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Philippine Politics
and Governance

Quarter 1- Week 3-5

Teacher: Zara Rosa D. Jaula

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 An ideology is more or less a coherent set of ideas that direct or organize a specific
political action. It consist of belief and value systems, a discussion of existing power
relationships, an exploration of how political change is achieved in line with these
power relations and an illustration of a desired future (Heywood 2013).

MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES AND THEIR KEY TENETS (Heywood 2013)

1. ANARCHISM
• Political authority in all its form, and especially in the form of the state, is both evil and
unnecessary (anarchy literally means ‘without rule’).
• The sovereign, compulsory, and coercive authority of the state is seen as a nothing less
than legalized oppression operating in the interests of the powerful, propertied, and
privileged.
• Anarchist prefers a stateless society. Individuals can best manage their own affairs
through voluntary agreement and cooperation.

2. CONSERVATISM
• Tradition must be conserve. These traditions include established customs, institutions,
and ways of doing things that have endured through time.
• The belief in pragmatism highlights the limits of human reason. As a belief, pragmatism
emphasizes that the action should be shaped by practical circumstances and goals.
• Human imperfection presents the pessimistic view of conservatives on the individual.
Accordingly, individuals are morally corrupt and are therefore the sources of crime and
disorder. Order could thus be achieved through a strong state.
• Conservatives believe that society is an organic whole and is a living entity, more than
being an artifact of human ingenuity. This belief is known as organicism.
• Conservatives also believe that social position and status are only natural. With this,
hierarchy is thought to be inevitable.
• Authority must be exercised from above. Leadership is provided to guide and support
those who lack knowledge and education and those who have little capacity to act for
their own interest.
• Conservatives look at property as significant because it is the individual’s source of
security and independence from the government.
3. FACISM
• Ultranationalist ideology. As such, it subscribes to the idea of a supreme race, whose
members should enjoy the natural resources. It is by nature exclusive as it excludes
nonmembers of the race.
• Manifested during Mussolini’s facist dictatorship in Italy and Hitler’s dictatorship in
Germany.
• Common values upheld are struggle, leadership, power, heroism, and war.
• The “new man” or a hero who is motivated by duty, honor, and self-sacrifice; and gives
unrelenting obedience to the supreme leader is a fascist ideal.
• Fascists believe in a unified national community of strength through unity. As such,
individual identity is not as important as that of the social group or community.

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4. FEMINISM
• A diverse but its unifying theme is the desire to enhance the social role of women.
• Society is characterized by sexual or gender equality.
• The structure of male power must be overturned, hence the belief in gender equality.
• Its strands include liberal feminism, socialist feminism and radical feminism.

5. LIBERALISM
• Belief in individualism underscores the importance of the human individual compared to
any other group.
• Liberty of the individual must be protected. An individual has freedom when he or she is
able to act as he or she pleases.
• Reason can lead individuals to make wise judgments, which could solve issues or
differences.
• Equality implies that individuals are born equal, at least in moral terms. Equal rights
and entitlements are at its core. It must be noted , however, that liberals do not endorse
social equality or equality of outcome,
• Tolerance is willingness of individuals to allow others to think and behave in ways they
do not approve. It is a guarantee of individual liberty.
• Authority and social relationships must also be based on agreement and consent.

6. SOCIALISM
• Belief in the community highlights the degree to which the individual is connected with
others. Identify is therefore a product of social interaction more than innate qualities.
• Brotherhood or fraternity speaks of a shared common humanity Socialist thus prefer
cooperation rather than competition and collectivity rather than individualism.
• Socialists look at society in terms of differences in the distribution of income or wealth.
Social class is believed to be an important social cleavage, which divides societies. The
interests of the working class and the oppressed should be upheld. With this, eradicating
economic and social inequalities is deemed as the primary goal of socialism.
• Common ownership is also central to socialist thought. Unlike private property, common
ownership is a means to harness material resources for the common good.

