HUMAN ANATOMY: LAB (SAT) gross anatomy studies as well as for

Chapter 1 surgical anatomy

Anatomy 8. Radiographic Anatomy
• derived from the Greek terms Ana (“up) and tome a. Study of the anatomy of tissues or
(“cutting”) which literally means “cutting up” organs based on the visualization from
• means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the x-ray films
parts of the body for study 9. Pathological Anatomy
• the study of internal and external structure and a. The anatomical study of changes in the
the physical relationships between body parts structure, or appearance of organs or
• includes a wide range of study: how structures tissues, including postmortem
develop, their microscopic organization, the examinations and the study of biopsy
relationship of one structure to another and how specimens
structures and functions are interrelated
Physiology
Subdivisions of Anatomy • study of how the body parts work or function
1. Gross (macroscopic) Anatomy • the science of body functions
a. Study of the large structures of the • it is important in physiology to recognize
human body that can be seen through structures as dynamic rather than static or
normal dissection unchanging - functions are more complex and
2. Microscopic Anatomy much more difficult to examine than most
a. Study of the smaller structures and fine anatomical structures
details that can be seen with the aid of • function can never be separated completely from
a microscope structure, we can understand the human body
b. Subdivided into specialties: best by studying anatomy and physiology
i. Histology – study of tissues together
ii. Cytology – study of cells
3. Embryology Major Goals of Physiology
a. Study of structures that emerge from 1. To understand and predict the body’s responses
the time of the fertilized egg through to stimuli
the eight week in utero 2. To understand how the body maintains conditions
4. Comparative Anatomy within a narrow range of values in the presence of
a. Comparison of anatomic structures a continually changing environment.
both gross and microscopic in different
animals Subdivisions of Physiology
5. Surface Anatomy (Superficial Anatomy) 1. Neurophysiology
a. A descriptive science dealing with – Study of functional properties of nerve cells
anatomical features that can be studied 2. Endocrinology
by sight, without dissecting an – Study of hormones and how they control body
organism. functions
b. Includes the form and proportion of the 3. Cardiovascular Physiology
human body – Study of functions of the heart and blood vessels
c. Includes also the surface landmarks 4. Immunology
which correspond to deeper structures – Study of how the body defends itself against
hidden from view disease-causing agents
6. Systemic Anatomy 5. Respiratory Physiology
a. Anatomy of the systems of the body – Study of functions of the air passageways and
b. An approach to anatomical study lungs
organized by organ systems 6. Renal physiology
7. Regional Anatomy – Study of functions of the kidneys
a. Study of specific regions of the body, 7. Exercise Physiology
such as the head, neck, or trunk – Study of changes in cell and organ functions as
b. Emphasizes the specific relationship a result of muscular activity
between different structures in a 8. Pathophysiology
particular region and is quite useful for
 – Study of functional changes associated with about 100 trillion dynamic cells in the human
disease and aging body; cells vary in size, shape and structure,
reflecting their particular functions in the body.
Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology • Cells makeup this level of organization and
• Each body part has a specific job or work to do to the smallest living units in the human body -
make the body work as one unit Types of body cells – muscle cells, nerve cells,
• Structures determine what functions can be and blood cells
performed. • Cells contain specialized structures called
• Anatomy and Physiology are interrelated because organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, lysosome
structure influences function and function affects and etc.)
structure.
• The sciences of anatomy and physiology are the 3. Tissue Level
foundation for understanding the structures and • A group of cells with similar structure and
functions of the human body function plus the extracellular substances
located between them make up a tissue.
