technology, engineering, healthcare, transportation, and the armed forces. Employer-
specific requirements for this position may include industry experience, excellent writing abilities, and a
bachelor's degree in a related discipline, such as English, journalism, or technical writing.

Qualities of an Effective Technical Communicator

Even though many of these talents may be learned, it is essential to like your work. A significant aspect of
being a technical communicator is the capacity to convey technical knowledge to a variety of audiences,
modifying the degree of complexity to meet their requirements.

1. Communication skills

You must possess outstanding oral and written communication abilities. Depending on your business, the
aim of your material, and the audience, you may generate a great deal of written (text-based)
documentation or put more emphasis on photographs, simulations, videos, and flowcharts.

No matter the kind of output, you must be able to consult with subject matter specialists (SMEs). You must
also be able to transform the knowledge provided by subject matter experts (SMEs) into information with
the right degree of complexity (in terms of both substance and language) for those who will be using it.

You must use language consistently and correctly in your work and adhere (where relevant) to any
standards connected with a particular industry that were established by the organization for which you are
working or that are generally considered to be good practice.

2. Subject knowledge

As a technical communicator, the level of subject matter expertise required varies substantially depending
on both the industry and the target audience. For instance, if you are engaging with customers about
consumer items, you are likely in a strong position to comprehend their needs.

In contrast, if you are writing for professionals in the pharmaceutical, nuclear, or software development
sectors, you may require a specialized understanding of the relevant field to ensure that your message is
pitched at the proper level.

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3. Technical skills

Technical communicators use a variety of software programs to do their duties. While no one can know
every application in detail, it is helpful to have a broad awareness of the sorts of applications available and
their purposes.

The more you use a program, the more you learn about it, and you can also attend tool-specific training
sessions or (in many instances) download trial versions to experiment.

4. Personality traits

A person who has a keen eye for detail and the ability to grasp the larger picture often makes an excellent
technical communicator. He or she will be interested in how something works, how to utilize it, and how to
use it more successfully or efficiently.

Possessing the ability to perceive things from another person's viewpoint is advantageous—what is
essential to them, why are they doing what they are doing, and what do they need to know?

Finally, persistence.

You must continue to ask questions until you get an answer that you can use. You may not comprehend
the whole of the response, but you are certain that it will make sense to those who do.

Lesson 7: Technical Documentation

Technical documentation describes the underlying architecture, materials, and techniques for connecting
with current technology or expanding upon it.

In software, technical documentation describes the developer-accessible API routes and endpoints, as well
as the SDK's libraries, integrations, and dependencies.
Every engineer who has ever written code in any language has, at some point, consulted technical
documentation. Technical documentation exists for programming languages as well.

Types of Documentation

There are several applications for the documentation procedure.

Documentation assists others (and occasionally oneself) in validating and verifying outcomes.

Documentation is comparable to cartography. After exploring uncharted areas for ourselves (by creating
our revolutionary applications and solutions), we must give precise guidelines for consumers to follow.

Among the different forms of documentation are:

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End-user documentation: The user handbook that explains how the product or application is installed,
utilized, and more to common consumers.
Documentation of requirements outlines for a product development team the purpose, objectives, and value
of a certain product, project, or feature.

Marketing documentation: Specifies for both internal and external marketing teams the criteria and
procedures for interacting with the general public on behalf of the organization.

Technical documentation: Developers’ or manufacturers' descriptions of how to utilize each component of

a product or service, as provided to engineers.

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 UNIT 2
BASIC GRAMMAR REVIEW
Lesson 8: Basic Elements of Grammar

Although there are hundreds of distinct English grammatical rules, there are only five essential concepts
that students must master in order to communicate effectively.

Since these parts apply regardless of whether you are speaking or writing English, California English
school students should ensure they have a thorough understanding of them before moving on to more
advanced grammatical rules.

What are the five elements of grammar?

To speak intelligible and grammatically sound English, you must familiarize yourself with the five guiding
principles listed below. They are the basis upon which the other English rules are constructed.

These 5 key principles of English grammar are:

1. Word order

As an analytical language, English employs word order to establish the link between words. In a simple
declarative statement, the subject should always appear first, followed by the verb and (if applicable) the
objects and adverbial phrases.

Examples:

The farmer is leading a cow.

The child is playing with a Superman toy.

Changing this basic order changes the meaning of the sentences:

The cow farmer is leading.

A cow is leading the farmer.
A Superman toy is playing with the child.
The Superman child is playing with a toy.

2. Punctuation

In written English, punctuation is used to indicate pauses, emphasis, and intonation. Commas, periods,
question marks, exclamation points, semicolons, colons, dashes, hyphens, brackets, braces, parentheses,
apostrophes, ellipsis, and quote marks comprise these punctuation marks.

Examples of how punctuation may dramatically change the meaning of a sentence:

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He came home!
He came home?
Let's cook, Garry!
Let's cook Garry!

3. Tense and aspect

By applying restrictions to verbs, tenses indicate whether a sentence belongs to the present, the past, or
the future. Similarly, aspect indicates whether a statement pertains to a single-moment action, a regular or
recurrent activity, or an action or condition that is continuous or progressive.

Here is how tenses may drastically alter a sentence:

I'm a police officer.

I was a police officer.
She's drinking wine.
She drinks wine.
I'll watch that show.
I watched that show.

4. Determiners

Determiners, such as "which," "how many," "what," "my," etc., are required to provide meaning to nouns
since they may seldom stand alone without antecedent context. It is vital to use determiners appropriately
in order to formulate relevant questions or assertions.

Here are some examples of the use of determiners:

The restaurant over there.

His wife.
The corner restaurant.
My wife.

5. Connectors

As implied by their name, connectors "link" sentences, words, or clauses. They can represent subordination
(if, who, that, when, because, despite), coordination (but, and, yet, nor), and correlation (either, or, both,
and) between the units they connect.

Examples of subordination:

He wears a uniform because he's a policeman.

She's a programmer who lives in San Diego.
Examples of correlation:

We can either travel tonight or tomorrow.

You can pick either the yellow or the white dress.
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Examples of coordination:

I enjoy eating popcorn and drinking soda, but I don't like beer and pretzels.
I enjoy eating popcorn and drinking soda.

Lesson 9: Noun and Pronouns

Nouns

Nouns identify things, people, animals, locations, qualities, actions, and concepts. Typically, they are single
words, but not always. The following terms are all nouns:

School bus
Shoes
Literacy
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Cake

A noun phrase is a string of words that functions as a noun in a sentence and consists of a noun and any
modifiers. A noun phrase can function as both a subject and an object. In the following sentence, "ten of
her college friends" functions as the direct object of the verb invited.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words used in place of nouns or noun phrases. Pronouns refer to nouns that have been
mentioned or will be mentioned in the future. In Example 1, the pronoun she refers to the noun phrase
school principal in the preceding sentence. He in the first clause of Example 2 refers to Kevin in the second
clause.

The school's principal spoke at the auditorium's special assembly. Additionally, she invited students to
speak.