Ideology may be defined as ‘a political belief system’ (Heywood). As a phenomenon, it is the

mainspring of an individual’s way of looking at politics and political life. Just like any other
belief, an ideology is like a lens through which we see the world, and our perception affects the
way we behave.
The term ideology originates from French ideologie, itself deriving from idea and
logos, “study of”. The term word, and the system of ideas associated with it was
coined in 796 by Antoine Destutt de tracy while in prison pending trial during the
reign of terror, where he read the works of John Locke and Etienne Bonnot de
Condillac. Hoping to form a secure foundation for moral and political sciences, Tracy
devised the term for a “science of ideas,” basing such upon two things: 1. The
sensations that people experience as they interact with the material world; and
2. The ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations.
The following are several definitions of political ideology according to Heywood
(2013).
• An action-oriented set of political ideas
• The ideas of ruling class
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 • The world-view of a particular social class or group
• Political ideas that embody or articulate class or social interests
• Ideas that propagate false consciousness amongst the exploited or oppressed
• Ideas that situated the individual within a social context and generate a sense of collective
belonging
• An officially sanctioned set of Ideas used to legitimize o political system or regime
• An all- embracing political doctrine that claims a monopoly of truth  An abstract and
highly systematic set of political ideas

MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES AND THEIR KEY TENETS (Heywood 2013)

MARXISM
• Historical materialism or the materialist conception of history provides that the economy
(mode of production) conditions all other aspects of social life- including law, government,
politics and education.
• The dialect, a process of interaction between competing forces, drives change and leads to
a higher stage of development. Historical change is therefore a consequence of
contradictions in the mode of production, as reflected in class conflict.
• The exploitation of the proletariat (workers) by the capitalists would develop class
consciousness among the former, hence ushering a proletarian revolution which will
facilitate the creation of a communist society.
• A communist society - one that is classless and stateless- will arise when class
antagonisms fade
SOCIAL DEMOCRACY
• Social democrats stand for a balance between the market and the state, and between the
individual and the community
• This ideology promotes compromise between the acceptance of capitalism and the
distribution of wealth according to moral, rather than market principles.
• Social democratic thought is concerned with the weak, the vulnerable, and the underdog.
• Compassion, common humanity, freedom, equal opportunities, paternal duty, and care
are among the values social democracy recognizes.

GREEN POLITICS/ ECOLOGISM

• This ideology is linked with the emergence of environmental movement. It also rose as a
revolt against industrialization.
• It is concerned with the damages brought by economic development and by the declining
quality of human existence.
• Conventional ideologies are a vehicle of ecologism. Ecosocialism looks at the destruction of
the environment due to capitalism; ecofeminism traces this crisis to male power; and
ecoconservatism links the cause of conservation to the desire to preserve tradition and
institutions

COSMOPOLITANISM
• Ideological expression of globalization
• It is a belief in a cosmopolis or a word state. It is thus associated with the project of world
government.
• Modern cosmopolitanism tends to have a moral or a cultural character, believing that the
world constitutes a single moral community.
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 • Cosmoploitanism focuses on the idea that all other people in the world have obligations to
each other regardless of nationality, ethnicity, and the like.
Nature of Power
In any given endeavour at any given situation, the players in that scenario all become
power players, where every single person wants to be empowered to have the right hand control
over the game. So, what’s with this power that, literally, everybody seem to have grown insane
for the love of power and that power must have become a part of man’s social existence?

Power, according to J.C. Turner (2005) (https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.244) ”the

standard theory is that power is the capacity for influence and that influence is based on the
control of resources valued or desired by others. As per this definition of power, it is
presupposed that for one to be empowered, he/she must be capacitated with the skills of
influencing and persuading others and the know-how of coercion.
Basically, one can only call the shots when he/she was able to persuade others, if done in
a diplomatic manner, or has influenced them through a coercive manner or must have used
force in the process. To explain this in the actual scenario, let us take our very own families
where the head of the family would be able to impose a house rule, say about smoking, either by
talking nicely to his children, for instance tell them about the negative effects of smoking in the
most friendly way, or exert influence over them by ,say, hurting the children just so they will
stay away from smoking. When this happens, the father can say that being the head of the
family, he is spelled p-o-w-e-r.
Another description of the nature of power comes from Wikipedia
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(soial_political) , and it says “power is the capacity of an
individual to influence the actions, belief, or conduct (behavior) of others.” This could be the
more common nature of power which has become a part of the social construct. Why? Because,
more often than not we have always equated power with being able to have one over another
person.
We could then say that power either induces action or becomes a constraining factor
where P1 could be made to follow the health protocol or P2 may be prevented from staying in
crowded areas. Power does affects one’s perspectives, one’s life.