Levels of Structural and Functional Organization • The characteristics of the cells and the
One of the most outstanding features of the surrounding materials determine the
complex human body is its order and organization: how all functions of the tissue.
the parts, from tiny atoms to visible structures work • There are four basic types of tissue in the
together to make a functioning whole. To understand the body: epithelial, connective, muscle and
human body, we must examine its organization at several nervous.
different levels
1. Chemical Level 4. Organ Level
• Involves interaction between atoms • An organ is composed of two or more
(the smallest units of matter that different types of tissues with a common
participate in chemical reactions) and function.
their combinations to form molecules. • Examples: stomach, heart, liver, and lungs
Molecules contribute to the make-up of
a cell, which is the basic unit of life. O 5. Organ System Level
• Examples of molecules found in the • An organ system is a group of organs that
body (needed for a variety of chemical work together to perform a specific function
processes): Ex. Nervous, digestive and respiratory system
a. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – genetic 6. Organismal / Organismic / organism Level
material passed from one generation to • Highest and largest level of organization and
the next most complex which is made up of several
b. glucose – commonly known as blood systems that work together to maintain life.
sugar • All the systems of the body combine to make
c. hemoglobin up an organism, that is, one human being.
d. water, fats, proteins, and vitamins –
• There are about 90 naturally occurring elements ***The organization at each level determines both the
and another 16 that are man-made in the structural characteristics and the functions of the higher
laboratory. Only 20 are needed by living levels
organisms.
• Four (4) elements (C, H, O, N) make up 95% of the Organ System Overview
human body by weight. 1. Integumentary System
• Structural and functional characteristics of all • consists of the skin and accessory
organisms are determined by their chemical organs (hair, nails, sweat and sebaceous
makeup glands)
• Molecules combine to form structures at the next • Functions:
level of organization o covers, cushions and protects
underlying tissues from injury
2. Cellular Level o protects against water loss
• Cells are the basic structural and functional units o perceives stimuli through
of all organisms; estimates indicate that there are sense receptors
 o helps in temperature o absorbs and transports fatty acids and
regulation fats to the circulatory system
o synthesize chemicals (e.g. 8. Respiratory System
vitamin D precursors) • includes the lungs and respiratory passages
2. Skeletal System • Functions:
• includes bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints o exchanges gases between the
• Functions: blood and the air
o provides the body’s framework o helps regulate blood pH
o provides support and protection 9. Digestive System
o provides attachment for muscles and • includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
ligaments thereby allowing body intestines, liver and pancreas
movement • Functions:
o produces blood cells and stores o mechanical and chemical digestion
minerals o absorption of nutrients
3. Muscular System o elimination of waste
• consists of muscles 10. Urinary System
• Functions: • includes the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters and
o produces body movements and urethra
maintains posture • Functions:
o produces body heat o removes waste products from the
4. Nervous System circulatory system
• consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and o helps regulate blood pH, ion balance
sensory receptors and water balance
• Functions: 11. Reproductive System
o major regulatory system: detects • includes gonads, accessory structures and
sensation genitals of male and female
o controls movement • Functions:
o control physiologic and intellectual o performs the processes of reproduction
functions o controls sexual functions and behaviors
o coordinates body activities
o receives and transmits stimuli Basic Life Processes
5. Endocrine System All living organisms have certain characteristics that set
• consists of endocrine glands and their hormones them apart from nonliving things.
• Functions: 1. Organization
o major regulatory system, participates in - A condition in which parts of an organism have
the regulation of metabolism, specific relationships to each other & interact to
reproduction and other body function perform specific functions
6. Cardiovascular System - Living things are highly organized.
• includes the heart, blood and blood vessels - Disruption of this organized state can result in loss
• Functions: of functions and death.
o transports nutrients, waste products, 2. Metabolism
gases and hormones throughout the - All chemical reactions that occur in the body
body a) Catabolism Complex substances are broken
o plays a role in the immune response and down into simpler building blocks
regulation of body temperature b) Anabolism Complex substances are synthesized
7. Lymphatic System from simpler ones
• includes the lymph vessels, lymph nodes and - Example: Proteins in food are split into amino
lymph acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
• Functions: These amino acids can be used to build new
o removes foreign substances from the proteins that make up muscles and bones.
blood and lymph 3. Responsiveness
o combats diseases - Body’s ability to detect and respond to changes in
o maintains tissue fluid balance its internal and/external environment.
