Lesson 1- lec

Anatomy- The study of the structure & parts of the human body & the relationship of its constituent

derived from the Greek words (tomy) means to cut and (ana) means apart

surface anatomy - the study of the external features of the body or the surface of the body through non-
invasive procedure

- Visualization
- Palpation
- Auscultation
- Percussion

Gross Anatomy- the study of the structures that can be examined without using a microscope

Systematic/ systemic anatomy- study of the specific system of the body

Regional anatomy- study f the specific region of the body

Radiographic anatomy- the study of the structure of the body with the use of x-rays

Embryology- the study of development from the fertilized egg through the 6 th week in the uterus

Developmental anatomy- the study of the development from the fertilized egg to the adult form

Histology- microscopic study of the tissue structure

Cytology – the study of structure of the cell by means of microscopic or chemical study

Pathologic anatomy- the study of structural changes associated with disease

Physiology- the study that deals with the process & function of a specific part of the body

derive from the word physio means nature and ology the study of
 SUBDISCIPLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY
- cell physiology - the study for the function of the cell
- pathophysiology- the study of functional changes associated with disease and
aging
- exercise physiology- the study on the changes in the cell and organs during
muscular activity
- neurophysiology- the study of the functions of the nerve cells
- endocrinology- the study if hormones & how the body controls its function
- cardiovascular physiology- the study of function of the cardio vascular system
- immunology- study of the human immune system or the body defense
mechanism
- respiratory physiology- the study if the respiratory system
- renal physiology – the study of the urinary system

levels of structural organization

• Chemical level – it compose of atoms which binds to form molecules to form macromolecules.

• Organelle level- made up of chemical groupings and they are tiny organ like things found in
cells, cannot live outside the cell and has a unique function.

• Cellular level- the smallest unit of life, it is said that the body is composed of 100 trillion cells
which are formed by nucleus, cytoplasm and membrane which houses the organelle which are
required to function properly.

• Tissue level- group of similar cells that developed to the same part of the embryo and perform
specific function, tissue cells are surrounded by matrix or similar cells

• Organ level- made up different kinds of tissues that performs different function on the body

• System level- comprise of organs that are working together and there 11 major system in our
body
• Organism level- the overall human organism is the composition of all level of organization
which comprise of chemical, organelle, cellular. Tissue, organ and system level

The 11-organ system in the human body

1. the integumentary system system- provides protection, regulates temperature, reduce water
loss and produces vitamin D precursors. It's is consist of your skin, nails, hair and the sweat
glands

2. the skeletal system- provides protection and support, allows body movement, produces blood
cells and stores minerals and fat. it consists of bones associated cartilages, ligaments and joints

3. muscular system- produce body movements, maintains posture and produce body heat
4. it is consisting of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons

5. Lymphatic system – removes foreign substance from the blood and combats diseases, maintains
tissue fluid balance and transports fats from the digestive tract. It consist of the lymphatic
vessels, lymph nodes and other lymphatic organs

6. Respiratory system- exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and air and regulates
blood ph. consist of the lungs and respiratory passage

7. Digestive system- performs the mechanical and chemical process of digestion for absorption of
nutrients and elimination of wastes. Consist of mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine and
accessory organs.

8. Nervous system- system that detects sensation and controls movement, physiologic, process
and intellectual function, consist if brain spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptions

9. Endocrine system- system that influences metabolism growth reproduction and many other
functions. Consist of glands such as the pituitary that secretes hormones

10. Cardiovascular system- transport nutrients waste products gases and hormones throughout the
body/ consist of the heart blood vessels and blood.

11. Urinary system- removes waste and filters the blood. Consist of kidney urinary bladder and
ducts that carry urine

12. Reproductive system- the fame and female genitals

Orientation concepts and points of references

• Sagittal plane- separates the body into left and right parts

• Transverse or horizontal plane - separate's the body into superior and inferior parts

• Frontal- separate's the body into anterior and posterior parts

Body cavities

• Thoracic cavity- Space within chest wall and diaphragm Contains hearts lungs, thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea

• Mediastinum- -Space between lungs Contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea

• Abdominal cavity- Space between diaphragm and pelvis Contains stomach, liver spleen
pancreas, kidneys

• Pelvic cavity- Space between the pelvis, Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, parts of
large intestine

Quadrants

Commonly used by the clinicians in describing the site the abdominal pain tumor or abnormality
 Basic life processes