Lesson 2. Dimensions of Power

Power has its dimensions, which makes us aware of its scope or boundaries, and they
are as follows:

1. Agenda- This refers to the motive of the person who wants to have power or the reason
why one wants to be paced under the influence of another person.
2. Decision-making- This refers to the end of the person seeking for power, where he has to
have influence over others because they are vital to whatever decisions he would be
making inherent to his status or position.
3. Manipulation- This is from the means of who holds the power and it refers to the
controlling factor over the other person and which means that the former can make the
latter do whatever he wishes, whether in legitimate or illegitimate means.

Lesson 3. Types of Power

If power has dimensions, it has its kinds or types as well and they are listed below.

1. Legitimate power- This is the type or kind of power which is oftentimes referred to as
positional power. There is a legal and formal basis for the acquisition or delegation of
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 power to a certain individual and there are relative position and duties and
responsibilities. A classic example of this type of power is the executive power as
exercised by the President of the Philippines, where PRRD obtained it through the
national elections held way back in 2016. As per observation and as per the actual
scenario, he has been executing the laws enacted by the Congress f the Philippines
2. Referent power- When an individual is able to convince another person without
lifting a finger or just by simply being with the other person and talking it out with
him, that is referent power. For one, the so-called “charisma” or a very enterprising
inherent personal characteristic is the Indicative factor of referent power.
3. Expert power- From the word itself, this type of power presupposes the expertise or special
knowledge one has to capacitate him/her exert influence over another person. The people
in the medical field are able to persuade the people to observe strictly the health protocol,
like the wearing of facemask, because , above anybody else, they are equipped with the
information about the Covid19.
4. Coercive power- The word coercive denotes negativity, however, sometimes, this kind of
power is deemed necessary to make other people obey laws or directives or to prevent an
unnecessary action. The exercise of this power presupposes the use of threat or
punishment.
5. Reward power- This type of power refers to the capacity of the power-wielder to offer or
extend a reward or to recompense an accomplishment. A very good example is when your
parents buy you a new pair of trendy shoes because you have been doing the household
tasks assigned to you.

Lesson 4. Consequences of Power

In the exercise of one’s power, it is imminent that it will yield a result. The figure below
(culled from https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/jassidut/power-andpolitics-28411797) would
summarize the general consequences of power:

Fig.2. Illustration of the consequences of power.

SOURCE OF POWER CONSEQUENCES OF POWER

Expert power
Commitment
Referent power
Legitimate power Compliance

Reward power

Coercive power Resistance

Abused power “Loss of power”

State, nation, government and administration are concepts or words defined

interchangeably by some. But what really these words mean? What are the differences of these
words? Have you encountered these words/concepts already in your social science subjects in

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your junior high school? People used these words interchangeably however these words have
different meaning in Political Science.

In your previous learning material, you have learned the nature, dimensions/types, and
consequences of power. You learned that power is the ability to influence others and it is what
exercise in politics is. It has various forms and dimensions, and it exists in different levels of
relationships: from the personal level, to the governmental, and up to the international level.
Power involves who gets what, when, and how much. It has different consequences, but what is
notable is that it defines all types of relationships.

Now, for you to better understand the concept of state and nation in relation to
globalization, we have to delve in into their definitions and their elements. These elements or
components served as an integral part in the overall perception of state versus nation and
government versus administration. You may wonder how state was created and what will be its
status in the global community; these will be discussed in this learning material. You will have
an overview of why it is important for certain state to cooperate and have amity to other states.
Furthermore, you will learn how important a certain administration run the government for
progress.

For you to have a better grasp on the ideas and concepts in this learning material, you
have to perform and answer the activities given.

After studying this module, you are expected to:

 analyze the relationship among nations and states in the context of globalization

SUBTASK
• define state, nation, government and administration;
• differentiate state from nation; government from administration;
• apply the concepts of state, nation, government and administration by
illustrating and giving examples;

CONCEPT OF STATE and NATION

What is a nation?