 - Different cells in the body detect different sorts of Survival Needs
changes. Nerve cells respond to changes in the 1. Water
environment by generating nerve impulses. - Most abundant substance in the body
Muscle cells respond to nerve impulses by - About 60% of the adult body weight is attributed
contracting, which generates force to move body to water
parts. - Provides a medium in which chemical reactions
4. Movement o Includes motion of the whole body, occur
individual organs, single cells, and even tiny - Transports substances
organelles inside cells. - Helps regulate body temperature
- Examples: 2. Oxygen
o Coordinated action of several muscles - Necessary for metabolic reactions that provide
and bones enables you to move your energy
body from one place to another by 3. Nutrients
walking or running - Supply the chemicals that the body needs for
o when a body tissue is damaged or energy, raw materials for making new tissues, for
infected, certain white blood cells move growth, replacement and repair
from the blood into the affected tissue 4. Appropriate body temperature
to help clean up and repair the area - Extreme changes in body temperature may lead
o Inside individual cells, various parts to death
move from one position to another to 5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure
carry out their functions - Force of the air acting on our bodies
5. Reproduction - Breathing and exchange of oxygen and carbon
- Formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair or dioxide in the lungs depend on appropriate
replacement; production of a new individual atmospheric pressure
6. Growth
- Results in an increase in body size due to an Homeostasis
increase in the size of existing cells, the number of • The existence and maintenance of a relatively
cells, or the amount of material surrounding cells constant/stable environment within the body
7. Differentiation • The dynamic state of equilibrium - it can change
- Developmental process by which non-specialized over a narrow range that is compatible with
cells change into specialized cells with distinctive maintaining cellular life processes.
structural and functional characteristics o Example: Blood glucose is maintained
- Examples: w/in narrow range and normally does
o Specialized RBCs and WBCs not fall too low between meals or rise
differentiate from the same too high even after eating a high-
unspecialized cells in the bone marrow glucose meal.
o Single fertilized egg cell undergoes • To survive, every living organism must maintain
tremendous differentiation to develop homeostasis
into a unique individual who is similar • Ensures that the body’s internal environment
to, yet quite different from, either of the remains steady despite changes inside and
parents outside the body
8. Respiration • Keeps the interstitial fluid (large part of the
- The exchange of gases in cells and in the lungs internal envi.) at a proper temperature of 37 C and
9. Digestion maintains adequate nutrient and oxygen levels for
10. Ability to break down food into absorbable pieces body cells to flourish.
for body utilization
11. Excretion Homeostasis (homeo = sameness; stasis = standing
- Ability to eliminate waste materials still) is the condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal
environment. Homeostasis in the human body is continually
*** Although not all of these processes are occurring in cells being disturbed. Some disruptions come from the external
throughout the body all of the time, when they cease to environment in the form of physical insults such as intense
occur properly cell death may occur. When cell death is heat or lack of oxygen. Other disruptions originate in the
extensive and leads to organ failure, the result is death of internal environment (within the body), such as blood
the organism. glucose level that is too low.
 Control of Homeostasis input (nerve impulse or chemical signal) to a
• Every body structure, from cells to systems, has control center
one or more homeostatic devices that work to 2. Control center – sets the range of values
keep the internal environment within normal within which a controlled condition should
limits be maintained, evaluates the input it
• The homeostatic mechanisms of the body are receives from receptors and generates
mainly under the control of: output commands (nerve impulses,
a. Nervous system – detects changes from hormones or other chemical signals) when
the balanced state and sends messages they are needed.
in the form of nerve impulses to organs 3. Effector – body structure that receives
that can counteract the change. output from the control center and produces
b. Example: when the body temperature a response or effect that changes the
rises, nerve impulses cause sweat controlled condition. Ex. When the body
glands to release more sweat, which temperature drops sharply, the brain
cools the body as it evaporates b. (control center) sends nerve impulses
Endocrine system – corrects changes by (output) to the skeletal muscles (effectors).
secreting molecules called hormones The result is shivering, which generates heat
into the blood. Hormones affect specific and raises body temperature. –
body cells where they cause responses
that restore homeostasis. Example: Classifications:
Insulin reduces blood glucose level 1. Negative feedback system – reverses a change in
when it is too high a controlled condition
- First, a stimulus disrupts homeostasis by altering
*** Nerve impulses typically cause rapid corrections; the controlled condition. The receptors that are
whereas hormones usually work more slowly. • part of the feedback system detect the change
Homeostasis is maintained by means of many feedback and send input to a control center. The control
systems center evaluates the input and, if necessary,
issues output commands to an effector. The
Feedback Systems effector produces a physiological response that is
- a cycle of events in which a condition in the body able to return the controlled condition to its
is continually monitored, evaluated, changed, normal state.