Kevin was simultaneously anxious and relieved after submitting his exam.
Personal pronouns are the most frequent pronouns. Subject pronouns, such as she, are used as the
subjects of verbs, while object pronouns, such as she, are used as the objects of verbs and prepositions.
Below are the subject and object pronouns.

Subject pronouns Object pronouns

I me
you you
he/she/it him/her/it
we us
they them

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Lesson 10: Verbs

Verbs are action words that describe what the subject of a sentence is doing. Verbs, along with nouns, are
the primary elements of a sentence or phrase, conveying information about what is occurring. In fact, it is
impossible to convey complete thoughts without a verb, and even the simplest sentences, such as Maria
sings, contain one. Actually, a verb can function as a complete sentence, with the subject, in most cases,
implied, as in Sing! and Drive!

When learning the rules of grammar, students are frequently instructed that verbs are 'doing' words,
signifying the portion of the sentence that describes the action taking place. On Sundays, she consumes
chocolate cake, and horses gallop through the fields. The verbs ran, ate, and gallop are the 'action'
components of the respective sentences. However, this can be a source of confusion because not all verbs
are readily identifiable as action words. I am familiar with your name; Jack considered it, and we considered
several applications. These are non-action verbs that describe a state of being, an emotion, a possession,
a sense, or an opinion. Other non-action verbs include enjoy, concur, feel, be, and possess.

Lesson 11: Adjective

An adjective is a word or group of words that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may
precede the noun that they modify.

Examples:

That is a cute kitten.

He likes a high school senior.

Adjectives may also follow the word they modify:

Examples:

That dog looks cute.

The technology is state-of-the-art.

Lesson 12: Adverb

Adverbs are words or phrases that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbs respond to how,
when, where, why, and to what extent questions—how frequently or how much (e.g., daily, completely).

Examples:

Let's go outside (tells where)

She speaks slowly (tells how)
She speaks very slowly (the adverb very tells how slowly)
They will arrive in an hour (this adverb phrase tells when)
They arrived today (tells when)

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Lesson 13: Prepositions

A preposition is a word or phrase used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to indicate direction, time,
place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object. Prepositions include the words "in," "at,"
"on," "of," and "to."

English prepositions are highly idiomatic. Although there are some usage rules, fixed expressions govern
the majority of prepositional usage. In these instances, it is preferable to memorize the phrase rather than
the preposition alone.

Several Rules

Prepositions of Direction

To refer to a direction, use the prepositions "to,""in,""into,""on," and "onto."

She drove to the market.

Don’t ring the doorbell. Come right in(to) the room.
Drive on(to) the grass and park the jeepney there.

Prepositions of Time

To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions "in,""at," and "on."
Use "in" with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and seasons.

He reads in the morning.

The weather is cold in November.
She was born in 1994.
We rake leaves in the fall.

Use "at" with the time of day. Also use "at" with noon, night, and midnight.

I go to work at 10:00.
He eats breakfast at morning.
She often goes for a walk at afternoon.
They go to bed at night.

Use "on" with days.

I work on Sundays.
He does laundry on Mondays.

To refer to extended time, use the prepositions

"since," "for," "by," "during," "from…to," "from…until," "with," and "within."

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I have lived in Buenavista since 2006. (I moved there in 2006 and still live there.)
He will be in Manila for 6 weeks. (He will spend 6 weeks in Manila.)
She will finish her work by 7:00. (She will finish her work sometime between now and 7:00.)
She works part-time during the summer. (For the period of time throughout the summer.)
I will collect data from January to December. (Starting in January and ending in December.)
They are in school from August until June. (Starting in August and ending in June.)
He will graduate within 5 years. (Not longer than 5 years.)

Prepositions of Place

To refer to a place, use the prepositions "in" (the point itself), "at" (the general vicinity), "on" (the
surface), and "inside" (something contained).

They will meet in the classroom.

He was waiting at the market.
She left his phone on the bed.
Place the phone inside the drawer.

To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions "over" and "above." To refer to an
object lower than a point, use the prepositions "below," "beneath," "under," and "underneath."

The bee flew over the house.

The bowls were on the shelf above the cups.
Basements are dug below ground.
There is wood beneath the carpet.
The squirrel hid the nuts under a pile of wood.
The dog is hiding underneath the box.

To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions "by," "near," "next to," "between,"
"among," and "opposite."

The park is by the grocery store.

The store is near her house.
Park your car next to the garage.
There is a zebra between the two trees.
There is a red flower among the weeds.
The garage is opposite the building.

Prepositions of Location

To refer to a location, use the prepositions "in" (an area or volume), "at" (a point), and "on" (a
surface).

They live in the city. (an area)

She will find him at the bookstore. (a point)
There is a lot of dirt on the floor. (a surface)

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Prepositions of Spatial Relationships

To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions "above," "across," "against," "ahead of," "along,"
"among," "around," "behind," "below,"
"beneath," "beside," "between," "from," "in front of," "inside," "near," "off," "out of," "through," "toward,"
"under," and "within."

The post office is across the street from the mall.

The kids are hiding behind the wall.
His short is off.
We will stop at many attractions along the way.
Walk toward the lodge and then turn left.
Place a check mark within the circle.

Prepositions Following Verbs and Adjectives

Following certain verbs and adjectives is a particular preposition. Sometimes, verbs and adjectives can be
followed by a variety of prepositions, resulting in different meanings for the phrase. To determine which
prepositions follow a verb or an adjective, consult an online dictionary like Merriam-Webster or a corpus like
The Corpus of Contemporary American English. It is most helpful to memorize these phrases instead of
just the preposition alone.

Some Common Verb + Preposition Combinations

About: worry, complain, read

She complained about the homework.

He worries about the future.
I read about the burning in the city.
At: arrive (a mall or event), smile, look
She arrived at the port 5 hours early.
The children smiled at him.
He looked at her.

From: differ, suffer

The results differ from my original idea.

She suffers from dementia.

For: account, allow, search

Be sure to account for any discrepancies.

I returned the transcripts to the interviewees to allow for revisions to be made.
They are searching for the missing dog.

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In: occur, result, succeed

The same problem occurred in two out of four cases.

My recruitment strategies resulted in finding 11 participants.
He will succeed in completing her degree.

Of: approve, consist, smell

I approve of the idea.

The recipe consists of five basic ingredients.
The room smells of mildew.
On: concentrate, depend, insist
He is concentrating on his work.
They depend on each other.
I must insist on following this rule.

To: belong, contribute, lead, refer

Cows belong to the family of mammals.

I hope to contribute to the previous project.
Please refer to my previous explanation.
My results will lead to future research on the topic.

With: (dis)agree, argue, deal

I (dis)agree with you.

He argued with him.
They will deal with the situation.

Although verb + preposition combinations resemble phrasal verbs, the verb and particle (in this case, the
preposition) cannot be separated like they can in phrasal verbs.

Lesson 14: Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Coordinating, paired, and subordinating
conjunctions are the three types of conjunctions.