Nasci is a Latin word where the term nation came from which means “born”; giving it a
racial or ethnic in meaning. Etymologically, it refers to a birthplace; therefore, it is generally
used to describe an ethnic, linguistic, or cultural community. Thus, it may also define as group
of people bound together by commonalities in language, history, traditions, and religion.

As a nation they share common identity as a people (cohesion) that enables them to
think themselves as a member of homogenous community. Like for example, we Filipinos, we
have different ethnic group however we have that oneness of being Filipino. We belong to one
descent and share the same culture of being Filipino. Not always that for a nation to be called
such they have the same and exact culture, religion or tradition as to the other. What important
is the willingness to live together as one. There instances that even if they have same religion,

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physical feature and culture they are separate as a nation because of their inability to live
together.

2 Classification of Nation

1. Ethnic Nation – is an entity that is united on the basis of ethnicity. It is populated more
or less by a single ethnic group. Like for example, the community of our Muslim brothers
who shares same ethnicity even with different territories. Japan also is one example of
ethnic nation.

2. Territorial Nation – an entity that covers a predefined territory which was populated by
different ethnic group that have assimilated as a nation. For example, the Philippines, we
have different ethnic groups but we assimilate our self as a Filipino. Also, the Asian
nation, we are considered as Asian even with different ethnicity and descent but we are
one as Asian.

What is a state?

A state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a

definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of
inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.

In international law, the concept of State was established in the Montevideo Convention,
an agreement signed by countries in Montevideo, Uruguay, they set a standard of definition of
state. It stipulated that all states were equal sovereign units consisting of (1) permanent
population; (2) defined territorial boundaries; (3) a government and (4) an ability to enter into
agreements.

ELEMENTS OF A STATE

For a certain State to be honored as state by others, it should possess the following
elements:

1. PEOPLE. There must be people residing who should be numerous to be governed and self-
sufficient. It should also be more or less numerous for defense and both sexes present for
perpetuity.

Example: Vatican; a state within a state, they are less numerous but can
govern and self-sufficient.

2. TERRITORY. An area over which territory has effective control. A fixed portion of the surface
of the earth in which people reside that is sufficient to provide the needs of the inhabitants. It
is big enough to be self-sufficient but small enough to administered and defended.

COMPONENTS:

• Aerial Domain
• Terrestrial Domain
• Maritime and Fluvial Domain
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 MODES OF ACQUIRING TERRITORY

The following are the ways or modes how a state can acquire its territory:

a) Discovery and Occupation – A state can acquire a certain territory when it discovers
a certain place and occupy it for a long period of time. The place should be terra
nullius or land belonging to no one. A certain territory cannot be acquired only by
discovery, it should be possess and administered by the state that discovered it.

Example: Spartly Island: this is the basis of the Philippines why we

are claiming it as our own.

b) Prescription. It is a long, continued, and adverse possession to vest acquisitive title

in the claimant. The acquisition of territory by an adverse holding through a long term
of years requires two essential facts; (1) continuous; (2) undisturbed possession.

Example: Las Palmas case: even if Spain discovered and occupied

this territory, the Netherlands acquires the same by virtue of
prescription as it exercised sovereign rights over the island for more
than two hundred years after its discovery by Spain.

Question: Why do the Philippines not under Spain since we

are occupied for more than 300 years?

c) Cession. It is the transfer of territory from one state to another by agreement. It may
be a bilateral agreement whereby one state transfer sovereignty over a definite portion
of territory to another state. This may be voluntary or by force.

Example: Sabah, Malaysia ceded by British Empire.

d) Subjugation/ Conquest. Formal annexation of a territory after it has been conquered

in the course of war. This mostly happen during early times.

Example: Colonies of countries; Philippines during

Spanish Era

e) Accretion. Increase in the land area of a State caused by the operation of the forces
of nature or, artificially, through human labor.

Example: Chinese Reclamation in West Philippine Sea; Mischief

Reef or some part of Spratly Islands.