remonitored, reevaluated, and so on. Each - Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body
monitored variable, such as body temperature, involve negative feedback
blood pressure or blood glucose level, is termed a - Tend to regulate conditions in the body that are
controlled condition. Any disruption that causes a held fairly stable over long periods of time, such
change in a controlled condition is called a as BP, bld. glucose level, and body temperature
stimulus. Some stimuli come from the external
environment (intense heat or lack of oxygen). *** Negative feedback that helps regulate BP- When the
Others originate in the internal environment, such heart beats faster or harder, BP increases. The higher the
as a blood glucose level that is too low. pressure is detected by baroreceptors (pressure sensitive
Homeostatic imbalances may also occur due to nerve cells located in the walls of certain blood vessels). The
psychological stresses in our social environment baroreceptors send nerve impulses (input) to the brain
(demands of work and school). In most cases, the (control center), which interprets the impulses and
disruption of homeostasis is mild and temporary, responds by sending nerve impulses (output) to the heart
and the responses of body cells quickly restore (effector). HR decreases, which causes BP to decrease
balance in the internal environment. In other (response). This sequence of events returns the controlled
cases, the disruption of homeostasis is intense condition, the BP to normal, and homeostasis is restored.
and prolonged, as in poisoning, overexposure to This is a negative feedback system because the activity of
temperature extremes, severe infection, or death the effector produces a result, a drop in blood pressure,
of a loved one. which reverses the effect of the stimulus.
- Three basic components that make up a feedback
system: 2. Positive Feedback System – strengthens or
1. Receptor – body structure that monitors reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled
changes in a controlled condition and sends condition
 - A stimulus alters a controlled condition, which is ***The position of the body can affect the description of
monitored by receptors that send input to a body parts relative to each other.
control center. The control center provides
commands to an effector, but this time the Prone – body is lying face down
effector produces a physiological response that Supine – body is lying face up
reinforces the initial change in the controlled
condition. REGIONAL TERMS
- Not homeostatic and are rare in healthy The body is divided in several major regions that can be
individuals - Implies that, when a deviation from a identified externally. The principal regions are the head,
normal value occurs, the response of the system neck, trunk, upper limbs and lower limbs.
is to make the deviation even greater - Head - Consists of the skull and face
- Creates a cycle leading away from homeostasis - Neck - Supports the head and attaches to the
and in some cases results in death - Involves in the trunk
regulation of a potentially dangerous or stressful - Trunk - Consists of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis
process that must be completed quickly - tends to - Upper limb - Consists of the shoulder, armpit,
reinforce conditions that don’t’ happen very arm, forearm, wrist, and hand
often, such as childbirth, ovulation, and blood - Lower limb - Consists of the buttock, thigh, leg,
clotting ankle, and foot
- other example: inadequate delivery of blood to
cardiac muscle as a result of extreme blood loss ***Body Regions and Areas with corresponding anatomical
and common names: (for locations, refer to the figure in the
Homeostasis and Disease book)
- As long as all of the body’s controlled conditions 1. head region
remain within certain narrow limits, body cells 2. thoracic region
function efficiently, homeostasis is maintained, 3. abdominal region
and the body stays healthy. 4. upper back region
- The human body is amazingly effective in 5. lower back region
maintaining homeostasis. Nevertheless, an 6. upper extremities
infection, an injury, or a genetic abnormality can 7. lower extremities
sometimes have effects so severe that 8. temporal
homeostatic mechanisms can’t fully compensate 9. mastoid
for them. When homeostatic regulation fails, 10. mammary
organ systems begin to malfunction, and the 11. axillary
individual experiences symptoms of illness or 12. epigastric
disease. 13. brachial
14. hypochondriac
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGIES 15. lumbar
Certain basic terms need to be understood in order to 16. iliac
communicate effectively in the health professions. This 17. inguinal
section deals with some basic terms that relate to the 18. umbilical
anatomy of the body. They are used to describe directions 19. hypogastric
and regions of the body. 20. pubic
21. volar/palmar
BODY POSITIONS 22. patellar
When using directions in anatomy and physiology, it is 23. parietal
always assumed that the body is in anatomical position – a 24. occipital
person is standing erect and facing forward with arms at the 25. cervical
sides with palms facing forward and feet are flat on the floor 26. deltoid
and directed forward. 27. scapular
28. sacral
***When using directions in anatomy and physiology, it is 29. gluteal
always assumed that the body is in anatomical position. 30. popliteal
Anatomical and Common Names - calcaneal – heel
Anterior - popliteal – hollow behind knee
- cephalic – head
- frontal – forehead DIRECTIONAL TERMS
- orbital – eye – used to describe the relative position of one part to
- nasal – nose another
- oral – mouth 1. right – toward the body’s right side
- otic - ear 2. left – toward the body’s left side
- buccal – cheek 3. inferior – a structure below another, away from
- mental – chin the head, or lower part of a structure
- cranial – skull ex. The stomach is inferior to the lungs.