Compound Sentences,

Varying Sentence Structure, and Comma Basics.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases in a sentence that serve the same grammatical
function. The acronym FANBOYS represents the seven most important conjunctions in English:

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F: for: The principals were frustrated, for the school had cut funding for all enrichment programs.

A: and: In this course, I will write a literature review, a case study, and a final paper.

N: nor: The students did not complete their homework, nor did they pass the test.

B: but: The study is several years old but still valuable to this study.

O: or: At the end of the class, the students can choose to write an essay or take a test.

Y: yet: The patient complained of chronic pain, yet she refused treatment.

S: so: I have only been a nurse for one year, so I have little experience with paper charting.

"For" is rarely used as a conjunction in modern English.

When the conjunctions "and" and "or" connect three or more words or phrases, use a serial comma to
separate items in the series.

Transitional words such as "however" and "therefore" can also function as conjunctions.

The authors agreed on the pervasiveness of the problem but disagreed on its root cause.

The manager called an all-staff meeting to address the employees' complaints about the new policies after
receiving several complaints.

Paired Conjunctions

Paired conjunctions consist of two words or phrases that help make a point or establish alternatives.
Although paired conjunctions can be helpful in structuring a sentence, they can also make sentences
wordier than necessary, so use these conjunctions sparingly.
Both…and

Both the students and the teachers were satisfied with the feeding program.
The project will require significant investments in both time and money.

Note: When two subjects are connected by "both…and," use a plural verb (such as "are" or "were").

not only…but also

Not only did the student include full sentences from the source without using quotation marks, but he also
failed to properly cite paraphrased material.

Students who did not complete the assignment received not only a poor grade but also a warning from the
teacher.

17
either…or

Participants in the survey could either choose from a list of possible answers or write in their own
responses.

Either the students were unprepared or the assessment was poorly written.

neither…nor

The staff neither followed the new policy nor asked for clarification.
Students who did not complete the project received neither praise nor rewards.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause and establish a relationship between
the two. There are many subordinating clauses, but here are some of the most common:

after
although
as much as/as soon as/as long as
as though
because
before
how
if
in order to/in order that
once
since
than
that
though
unless
until
when/whenever
where/wherever
whether
while

There are two ways to structure a sentence using a subordinating conjunction:

Main clause + subordinate clause

 The teacher administered the test after giving instructions.
 The author must avoid bias if she wants to maintain a scholarly tone.
 I will turn in this assignment at midnight whether or not I complete it.

Subordinate clause + , + main clause

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  After giving instructions, the teacher administered the test.
 If she wants to maintain a scholarly tone, the author must avoid bias.
 Whether or not I complete this assignment, I will turn it in at midnight.

"That" as a Conjunction for Noun Clauses

"That" has a few different functions in English. This can lead to confusion because some instances of "that"
are more optional than others in academic writing.

One important use of "that" is for embedding (inserting) a certain type of dependent clause called a noun
clause into an independent clause. Frequently, such "that" clauses serve as the direct object of a reporting
verb (such as found, reported, posited, argued, claimed, maintained, and hypothesized) to introduce a
paraphrase, summary, or quotation.

Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green, underline = verb; blue, italics = object
For example,

David (2015) reported that more research was necessary.

David (2015) = subject
reported = verb

that more research was necessary = dependent clause, direct object of the verb "reported"
The authors hypothesized that there would be significant results.

The authors = subject

hypothesized = verb
that there would be significant results = dependent clause, direct object of the verb "hypothesized"

Jone (2019) asserted that confidentiality was maintained throughout the study.
Jone (2019) = subject
asserted = verb

that confidentiality was maintained throughout the study = dependent clause, direct object of the verb
"asserted"

Rephrasing these sentences into questions and answers is one way to see that the "that" clauses are
acting as direct objects.

What did David (2015) report?

Answer: that more research was necessary
What did the authors hypothesize?
Answer: that there would be significant results
What did Jone (2019) assert?
Answer: that confidentiality was maintained throughout the study.

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Interjections

Interjections are words used to express strong feelings or sudden emotions. They are included in a
sentence (usually at the start) to express a sentiment such as surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or
enthusiasm.

An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.

Examples of interjections

In the following examples, the interjections are shaded.

Hey! Get off that floor!

Jeepers, that was close.
Oh, that is a surprise.
Good! Now we can move on.
Lesson 15: The Sentence

The largest unit of any language is the sentence. It begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, a
question mark, or an exclamation point in English.

Generally speaking, a sentence is a word or group of words that expresses a complete thought by giving a
statement or order, posing a question, or exclaiming.

Four kind of sentence according to structure

Simple, compound, complex, and compound-compound are the four types of sentence structures. The
number and arrangement of clauses determine the composition of each sentence structure type. A clause
is a group of words with a subject and a verb that can (but does not necessarily) form a complete sentence.
If the clause can stand alone as a complete thought, it is considered independent. A dependent clause is
one that depends on another part of the sentence to complete the thought it expresses. When he arrived
home from school, for instance, is a dependent clause. Even though there is a subject and a verb, this is
not a complete thought.

Simple Sentence

In a simple sentence, there’s only one independent clause. “I like milk” and “Daved works at the library” are
both examples of simple sentences. They each contain one subject (I and Daved) and one verb (like and
works).

Compound Sentence

Two independent clauses joined by a conjunction constitute a compound sentence. The sentence "The dog
ran around in the backyard and is now sleeping" is a compound sentence. Both clauses are complete
sentences that could stand on their own if the conjunction (and) were removed.

20
Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains at least one dependent clause and one independent clause. The if-then
sentence is a frequent example of this type of structure. For instance, "If I won the lottery, I would purchase
a new automobile" is a complex sentence. If I won the lottery is a dependent clause because it does not
express a complete thought. It becomes complex when you add a comma and the independent clause,
after which I would purchase a new bus.

Compound-Complex Sentence

There is more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause in a compound-complex
sentence. For instance, "Rondy is a singer in a band because he cannot play an instrument." This sentence
is compound-complex. It contains two independent clauses (Rondy is in a band and he is the lead vocalist)
and one dependent clause (because he cannot play an instrument).

Putting It All Together

You can create the four types of structures by changing or adding additional clauses:

“I broke my leg.” (Simple sentence)

“I fell off my motorcycle, and I broke my leg.” (Compound sentence)
“When I fell off my motorcycle, I broke my leg.” (Complex sentence)
“When I fell off my motorcycle, I went to the hospital because I broke my leg.” (Compound-complex
sentence)

Four kind of sentence according to function

21
There are four main types of sentences:

Declarative – used to convey information or make statements.

Interrogative – used to ask questions.
Imperative – used to issue orders or directives.
Exclamatory – used to make exclamations.