3. GOVERNMENT. It is an agency or instrumentality, through which the will of the state is

formulated, expressed and realized. It was established by inhabitants which was
organized in exercising control over, and capable of maintaining law, and other within the
territory. It is the system that put in place to govern the state. In the Philippines, the
government is governed by the constitution. The action of all the people based from the
constitution.

The way how the government is managed is what we call as administration.

The management of the affairs of the government is administration. In the
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 Philippines, the one we voted in office are the ones mostly administering the
government. Administration changes over time but government will not if it will
not change by the people through referendum.

4. SOVEREIGNTY. The supreme and uncontrollable power in a state by which that state is
governed. An entity is NOT a state UNLESS it has competence, within its own
constitutional system, to conduct international relation with other states, as well as the
political, and financial capabilities to do so.

2 ASPECTS

a. Internal – the ability of a state to exercise its authority over its territory
and people

Example: the totality on how the government rules its people

b. External – the relationship of the State with other States; the freedom from
external control.

Example: No other States dictates how the government should be governed

or run

How State is created?

A state may be created by:

a. Revolution. It refers to a movement, often violent to overthrow an old regime and effect a
complete change in the fundamental institution of society.
Example: o American Revolution o EDSA Revolution – there is a change in
the structure of government
b. Unification. The process of being united or made into a whole. Many states joined
together to form as one.
Example: Germany
c. Secession. The act of separating from a nation or state and become independent.
Example: Timor-Leste with the help of UN, Indonesia ceded its claim. This
is what Taiwan wants from China, also those prodemocracy in Hong Kong.
d. Assertion of Independence. The act of stating something or exercising authority
confidently and forcefully.
Example: former Yugoslavia, Kosovo
e. Agreement – It is negotiated and typically legally binding arrangement between parties as
to course of action.
Example: Netherlands
f. Attainment of Civilization – process by which society is or place reach an advance stage
of social civilization.

Example: Mesopotamia by is now Iran and Iraq.

CONCEPT OF NATION – STATE

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 Nation-state is a term refers a political institution that combines the concepts of nation and
state. It refers to a state inhabited by people who identify themselves as a nation on account of
common culture, history, language, ethnicity, or other factors. Nation-state coincides with same
language and religion, however not all. A nation is composed of many states like the Muslim
Nation; it is composed of Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan and many more. There also states
with minorities which separates themselves with the others. It is in this point where debate
comes in if Philippines is a nation-state or not because of our brothers in the south establishing
Bangsamoro which means Moro nation. In middle east also, the Kurdish which are minorities in
Turkey, Iran, and Iraq.

Always remember that if we are talking of Nation-State combine the concepts of nation
and the concept state, oneness in one state.

References:
Pawilen, R.A. & Pawilen, Reidan M. (2017). Philippine Politics and Governance.
Manila, Philippines: Rex Bookstore Inc.

Villanueva, Prince Aian G. (2017 ). Philippine Politics and Governance.

Makati City, Philippines: Diwa Learning System Inc.

Heywood, A. (2017). Political Ideologies an Introduction. In Political Ideologies an Introduction (6 th ed.).London, UK:
Palgrave Macmillan.

Heywood, A.( 2013) Political Ideologies an introduction. New York, USA: Palgrave
Macmillan

Website: https://www.macmillanihe.com/companion/Heywood-Political-
Ideologies/resources/Web-links/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies#:~:text=In%20social%20s tudies%2C%20a%20political,for
%20a%20certain%20social%20order.

https://www.hillsroad.ac.uk/docs/default-source/summer-word-2020/politicsideologies.pdf?sfvrsn=2
Printed:
Printed Materials
Pawilen, R,A. (2017) Philippine Politics and Governance. Manila, Philippines. Rex Bookstore

Websites https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/jassidut/power-and-politics-28411797
https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.244 https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/jassidut/power-and-politics-28411797
https://iapps.org/2014/09/28/three-dimensions-of-power/
https:/wwwmindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_56.htm https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/416123
Ramos, Renan E. (2017) Philippine Politics and Governance, Quezon Ave., Quezon City, Philippines: Vibal Publishing
House
Villanueva, Prince Aian G. (2017) DIWA Senior High School Series: Philippine Politics and Governance, Makati City,
Philippines: DIWA Learning System Inc.

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