- facial – face 4. superior – a structure above another, toward the
- cervical – neck head, or the upper part of a structure
- clavicular – collar bone ex. The heart is superior to the liver.
- thoracic – thorax 5. anterior/ventral – nearer to or at the front of the
- sternal – breastbone body ex. The sternum is anterior to the heart.
- pectoral – chest 6. posterior/dorsal – nearer to or toward the back of
- mammary – breast the body
- axillary – armpit ex. The esophagus is posterior to the
- brachial – arm trachea.
- cubital – elbow 7. proximal – closer to the point of attachment to the
- antebrachial – forearm body than another structure; nearer to the
- abdominal – abdomen attachment of a limb to the trunk
- umbilical – navel ex. The humerus is proximal to the
- pelvic – pelvis radius.
- inguinal – groin 8. distal – farther from the point of attachment to
- pubic – genital the body than another structure; farther to the
- carpal – wrist attachment of a limb to the trunk
- manual – hand ex. The phalanges are distal to the
- palmar – palm carpals.
- digital – fingers 9. lateral – away/ farther from the midline of the
- coxal – hip body ex. The lungs are lateral to the heart.
- femoral – thigh 10. intermediate – between two structures
- patellar – kneecap ex. The transverse colon is intermediate
- crural – leg between the ascending and descending colons.
- pedal – foot 11. medial – toward the middle or midline of the body
- talus – ankle or nearer the midline
- dorsum – top of foot ex. The ulna is medial to the radius.
- digital – toes 12. visceral – toward the internal organ
Posterior 13. parietal – toward the wall, away from internal
- occipital – base of skull structures
- nuchal – back of neck 14. peripheral – away from the head, neck and trunk
- scapular – shoulder blade 15. central – refers to the head, neck and trunk
- dorsal – back 16. ipsilateral – on the same side of the body as
- acromial – point of shoulder another structure
- vertebral – spinal column ex. The gallbladder and ascending colon
- olecranon – point of elbow are ipsilateral.
- lumbar – loin 17. contralateral – on the opposite side of the body
- sacral – between hips from another structure
- dorsum – back of hand ex. The ascending and descending
- gluteal – buttock colons are contralateral.
- perineal – perineum 18. superficial – toward or on the surface of the body
- sural – calf ex. The ribs are superficial to the lungs
- plantar – sole 19. deep – away from the surface of the body
 a. Cranial cavity – formed by cranial bones and contains the
ex. The ribs are deep to the skin of the chest and brain
back b. Vertebral/ Spinal cavity – formed by vertebral column and
20. cephalic – closer to the head than another contains the spinal cord
structure, synonymous w/ superior 2. Ventral cavities
ex. The chin is cephalic to the navel a. thoracic cavity – contains the heart, lungs, esophagus,
21. caudal - closer to the tail than another structure, trachea
synonymous w/ inferior - surrounded by the rib cage, separated to the
ex. The navel is caudal to the chin abdominopelvic cavity by the diaphragm
- divided into right and left parts by the mediastinum
PLANES AND SECTIONS (central portion of the thoracic cavity and contains the
To aid in visualizing the internal structures of the body, it is heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and large blood
necessary to make a section or cut. The cut is made through vessels); lungs are located on either side of the mediastinum
the body or an organ along an imaginary line called plane. - *pericardial cavity – fluid-filled space that
- Plane – an imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the surrounds the heart
body parts *pleural cavity – each surrounds a lung b.