Metabolism- the sum of all chemical process that occur in the body

Phases

1. Catabolism- the breaking down of complex chemical substance into simpler one
2. Anabolism- the building of complex substance from smaller simpler ones

Responsiveness- the ability to detect & response to changes in internal or external environment internal
or external

Movement- motion of the whole body, organs, singlecell and even structure inside the cell

Growth – increase in body size that results from increase in size of existing cell

Development- the change an organism undergoes

Reproduction- refers to the formation of new cell

Digestion the process of breaking food down ingested food into simple molecule

Excretion the process of removing wastes from body

Homeostasis is the condition in which body functions, body fluids, and other factors of the internal
environment are maintained within a range of values suitable to support life.

Negative Feedback Negative-feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis.

Positive Feedback Positive-feedback mechanisms make deviations from normal even greater. Although
a few positive-feedback mechanisms normally exist in the body, most positive-feedback mechanisms are
harmful

Lesson 2
Cytology- the study of structure of cell

Cell-the basic structure of life

Structure of the cell

Nucleus the control center of the cell it contains the large quantities of DNA

Chromosome- the human is compose of 46 chromosome combined and inherited from the parent(23
from the male and 23 from the female)

Cytoplasm and organelles

Cytoplasm- clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm where organelles can be found

Endoplasmic reticulum- a network of tubules and vesicles that connects cell membrane, golgi complex
& nuclear membrane

Types of endoplasmic reticulum

Rough er – found near the cytoplasm has ribosome

Smooth er- found near the cell membrane does not have any ribosome

Golgi apparatus- principal traffic director for cellular protein

Lysosomes- digestive system of the cell

Mitochondria- rod shaped or sausage shaped “the power house of the cell” only inherited from the
mother, contains dna > self replicating

Atp- adenosine triphosphate

Cytoskeleton- the framework of the cell or the skeleton that prevents disorganization in the cytosol

Cilia & flagella- Provides cell mobility/ locomotion

Cilia- numerous, short, hairlike projection

Flagella- moves the entire cell ex sperm cells tail

Other organelle

Secretory vesicles- carries synthesized proteins and tobe delivers outside of the cell via exocytosis

Centrosome- located near the nucleus

Ribosomes site of protein synthesis

Cell membrane also known as plasma membrane- the gatekeeper of the cell

Composition

Phospholipids 70-75%

Cholesterol 25%

Glycolipids 5%

Types of phospholipids

• heads

Hydrophilic- soluble by water

• Tail

Hydrophobic – soluble in fats

Cholesterol- lipid in nature controls the fluidity of the membrane

Glycolipids- appears only in the membrane that faces the ecf ( extra cellular fluid)
Cell membrane proteins- globular masses floating in the lipid bilayer

Compositions: GLYCOPROTEINS

- TWO YTYPES
- Integral proteins
- Peripheral proteins

Membrane permeability

Permeable to non- polar, uncharged molecules

Impermeable to ions & charge or polar molecules

Slightly permeable to h20 & urea

Gradient across the cell membrane

Concentration gradient- difference in the concentration of a chemical from one region of the cell to
another region

Electrical gradient- difference in the electrical charge between two environments of the cell

Resting membrane potential (rmp)

- Plasma membrane is more negative inside and more positive outside

Transport process across the cell membrane

Passive transport- substance move along the concentration/Electrical gradient using only its own kinetic
energy

- Diffusion – random mixing of particles that occurs in solution due to kinetic

energy
a. Simple diffusion- kinetic movements of molecules or ions occurs
through a membrarne opening or spaces without any interaction
 b. Facilitated diffusion- requires interaction of a carrier protein which aids
the passage of molecules or ions

Osmosis- net movement of solvent through a selective permeable membrane from an area

Osmotic pressure- force exerted by the solute in a solution

Active transport- the use of atp by the cell to enable a certain substance to move against
concentration/Electrical gradient

- Primary active transport- energy derived from direct breakdown of atp

- Secondary active transport- energy came from output that has been stored in
the form of ionic substance
-

Transport in vesicles

- Pinocytosis- known as the cell drinking requires energy from the cell atp
- Phagocytosis- known as cell eating involves large solid particles instead of
molecules
- Receptor- mediated endocytosis- ligand gating- transferring some vitamins,
antibodies, hormones