Run on Sentences, Parallel Structures, Dangling Modifiers,

Dangling modifier

A word or phrase apparently modifying an unintended word because of its placement in a sentence

Comma splice

The use of a comma between main clauses where a period or semicolon should be used

Parallel structure

Using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance
Run-on

Two or more sentences that are improperly joined together as one sentence

Sentence fragment

A sentence missing a subject or verb or complete thought

Lesson 16: What is a Paragraph? Definition, Examples of Paragraphs

Paragraph definition: A paragraph is a unit of writing in a larger body of work. A paragraph expresses a
particular topic or theme.

What is a Paragraph?

A paragraph is a component of fictional prose and non-fiction writings.

When writing essays, research papers, books, etc., new paragraphs are indented to show their beginnings.
Each new paragraph begins with a new indentation.

The purpose of a paragraph is to express a speaker’s thoughts on a particular point in a clear way that is
unique and specific to that paragraph. In other words, paragraphs shouldn’t be mixing thoughts or ideas.
When a new idea is introduced, generally, a writer will introduce a new paragraph.

22
Basic Paragraph Structure: How to Layout a Paragraph

In non-fiction writing, a body paragraph is any paragraph that comes between the introduction and the
conclusion.

A good body paragraph will have the following:

Topic Sentence

What is a topic sentence? A topic sentence is the first sentence of the body paragraph. Simply put, the
topic sentence introduces the topic of the paragraph. A good topic sentence will be broad enough to allow
for explication but narrow enough that it does not require a paragraph that is too long.

Supporting Sentences

What is a supporting sentence? The supporting sentences of a paragraph are the sentences between
the topic sentence and the concluding sentence. The supporting sentences “support” the topic sentence.
That is, they explain and elaborate the point of the paragraph.

Concluding Sentence

What is a concluding sentence? The concluding sentence is the last sentence in the paragraph. It should
succinctly end the paragraph and transition to the next paragraph, if appropriate.

Other Features of Paragraphs

A good paragraph contains many elements. Here are just a few of them.

Unity, Coherence

As mentioned above, the ideas in a paragraph should logically fit together. Furthermore, they should flow
from one idea to the next.

A paragraph should be organized in a way that it builds appropriately. This could be by sequence of ideas
or events. Additionally, transitions should be used from one sentence to the next that connect the ideas and
concepts.

Adequate Development

In order for a paragraph to be considered “adequate” or “sufficient,” the paragraph should be well-
developed. The reader should not be left wanting more information.

Similarly, the paragraph should include enough evidence to support its topic sentence.

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Transitions

Good paragraphs have transitions between preceding and proceeding paragraphs. These transitions are
logical and verbal.

One paragraph should logically flow to the next. The ideas in a body of work should be organized so each
paragraph transitions well to the next. It should not be choppy.

Additionally, verbal transitions within and between paragraphs should help the reader move seamlessly
through the piece of writing.

How long is a Paragraph?

There is no set length to a paragraph. Some paragraphs are only one sentence in length. However, a short
paragraph like that should be left only to the expert writer—or a specific style of writing. You wouldn’t find a
single-sentence paragraph in a research paper or academic journal.

Paragraphs need to be long enough to express any given idea (long enough to thoroughly explain the topic
sentence).

Research papers may call for paragraphs ten sentences or longer.

The overall topic of the writing and content will determine the length of a paragraph. Unfortunately, there is
no single number of sentences to a good paragraph.

A general rule of thumb is to begin with a topic sentence; develop that topic well with evidence, examples,
and explanations; and conclude the paragraph appropriately.

Summary: What are Paragraphs?

Define paragraph: the definition of paragraph is a group of sentence in which a single topic is developed.

In summary, a paragraph is:

 a unit of writing
 used in non-fiction and fictional prose
 a part of writing that expresses a certain topic

Lesson 17: Transitional Markers

A transitional marker is a word or phrase placed at or near the beginning.

Of a sentence to indicate its relation to the preceding sentence. Be wary of cluttering your writing with
unnecessary ‘however’, ‘more overs’, and 'consequently'. But you should be equally careful to know these
markers and to use them when they create clarity.

Here is a list of many of the common transitional words and phrases:

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TO INDICATE ADDITION
Again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first,
Further, furthermore, in addition, last, moreover, next, second, too

TO INDICATE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, truly

TO INDICATE COMPARISON
In a like manner, likewise, similarly

TO INDICATE CONCESSION
After all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, I admit, naturally, of course
After all, although true, and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of,
nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, yet

TO INDICATE SPECIAL FEATURES OR EXAMPLES

For examples, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, specifically, that is, to
illustrate

TO INDICATE SUMMARY
In brief, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to conclude, to summarize, to sum up

Lesson 18: Agreement and Grammar Rules

What is agreement in grammar?

The word "agreement," when referring to a grammatical rule, means that the words a writer uses need to
align in number and in gender (when applicable). View more details on the two main types of agreements
below: Subject-verb agreement and noun-pronoun agreement.

Subject-verb agreement: number alignment

When you use a singular subject in a sentence, the verb that you use must also be singular. These should
always agree with each other.

Example: The conclusion shows that variables X and Y are related.

Here the subject is "conclusion," and the verb is "shows." Because "conclusion" is singular (there is only
one), the verb should also be singular.

If the verb were plural, it would refer to more than one subject. Here is an example of where that plural verb
would work:

Example: The results show that variables X and Y are related.

25
Notice here that the subject is "results" and the verb is "show." Because "results" is plural (more than one
result), the verb should also be plural. Here, the verb "shows" (singular) loses its "s" to become "show"
(plural).

Hint to remember: Singular verbs usually end in "s."

Noun-pronoun agreement: number and gender alignment

When you use a singular word and want to replace it with a pronoun, be sure that the two words agree both
in number and in gender.

Example: The man walked to his car.

In this example, "man" is a singular, male noun, so "his" is the appropriate pronoun to replace the noun.

When referring to groups or general nouns, you will want to pay close attention to the number and gender
agreement.

Example: Students need to bring their own lunch.

In this example, "students" is a plural noun, and "their" is the appropriate plural pronoun to replace the
noun. In the English language, the plural third-person pronoun has no gender (unlike the singular "his" or
"her"). Note that in APA 7, use of the singular "they" is also encouraged, meaning that using "they" as a
singular pronoun without gender allows for statements that do not assume or ascribe gender to individuals.

Example: Upper management refers to its >policies frequently in the handbook.

Because "management" is a group word, you will want to use a word to replace the group as a whole. It is a
singular entity, one group, and it does not have a gender, so you would use the singular, nongendered
word "it."

26
 UNIT 3
ELEMENTS OF STYLES AND MECHANICS
Lesson 19: Writing style and Mechanics in Grammar

Style

Although characterized as a “local concern,” style is an incredibly important aspect of writing. In this
section, you will learn how to craft engaging, dynamic prose and how to best communicate your information
and purpose as a writer. This section contains links to Writing Commons-related content.

Voice

Learn how to bridge the gap between formal academic writing and conversational prose by maintaining an
academic tone while remaining true to your own voice in Ensuring Your Voice Is Present.