Planes: abdominopelvic cavity
1. Sagittal Plane *abdominal cavity – bounded by abdominal
- runs vertically that divides the body or an organ muscles - contains the stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen,
into right and left sides or portions small intestine, and most of the large intestine, pancreas
- Midsagittal / Median Plane – a vertical plane that and kidneys
passes through the midline of the body or organ *pelvic cavity – small space enclosed by the bones
and divides it into equal right and left sides of the pelvis - contains urinary bladder, part of the large
2. Transverse / Cross-sectional / Horizontal Plane intestine, rectum and internal reproductive organs
- runs parallel to the surface of the ground and 3. Other cavities
divides the body or organ into superior and a. orbital cavities – also known as the orbits; house the eyes
inferior parts b. nasal cavity - nose
3. Frontal or Coronal plane c. buccal cavity – also known as the mouth
- runs vertically from right to left and divides the
body into anterior and posterior parts ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS
4. Oblique plane To describe the location of the abdominal and pelvic organs
- passes through the body or an organ at an angle more precisely, the abdominopelvic cavity may be divided
between the transverse plane and either a sagittal into smaller compartments.
or frontal plane
**Abdomen – subdivided superficially into 4 quadrants or 9
Sections: regions
Sectioning the body– a way to look inside and observe
body’s structures 1. Quadrants – formed by two imaginary lines (one
1. Sagittal Section - refers to a lengthwise cut that vertical and one horizontal) crossing at the
divides the body into right and left portions umbilicus - useful for describing the location of
2. Midsagittal Section - a cut that passes along the pain, mass, injuries, and other abnormality, which
body’s midline and divides the body into left and can help a doctor determine the possible cause -
right halves RUQ, RLQ, LLQ, LUQ
3. Transverse / Cross Section – a cut at a right angle 2. Regions – formed by 4 lines (2horizontal and 2
to the long axis vertical): top horizontal line is drawn just inferior
4. Oblique Section - a cut is made across the long to the rib cage across the inferior portion of the
axis at other than a right angle stomach, bottom horizontal line is drawn just
inferior to the top of the hip bones, two vertical
BODY CAVITIES lines are drawn through the midpoints of the
spaces within the body that contain the internal organs or clavicles, just medial to the nipples - use more
viscera that help protect, separate and support internal precise regional distinctions to describe the
organs location of internal organs and is more widely
1. Dorsal cavities used for anatomical studies
a. Right hypochondriac – right lobe of the
liver, gall bladder, small intestine,
ascending colon transverse colon, and
right kidney
b. Epigastric – parts of the right and left
lobes of the liver, large portion of the
stomach, pancreas, small intestine,
transverse colon, right and left adrenal
glands, right and left kidneys, and
spleen
c. Left hypochondriac – small portion of
the stomach, tip of liver, tail of
pancreas, small intestine, transverse
colon, descending colon, spleen, and
left kidney
d. Right lumbar – tip of liver, gall bladder,
small intestine, ascending colon, and
right kidney
e. Umbilical – stomach, pancreas, small
intestine, transverse colon, right and
left kidneys, right and left ureters
f. Left lumbar – loops of small intestine,
descending colon, and tip of left kidney
g. Right iliac/inguinal – cecum, ascending
colon, parts of small intestine,
appendix, right ovary, and right
fallopian tube
h. Hypogastric – loops of small intestine,
sigmoid colon, rectum, right and left
ureters, urinary bladder, uterus, right
and left ovaries, right and left fallopian
tubes, vas deference, seminal vesicle,
and prostate
i. Left iliac/inguinal – portions of small
intestine, descending colon, sigmoid
colon, left ovary, and left fallopian tub