Protein synthesis- formation of protein using gene

Transcription- copying/decoding the information from dna to create a complementary sequence of

codons in a strand of rna

3 kinds of rna made from dna

1. Messenger RNA (mrna)

2. Ribosomal Rna (rRna
3. Transfer Rna (tRNA)

Cell life cycles- order sequence of events by which a somatic cell duplicates or divide in two, human cells
contains 23 pairs of chromosome except for gametes

Cell life cycle major periods

1. Interphase- period of high metabolic activity wherein the cell replicates its DNA
2. Cell division- reproduction of cells as they become damaged diseased or worn out
 3. G1 phase- interval between the mitotic phase & s phase and last for 8 to 10 hours

4. Interphase – the interval between g1 and g2 phase +dna replication

5. G2 phase- last 4 to 6 hours, cekk growth continues in preparation for cell division

Types of cell division

Meiosis produce 4 halfloid cells

Mitosis produce 2 daughter cells

Phases of mitosis

- Prophase- nuclear membrane disintegrates

- Metaphase- replicated chromosome align along equator
- Anaphase centromers of the chromosome split
- Telophase- new sets of chromosome extend into chromatin

Tissues
• A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function, plus the
extracellular substance surrounding them.

Histology is the study of tissues.

Types of Tissues

There are four tissue types in the human body:

1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue that’s allow the body to interact both internal and external
environments
 2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in the body, binds
organs together and protects and supports the body and its organ

3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens,making movement possible it generates heat that warms
the body

- Nervous – responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities inside and outside
of the body

Epithelial tissue (epithelium)

Consist if cell arrange un continuous sheets

- The 3 function
- Selective barriers- limit or aid the transfer of substance into and out of the body
- Secretory surface- release products produced by cells onto their free surface
- Secretory surface- resist the abrasive influences of the environment

2 types of epithelial tissue

Covering and lining epithelium – forms the outer covering of the skin and some internal organs

Types of covering lining epithelium

- Simple epithelium- single layer

- Pseudostratified epithelium- appears to have multiple layers due to cell nuclei at different levels
- Stratified epithelium- compose of two or more layers of cells

Arrangement of cells into layers

Cell shapes

1. Squamous cells- thin, which allows for the rapid passage substance through them
2. Cuboidal cells- tall, wide and shaped like cubes or hexagon
3. Columnar cells- taller and wider than cuboidal cells protects the underlying tissue
4. Transitional cells- cell that varies in shape depending on whether the tissue is being stretched
Glandular epithelium- makes the secreting portion of glands

Glands of the body-

Endocrine glands- secrets their product through bloodstream without flowing through a duct

Exocrine glands- secrets their product through a duct as a passage

Structural classification of exocrine glands

Unicellular glands- single celled gland

Multicellular glands- compose of many cells

Connective tissues- the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body

Classification of connective tissues

- Embryonic connective tissues

- Mature connective tissues

Muscular tissue- consist of elongated cells called muscle fibers

Three types of muscular tissues

1. Skeletal- motion, posture, heat

2. cardiac- pumps blood to all parts of the body
3. Smooth- motion

Nervous tissue- consist of two principal cell

Neurons- converts stimuli into electrical signals called nerve action potential (nerve impulse)

Neuroglia- does not generate or conduct nerve impulses

Tissue repair- Replacement of worn out, damaged, or dead cells by healthy ones

Age related changes that occurs in cell

 1. Decrease numbers of neutron and muscle cells
2. The function of respiratory and cardiovascular system decrease
3. Cell division is slower
4. Collagen is irregular in structures, increase in numbers
5. Connective tissues becomes less flexible and fragile
6. Elastic connective tissues becomes less elastic( increase wrinkling)
7. Arterial walls become less elastic(atherosclerosis)

Lesson 3

Integumentary System- The integumentary system consists of the skin and accessory structures, such as
hair, glands, and nails.

Functions of Integumentary System

1. Protection. The skin provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet light.

2. Sensation. The integumentary system has sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold, touch,
pressure, and pain.

3. Vitamin D production. When exposed to ultraviolet light, the skin produces a molecule that can be
transformed into vitamin D.

4. Temperature regulation. The amount of blood flow beneath the skin’s surface and the activity of
sweat glands in the skin both help regulate body temperature.

5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products are lost through the skin and in gland secretions.

6. blood reservoir

7. cosmesis

8. Identity

Layers of the skin

epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin. It is a layer of epithelial tissue that rests on the dermis.