Sentence Structure

Reusing the same sentence structure in your writing causes monotony. Selecting the Appropriate Sentence
Pattern teaches you how to engage your audience by experimenting with various sentence structures.
Then, with the sentence-level exercise, focus on individual sentences.

Active Voice

In contrast to the tendency of scientists to use passive voice in research reports, humanities writers
emphasize the significance of active voice. Learn to revise sentences to make them more dynamic and
interesting. Employ the active voice. Maintaining a high ratio of verbs to nouns is another key to writing
engaging prose.

Point of View

Different genres require distinct perspectives. Most students believe that academic papers should be
written in the third person, but the use of the first person in more formal genres is becoming increasingly
acceptable. Learn when the first person is appropriate and how to use first-person pronouns effectively.
When Is It Appropriate to Use the First Person, the First Person, and the First Person in Academic Writing?
Read Understanding the Second Person Point of View: Wizard activity to better comprehend why second-
person pronouns should not be used in academic writing.

Description

Successful writers communicate information in a clear and concrete manner when describing their own
ideas or the ideas of other scholars. Discover how to compose concrete sentences in How to Avoid
Unclearness and Write clear, concise sentences. Write with precision. When applicable, authors employ

27
figurative language in their writings. Discover why they do this and how to use figurative language
effectively in your writing. Utilize figurative language in your writing.

Grammar

It is important to be able to recognize and correct grammatical errors because they can not only make your
draft appear sloppy but also alter the meaning of your sentences and confuse your audience. Read
Subject-Verb Agreement, Subject-Pronoun Agreement, and Avoid Vague Pronoun References to increase
your understanding of grammatical principles.

Punctuation

Learn suitable punctuation techniques.

Below is a summary of how to punctuate various sentence structures and how to evaluate the potential
influence of various syntactical forms on the comprehension of the reader.

Commas: Understand comma usage conventions and the expected implications of various sentence
lengths and structures on reading comprehension.

Dashes: Create emphasis and explain concepts by breaking the flow of a sentence with a dash;
understand when to use a dash instead of a comma.

Colons: Utilize the colon to create an intense tone when the first sentence anticipates the second sentence
or phrase.

Semicolons: Use a semicolon to connect two comma-separated sentences or to punctuate a series or list
of appositives that already contain commas.

The pig ran under the fence.

Periods are also used in abbreviations, such as in names or titles.

Here are examples of how to use a period in abbreviations:

Dr. Suganog read his patient’s chart.

Mr. Mundy opened his front door.

Question Mark (?)

A question mark also ends a sentence; however, it ends a sentence that is a direct question. Typically,
sentences that are questions begin with what, how, when, where, why, or who.
Here’s how to use a question mark in a sentence:
How do you like your snacks?
Why didn’t you like the movie last Friday?

28
Generally, a question mark also denotes a shift in tone in a sentence if it’s being read out loud, so this is
something to take note of.

Person holding up book with a question markSource: Amazon

Exclamation Point (!)

Additionally, an exclamation point or exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence that shows a strong
emotion. The expression might be anything from enthusiasm, disdain, wrath, or happiness to any other
emotion. The purpose of exclamation points is to emphasize a sentence.

Here’s how to use one in a sentence:

“Look out behind you!” He yelled.

I’m so excited to go to the beach tomorrow!

Comma (,)

Commas are used to insert a pause into a sentence. The purpose of the pause can be for different
reasons, such as to separate ideas or phrases or even alter the structure of a sentence.

Commas have a few different uses. Commas are used for a direct address, such as:

Joe, it was nice to see you again.

They’re also used to separate two complete sentences:

He went to the library, and then he went out for lunch.

Commas can also be used to list items in a sentence:

She went shopping and bought shoes, a dress, two shirts, and a pair of pants.
Commas are one of the most misused punctuation points, and their misuse often results in a comma splice.
A comma splice is when you join two independent clauses with a comma instead of a conjunction. For
example:

It’s almost time for lunch, I’m not hungry.

Instead of using a comma, the sentence should read:
It’s almost time for lunch and I’m not hungry.

Oxford commas are often debated within academics and the English language, and using one often comes
down to preference. An Oxford comma is when a final comma is placed on the last item of a list. For
example:

He likes to eat fruits, cake, vegetables, and pasta.

29
Colon (:)

A colon has three primary uses. One way to use it is when introducing something, such as a quote, an
example, a series, or an explanation.

She took four classes last semester: history, biology, arts, and economics.

A colon can also be used to link two independent clauses if the second clause clarifies or completes the
first one. For example:

They didn’t have time to waste: it was already late.

Finally, a colon can also emphasize a subject in a sentence:
I only hate one vegetable: mung bean sprouts.

Semicolon (;)

Similar to a colon, a semicolon links two independent clauses. However, in this case, the clauses are more
closely related than when you would use a colon. For example:

I have a meeting tomorrow afternoon; I can’t go out tonight.

Both clauses are independent enough to be their own sentences, but instead of using a period, it’s possible
to use a semicolon to show both clauses are connected.

Another less common use for semicolons is within a list that uses commas. Have a look:
Last summer we traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Athens, Greece.

Dash (-)

There are two types of dashes that vary in size and use.

En dash: Typically shorter in length, the en dash is used to denote a range, such as between numbers or
dates. For example:

The company was operational from 1992-2005.

He took the Chicago-New York train last night.

Em dash: this dash is longer, and is sometimes used instead of other punctuation marks, like commas,
colons, or parentheses. Here’s an example:
His answer was clear — Yes!

Hyphen (-)

Not to be confused with a dash, a hyphen is used in compound words when two or more words are
connected. Here are some examples of hyphenated words:

Step-by-step
30
Father-in-law
Ex-girlfriend

Brackets ([ ])

Brackets are used to clarify something or for technical terms or explanations. It can also be used to clarify a
subject when quoting another person or text. For example:

She [Mrs. Ymalay] agrees that cats are better than dogs.
Adam said that “[winter] is my favorite time of year.”

Braces ({ })

It’s unlikely you’ll need to use braces very often unless you’re writing a mathematical or technical text.
However, it’s still good to know so you don’t accidentally use them instead of brackets or parentheses.
Braces are usually used in operations, for example:

6{3x+[28+2]}=xy

Parentheses (( ))

Parentheses are used to supply further details or information, or as an aside. Parentheses can often be
replaced with commas, and the sentence would retain its same meaning. Here’s an example:

Katie (who is Matt’s wife) likes to go for walks.

Apostrophe (‘)

Apostrophes are meant to show that a letter or letters have been omitted and also to indicate the
possessive or contractions. It can also be used to pluralize lowercase letters. Here are some examples:

I’ve been working from home for 5 years and it’s great.
Rebecca’s cat had surgery yesterday.
All that’s left to do is dot the i’s and cross the t’s.

Quotation Marks (“)

Quotation marks are used to denote text, speech, or words spoken by someone else. It is also used to
indicate dialogue.

“I don’t like this,” said Marky.