Contains

1. Kerationocytes
 2. Melanocytes- produce melanin for skin color
3. Langerhans cells- interacts with wbc during immune responses
4. Merkel cells- crude touch

Epidermis (CuLuGO Sa Batok) ps code name ang nasa parenthesis

Cu- stratum cornuem- protection against infection consist of 20-30 layers of flat deadcells filled with
keratin

Lu- statum lucidum- fund in hairless region such as palm and soles it is clear layer that gives skin its shiny
appearance

Go- stratum Granolusum0 cintains keratohyain responsible for water retention and heat regulatin

Sa- stratum spinosim – protects the basale

Batok- stratum basale – known as stratum germinativum, it contains melanocites and enables the
epidermis to regenerate

Dermis a layer of dense connective tissue.

Layer of the skin

Dermis- the deeper layer, compose of connective tissues containing collagen & elastic fibers example

Blood vessels, nerves, glands, hair follicles

Lines of cleavage- evident in palmar surface or fibers

Papillary- increase the friction of the fingers and feet basis for fingerprint

Reticular- composed of densely interwoven collagen fibers and elastin ( note the older it gets the
more it decrease)

Hypodermis- not a part of the skin iy contains the areolar connective tissue & adipose connective
tissue

Skin color

Melanin- provides pale yellow to reddish brown to black sin color

Carotene- provides yellowish to orange skin color

Hemoglobin- gives the skin red color

Albinism- deficiency of melanin

Cyanosis- poorly oxygenated Hgb- makes your color purple

Viligo- partial or complete loss of melanocytes

Skin appendages/ accessory structures

Hair- presents most skin layers except palms and soles

Anatomy of hair

Arrector pili- extends from the superficial dermis to the inside of the hair follicle

Hair growth

Growth- hair matrix divide and hair roots pushed upwards and the hair grows longer

Regression- the cells of the hair stop dividing

Resting- comes after the regression stage where hair stopped growing

Glands-

Exocrine glands- release secretion to the skin via ducts

Sebaceous- secretes oily substances called sebum that covers the hairs to helps and keep them drying
and becoming brittle

Sudoriferous- rekease sweat or perspiration into the hair follicles or onto the skin surface through
pore
Types

Eccrine – produces acidic sweat

1. Insensible perspiration- sweat that evaporates from the skin before it is perceived as moisture
2. Sensible perspiration- sweat that excreted in large amounts as seen on the skin
3. Emotional swearing or cold sweat- sweat that is produce by emotional stress such as fear or
embarrassment

Apocrine- larger than eccrine found at the armpit, groin, areolae of the breast and the bearded
regions of the face

Ceruminous glands- modified sweat glands in the external ear that secretes cerumen that provides
protection on the foreign bodies and insects entering our body

Nails – colorless plates of tightly packed, hard dead keratinized cells of the epidermis that has no
resting stage

Function of nails

Protects the distal ends of the digits( finger)

Allows to gras[s and manipulate small objects

Can be used to scratch and groom the body

Wound healing

1. Primary intention- healing occurs by primary intention when the edge of the wound can be
physically approximated (simple and fastest)
2. Secondary intention- granulation tissue must be produce to fill the wound effect (requires
more time to reach wound closure)
3. Tertiary- Combination of primary and secondary
Contribution of integumentary system to the other system of the body

Skeletal system- helps activate vitamin d and helps for absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus
to build and maintain bones

Muscular system- helps provide calcium ions, needed for muscle contractions

Nervous system- provides input to brain for touch, pressure, thermal and pain sensations

Endocrine system- activates vitamin d to calcitriol > aids absorption of dietary calcium and
phosphorus

Cardiovascular system- cause widening and narrowing of skin blood vessel which help adjust blood
flow to skin

Lymphatic system- they are the first line of defense in immunity providing mechanical barriers and
chemical secretions that discourage penetration and growths of microbes

Respiratory system- hairs in nose filer dust particles from inhaled air

Digestive system- calcitriol promotes absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus in small intestine

Urinary system- some water waste are excreted from the body in sweat

Reproductive system- suckling of a baby leads to milk ejection

Skin disorders

Psoriasis- increased cell division with abnormal keratin production that produce silvery scales

Erythema- engorgement of capillaries in the dermis

Pallor- decrease blood flow

Jaundice- excess bile pigments are absorbed into the blood

Bruises- hematoma

Pressure sores- decreased blood flow

White head

Blackhead

Acne
Seborrhea

Wart

corn

vitiligo

burns