He told him that he “prefers not to think about that.”
Single quotation marks (‘ ’), not to be confused with apostrophes, are often used for a quote within a quote.
Jillord told her mother “Jackie ran up the hill and he said he was going to ‘fetch a pail of water’ before he
fell.”

31
Ellipsis (…)

An ellipsis is three periods used together to represent an omission of words or letters. They are often used
to jump from one sentence or phrase to another while omitting unnecessary or obvious words. It’s also
used when quoting someone, and unnecessary words are left out.

Here are some examples:

At midnight, she began to count down: "ten, nine, eight..." and then the ball dropped.
When Martin Luther King said, "I have a dream..." he was talking about civil rights and an end to racism.

Lesson 20: Capitalization

The rules of English capitalization appear easy at first glance. You surely know that proper nouns and the
first word of each sentence must be capitalized. However, you sometimes capitalize the first word of a
quote. In general, no capitalization follows a colon, but there are exceptions. And what do you do if you are
uncertain whether a word is a proper noun?

Capitalization Rules in English:

1. Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence

This one’s easy. Always capitalize the first word of a sentence.

The dog is sleeping.
Where did I put that phone?
Hey! It’s great to see you! How have you been?

2. Capitalize Names and Other Proper Nouns

You should always capitalize people’s names.

My favorite author is Janer Austen.
Tommy and Diane met at Judy Ann’s house.
Have you met my cat, Boomer?

Names are proper nouns. The names of cities, countries, companies, religions, and political parties are also
proper nouns, so you should capitalize them, too.

We experienced some beautiful Southern America weather last fall when we attended a Catholic wedding
in San Diego.

You should also capitalize words like mom and grandpa when they are used as a form of address.

Just wait until Mom sees this!

Here’s a tip: Want to make sure your writing always looks great? Grammarly can save you from
misspellings, grammatical and punctuation mistakes, and other writing issues on all your favorite websites.

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3. Don’t Capitalize After a Colon (Usually)

In most cases, you don’t need to capitalize after a colon.

I have one true passion: wombat racing.

There are a couple of common exceptions. One is when the word following the colon is a proper noun.

There is only one place I want to visit: Manila City.

The other exception is when the words following the colon form one or more complete sentences.

Maggy wears a brimmed cap at all times for these two reasons: Strong light often gives her a headache.
She also likes the way it looks.

4. Capitalize the First Word of a Quote (Sometimes)

Capitalize the first word of a quote when the quote is a complete sentence.

Marion asked, “What is everyone doing this weekend?”

Arjhay answered, “My sister and I are going to the water park.”
Don’t capitalize the first word of partial quotes.
Lory said she was “way too busy” to join the gym.
Mr. Kevin described the rules as “extremely difficult to understand if you don’t have a law degree.”

5. Capitalize Days, Months, and Holidays, but Not Seasons

The names of days, months, and holidays are proper nouns, so you should capitalize them.
I hate Friday’s!
Tommy’s birthday is in July.
Oh no! I forgot about Christmas Day!
The names of seasons, however, are not proper nouns, so there’s no need to capitalize them.
I hate autumn!
Having a winter birthday is the best.

6. Capitalize Most Words in Titles

The capitalization rules for titles of books, movies, and other works vary a little between style guides. In
general, you should capitalize the first word, all nouns, all verbs (even short ones, like is), all adjectives,
and all proper nouns. That means you should lowercase articles, conjunctions, and prepositions—however,
some style guides say to capitalize conjunctions and prepositions that are longer than five letters.

Sense and Sensibility is better than Pride and Prejudice.

The first movie of the series is Titanic and the Lion King.
The names of cities, countries, nationalities, and languages are proper nouns, so you should capitalize
them.

33
English is made up of many languages, including Latin, German, and French.
My mother is German, and my father is Filipino.
The capital of Philippines is Manila.

7. Capitalize Time Periods and Events (Sometimes)

Specific periods, eras, and historical events that have proper names should be capitalized.
Most of the World War I veterans are now deceased.

In the Middle Ages, poor hygiene was partly responsible for the spreading of bubonic plague.

Middle school students often enjoy studying the social changes that took place during the Roaring
Twenties.

However, centuries—and the numbers before them—are not capitalized.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, England blossomed into an empire.

Lesson 21: Abbreviation

What is an abbreviation?

There are abbreviations everywhere, from conventional titles like Dr. and Prof. to abbreviations on street
signs. Specifically, abbreviations are the shortened forms of common phrases and idioms.

Using abbreviations

Typically, abbreviations are derived from the most recognized letters of a word or statement. This makes
them simpler to recall and easier to read for others. It's almost as if the letters are hints that lead to the
original word or phrase.

Mister = Mr. / Boulevard = Blvd. / corporation = corp. / miles per hour = mph / New York = NY

Some abbreviations, such as mph and NY, appear to be acronyms, although this is really a coincidence.
These are technically initialisms, a form of abbreviation. You do not need to know if something is an
abbreviation, initialism, or acronym in order to use it correctly. You only need to know the term's definition
and correct spelling; the rest will usually fall into place.

Now that you understand how acronyms are generated, you may be wondering how to pronounce them.
The majority of the time, they are pronounced identically to the original word, whether you are reading it
aloud or silently.

For instance, Prof. Snape is pronounced Prof. Snape (not Prof. Snape). The acronym etc. would be
pronounced as etc. (not e-t-c). Remember that abbreviations are not words in the traditional sense; they
are rather like shorthand.

34
Lesson 22: Numbers

From the number of hours we sleep at night to the number of laps we do on the racing track and beyond,
numbers are a vital part of our daily lives. Even and odd numbers, prime and composite numbers,
decimals, fractions, rational and irrational numbers, natural numbers, integers, real numbers, rational
numbers, irrational numbers, and whole numbers are all types of numbers in mathematics.

Using Numbers in Technical Documents

For engineers, like physicists, numbers are as important as words in reporting on their work, and carry
much of the meaning behind their technical documents. However, how we write these numbers – and how
we integrate them with text – may determine a reader’s understanding of that report. For example, take this
passage:

“An appropriate sample would have to involve at least fifteen- thousand trial runs, at two-hundred
minutes a run.”

Here, a reader could interpret the numbers in a multitude of ways:

 Between 15 to 1000 trial runs, that are between 2 to100 minutes long;
 A collection of fifteen 1000-trial runs, that involve pairs of hundred minute runs
 Or 15000 trial runs, at 200 minutes per run

Fortunately, as Celia Elliott has pointed out, conventions have evolved that allow us to express numbers
unambiguously, so that readers interpret them as we intend. Remembering all the rules for numbers can be
challenging, however, particularly when numbers constitute so much of the meaning in the work we do.
Celia Elliott’s guide on “Writing Numbers in Technical Documents” is an invaluable resource that helps us
to keep track of all of these rules, with clear examples of appropriate usage.

You might already know, for example, this rule:

Numbers <10 are usually written as words; whereas numbers >9 are written in numerals

Cardinal numbers one to nine are spelled out, as are ordinal numbers from first to ninth
 Seven components make up the water management system
 The third stage in the process requires much stricter controls

Cardinal numbers above nine are written in numerals, as are ordinal numbers above the ninth
 Filtration can take up to 15 minutes for every 6 litres of fluid
 The 20th century has shown a marked increase in temperature

But wait…

Why did I write “15 minutes for every 6 litres of fluid” above? Shouldn’t 6 be six? That’s a good point, but
another important rule is that if you have two numbers in a sentence, one <10 and one >9, write both in
words or both in numerals. In other words, be consistent in style within a sentence.

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But in that case, why did we write 6 in numerals rather than 15 in words? Well, there’s yet another rule that
applies here:

Numbers that have been measured or calculated should always be in numerals, even if they’re <10

6 litres
830 MHz
6 mg
77 K
4 cm x 4 cm

You’ll notice a space is usually a inserted between a number and the unit of measure, but do you know that
there are exceptions to that rule? Can you think of what these are?

Fortunately, Celia Elliott’s guide has the answer to these conundrums and lays out a thorough and
complete set of both rules and exceptions to the appropriate use of numbers in technical documents. In
addition to providing answers to those questions, it shows how to deal with issues such as:

 Approximate numbers
 Mathematical operations
 Fractional numbers
 Capitalization of numbers
 Ratios
 Adjacent numbers

Lesson 23: Spelling

Many people believe that spelling consists of remembering all the words in a dictionary and that some
people have a natural aptitude for spelling while others do not. These are misunderstandings. Good
spellers are taught, not innate! Almost 90 percent of English words can be spelled if a pupil is familiar with
basic spelling patterns, concepts, and standards.

Typically, if a youngster can spell a word, he or she can also read it. In reality, there is a significant link
between spelling and reading words since many of the same skills — phonemic awareness, knowledge of
letter patterns, and comprehension of morphology and word meanings — underpin both activities. Good
spellers improve their reading and writing skills.

The rules and conventions for the spelling of Standard American English words are very complex and are
beyond the scope of this handbook. Correct spelling, however, is extremely important in technical and
scientific writing because it establishes a writer's credibility by displaying his or her care and precision in
dealing with information. A reader may hesitate to trust the data or design recommendations of a technical
document that contains careless misspellings.

Here are a few suggestions to help ensure that your document is free of spelling errors.

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 Always proofread your document for misspellings. If you are writing on a word processor, always
use the spell checker but do not rely on it alone; it cannot catch one word substituted for another
(discreet for discrete) or a typographical error that is a word (cod instead of code).
 Be consistent in the spelling of words in your document. Use the same dictionary when writing your
first draft as when revising or editing the document.
 If you first learned British or Commonwealth English, be careful to use American English spellings
of words rather than British forms. The following list summarizes some of the most common
differences between American English and British English spelling.

AMERICAN ENGLISH BRITISH ENGLISH

center, fiber center, fibre
color, labor, odor colour, labour, odour
defense, offense defence, offence
encyclopedia, medieval encyclopaedia, mediaeval
enroll, fulfill enrol, fulfil
organize, civilization organise, civilisation

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 UNIT 4
CIVILIAN LETTERS
Lesson 24: The Basic Parts of Civilian Letters

Important components of a business letter are the title, dateline, inside address, greeting, body,
complimentary close, and signature. The other components listed are optional. These components are as
follows:

Heading

 Both typed and printed letterheads are acceptable. The former contains the author's address,
which is often blocked by the dateline (no abbreviation for the month, street, district, city, or
country).

 The latter, which is typically used by businesses, comprises the company's name, address, phone
number, and, if applicable, ZIP (Zone International Program) code. Occasionally, a company's
motto or trademark is written.

 The usage of identifying references is optional, depending on the chief's or office's head's
instructions. If utilized, it is put two spaces below the letterhead and on the same line as the current
date in the left margin.

Dateline

The dateline is composed of the month, the day, and the year in that sequence. In business
correspondence, the month is always spelled properly and never shortened. Also, st (as in the first), nd (as
in the second), rd (as in the third), or th (as in the fourth, fifth, and sixth) are used following the month.
Always include a comma between the day and the year.

Inside Address

The recipient's name should be spelled out completely. It should always be preceded by a courtesy title,
with the exception of M.D. and Ph.D. The first line contains the recipient's name and designation, if any; the
second line has the name of the company or organization to which the addressee belongs; and the third
and subsequent lines include the firm's address. If the recipient does not have an office, the local or
residential address will suffice.

Attention Line

When a letter is addressed to a corporation, an individual, a specific apartment inside a firm, or a person
other than the addressee, the attention line is utilized to expedite letter processing.

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Salutation

The salutation is used to greet the reader and can be formal, informal, cordial, or personal.

Body

Letters inside context.

Lesson 25: Special Parts of a Civilian Letter

1. Subject or reference line

A subject line or reference line may be useful for informing the recipient of your letter's purpose. Include it
two lines below the recipient's address or the attention line. Use Subject: or Re: at the beginning of this line,
or capitalize the subject:

2. Attention line

If your letter is addressed to a business, you may include an attention line to indicate who the letter is
intended for (e.g., CEO, chief financial officer, marketing director). The attention line follows the recipient's
address by two lines:

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3. Enclosures

If you are enclosing additional documents with your letter, type Enclosure or Enclosures three lines below
your signature or one line below the typist's initials. If you have enclosed multiple documents, you may also
list them; if you do, use the abbreviation Encl. If there are multiple enclosures, indicate the number in
parentheses ():

4. Subject Line

The subject line of a business letter is the portion of the letter in which you describe your subject to the
reader. Although a subject line is not always required in a business letter, especially if the letter is brief, it
can be useful because it conveys the subject of the letter to the reader immediately.

40
5. Reference Initials

Initials will appear on the line at the bottom of the page. Place the reference initials above the enclosure
line, separated by one blank line if there is an enclosure.

The sender's initials in uppercase are followed by the typist's initials in lowercase for reference initials. The
two sets of initials are separated by a colon; however, a slash may also be used. Periods are not used in
initial references. For instance, if Brian Martin is transcribing Mary Lawson's dictation, the reference initials
would appear as follows:

6. Carbon Copy Notation

Although carbon is no longer commonly used for copies, the convenient initials c.c.: (or cc:) followed by a
colon and the names of the recipients of the letter's copies remain the preferred copy notation. A substitute
is "copy to:. It corresponds to the distribution list of documents such as memoranda and minutes and
informs the recipient of the other recipients.

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7. Postscript

Although carbon paper is no longer commonly used for copies, the initials c.c.: (or cc:) followed by a colon
and the names of the recipients of the letter's copies remain the preferred copy notation. Copy to: is a
replacement. It corresponds to the distribution list of documents like memos and minutes and informs the
recipient of the other recipients.

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Lesson 26: Arrangement Styles of Civilian Letters

Although carbon paper is no longer commonly used for copies, the initials c.c.: (or cc:) followed by a colon
and the names of the recipients of the letter's copies remain the preferred copy notation. Copy to: is a
replacement. It corresponds to the distribution list of documents like memos and minutes and informs the
recipient of the other recipients.

43
44
Rules on Margin and Spacing of civilian letters

1. On standard 8.5-by-11-inch stationery, the date is typically typed on line 15, followed by the
internal address five lines below.

2. Before the salutation, each paragraph, the complimentary close, and the company signature, if
used, leave one blank line.

3. If an attention line or subject line is included, a blank line should precede and follow.

4. The author's name should be preceded by at least three blank lines to provide space for the
signature.

5. Typically, at least one blank line separates the author's name from the reference initials.

6. Generally, there is no blank line between the reference initials and the enclosure and carbon
notations.

7. If used, a postscript is preceded by one blank line.

Rules on Margin and Spacing of civilian letters

1. The left margin should be straight for both handwritten and typed documents.

2. The writer must exercise because it is impossible to achieve a straight line at the right margin.

3. Use discretion and care when inserting words at the line ends to prevent the page from appearing
ragged.

4. When the letter is very brief, the margin should be increased, and the letter should be positioned
far enough from the top of the page to allow it to occupy the center of the page.

5. A letter of average length, between 100 and 150 words, can fit on one page if it is double-spaced
and the margin stops are set so that the lines are fifty spaces long.

6. In a letter of 200–300 words or more, the same line length may be used, but it must be single-
spaced. If you wish to fit the entire message onto one page, you should use double spacing
between paragraphs.

45
Types of Civilian Letters

-Order Letter
-Letter of Inquiry
-Recommendation Letter
-Reference Letter
-Application Letter
-Condolence Letter
-Appointment Letter
Adjustment Letter
-Request Letter
-Transmittal Letter
-Credit Application Letter
-Information Letter
-Invitation Letter
-Invitation Refusal
-Claim Letter

46
 UNIT 5
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES OF TECHNICAL WRITING
Definition

The four special techniques are DEFINITION, DESCRIPTION OF MECHANISM, DESCRIPTION OF A

PROCESS, and CLASSIFICATION. These techniques are not report types, and it is essential to keep in
mind that they typically appear in a single report. It would be rare to find an entire report, even a brief one,
written using only one of these methods. As a writer describes the design, construction, and operation of a
mechanism, for instance, two or more techniques might be tightly interwoven. However, the combination of
these techniques does not alter their fundamental application principles.

The four special techniques are DEFINITION, DESCRIPTION OF MECHANISM, DESCRIPTION OF A

PROCESS, and CLASSIFICATION. These techniques are not report types, and it is essential to keep in
mind that they typically appear in a single report. It would be rare to find an entire report, even a brief one,
written using only one of these methods. As a writer describes the design, construction, and operation of a
mechanism, for instance, two or more techniques might be tightly interwoven. However, the combination of
these techniques does not alter their fundamental application principles.

One technique at a time is the most efficient way to study these techniques.

1. Definition

In technology, words have precise, more specific meanings; hence, a technical phrase must be defined
precisely. The extent to which a term should be defined or the length of a definition is determined by the
writer's intent and the reader's degree of expertise. Prior to addressing the issue of "how to define," it is
preferable to "consider what should be defined first." Obviously, it is impossible to establish an exhaustive
list of terms and concepts requiring explanation, not even for a specific group of readers, but it is
conceivable and desirable to specify the perspective from which the problem of definition should be
approached.

2. Description of a Mechanism

In general, a mechanism is anything or a system with one or more moving elements. Typically, the phrase
refers to instruments, machinery, and tools. However, other examples of mechanisms include the human
body and systems such as the cosmos or a city, which are formed of elements that function similarly to
machine parts. A technical guy works continuously with mechanisms and must always comprehend what
they perform, how they appear, what pieces they have, and how these parts function together. The basic
sections of a description are the introduction, the section-by-section description, and the conclusion.

3. Description of a Process

A process is a succession of activities, and its explanation is essentially the description of an activity. The
action may be one of two varieties. One kind is one in which the focus is on the performance of an

47
individual or potentially a group of individuals. A basic example is hand-filing a work piece; in describing this
process, the focus would naturally fall on the requisite human abilities. The other kind consists of actions in
which a human operator is either not involved at all or is conspicuous. An instance is a contractor's
operation.

4. Classification

Classification is the orderly, systematic grouping of similar items according to a controlling principle or
premise. The classifier describes the structural and functional links between items; familiarity with these
concepts will make the remainder of the classification straightforward.

5. Partition

Partitioning is the process of separating a unit into its constituent parts. In addition to belonging to the same
unit, the pieces did not necessarily have any other characteristics.

48
References

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https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/verbs/

Basic Principles of Technical Writing. (2019, August 13). https://www.sheaws.com/basic-principles-of-

technical-writing/

Characteristics of Technical Writing. (n.d.). Grammar.yourdictionary.com.

https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/style-and-usage/characteristics-of-technical-writing.html

Jamal, H. (2017, March 17). Qualities of a Good Technical Report | Clarity, Accuracy, Comprehensiveness.
Www.aboutcivil.org. https://www.aboutcivil.org/characteristics-of-technical-report-writing.html

Lai, P. (n.d.). Academic Guides: Grammar: Conjunctions. Academicguides.waldenu.edu.

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/conjunctions

Nouns and pronouns | Britannica Dictionary. (n.d.). Www.britannica.com.

https://www.learnersdictionary.com/qa/nouns-and-pronouns

Paragraphs. (2019). Unc.edu. https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/paragraphs/

Parker, K. (2019, July 12). What is Technical Communication. Technical Writing Is Easy.
https://medium.com/technical-writing-is-easy/what-is-technical-communication-
421bf8a2206b#:~:text=Technical%20communication%20is%20a%20field

Spelling: Introduction. (2014, March 17). Reading Rockets.

https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading101-course/modules/spelling-introduction

Optional elements for business letters | Lexico.com. (n.d.). Lexico Dictionaries | English.
https://www.lexico.com/grammar/optional-elements-for-business-letters

Q: What Is a Technical Communicator. (n.d.). ZipRecruiter. https://www.ziprecruiter.com/e/What-Is-a-

Technical-Communicator

seo1. (2021, March 18). The 5 Fundamental Elements of English Grammar. College of English Language.
https://www.englishcollege.com/what-5-elements-grammar

What is agreement in grammar? - Walden University. (n.d.). Academicanswers.waldenu.edu.

https://academicanswers.waldenu.edu/faq/73188

What is Technical Documentation? Examples and Tips. (n.d.). CleverTap.

https://clevertap.com/blog/technical-documentation/

What Is Technical Writing? (2020, June 30). ContentWriters Blog. https://contentwriters.com/blog/what-is-

technical-writing/

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What skills and training do you need to be a technical communicator? (n.d.). ISTC.
https://istc.org.uk/homepage/value-of-technical-communication/what-skills-and-training-do-you-
need-to-be-a-technical-communicator/

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