Afghanistan

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Coordinates: 34°31′N 69°11′E

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan" redirects here. For the Taliban-governed state that
existed from 1996 to 2001, see Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001). For
other uses, see Afghanistan (disambiguation).
This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Please
consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or
adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (June
2023)

Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

 ‫( د افغانستان اسالمي امارت‬Pashto)

Də Afġānistān Islāmī Imārat
 ‫( امارت اسالمی افغانستان‬Dari)
Imārat-i Islāmī-yi Afghānistān

Flag
 Emblem

Motto: ‫ محمد رسول هللا‬،‫ال إله إال هللا‬

Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh
"There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God." (Shahadah)

Anthem: ‫دا د باتورانو کور‬

Dā Də Bātorāno Kor
"This Is the Home of the Brave"[2]

Afghanistan on the globe Afghanistan's neighbors and towns Show all

Status UN member state under an unrecognized government

Capital Kabul
and largest city 34°31′N 69°11′E[3]

Official languages Pashto

 Dari

Ethnic groups  42% Pashtun

(2019 unofficial  27% Tajik
estimates)[a][5][6][7][8]  9% Hazara
  9% Uzbek
  4% Aimaq
  3% Turkmen
  2% Baloch
  4% other

Religion  99.7% Islam (official)

(2015)  0.3% other
 Demonym(s) Afghan[b][11][12]

Government Unitary totalitarian[13] provisional theocratic Islamic emirate[14]

• Supreme Leader Hibatullah Akhundzada

• Prime Minister Abdul Kabir (acting)
• Chief Justice Abdul Hakim Haqqani

Legislature None[c]

Formation

• Hotak dynasty 1709–1738

• Durrani Empire 1747–1823
• Emirate 1823–1839
• Restoration of the 1839–1842
Durrani Kingdom
• Restoration of the 1842–1926
Emirate
• Dost Mohammad 27 May 1863
unites Afghanistan
• Anglo-Afghan 26 May 1879
Agreement
• Independence 19 August 1919
• Kingdom 9 June 1926
• Republic 17 July 1973
• Democratic 27–28 April 1978
Republic
• Islamic State 28 April 1992
• Islamic Emirate 27 September 1996
• Islamic Republic 26 January 2004
• Restoration of 15 August 2021
Islamic Emirate

Area
• Total 652,867[19] km2 (252,073 sq mi) (40th)
• Water (%) negligible

Population
• 2022 estimate 38,346,720[20] (37th)
• Density 48.08/km2 (124.5/sq mi)

GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate

• Total $81.007 billion[21]
• Per capita $2,459[21]

GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate

 • Total $20.136 billion[21]
• Per capita $611[21]

HDI (2021) 0.478[22][23]

low · 180th

Currency Afghani (‫( )افغانی‬AFN)

Time zone UTC+4:30

Lunar Calendar[24] (Afghanistan Time)
DST is not observed[25]

Driving side right

Calling code +93

ISO 3166 code AF

Internet TLD .af

Afghanistan,[d] officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,[e] is a landlocked

country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the
Heart of Asia,[26] it is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south,[f] Iran to
the west, Turkmenistan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to
the northeast, and China to the northeast and east. Occupying 652,864 square
kilometers (252,072 sq mi) of land, the country is predominantly mountainous with
plains in the north and the southwest, which are separated by the Hindu
Kush mountain range. Kabul is the country's largest city and serves as its capital. As
of 2021, Afghanistan's population is 40.2 million[6] (officially estimated to be 32.9
million).[28]
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic era, and the
country's strategic location along the historic Silk Road has led it to being described,
picturesquely, as the 'roundabout of the ancient world'.[29] Popularly referred to as
the graveyard of empires,[30] the land has historically been home to various peoples
and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by the
Persians, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols,
the British, the Soviet Union, and most recently by a US-led coalition. Afghanistan
also served as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals,
amongst others, rose to form major empires.[31] The various conquests and periods in
both the Iranian and Indian cultural spheres[32][33] made the area a center
for Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam throughout history.[34]
The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani dynasty in the 18th century,
with the Durrani Afghan Empire being formed by Ahmad Shah Durrani. The Durrani
Empire led conquests in which, at its peak, encompassed land that spanned
from eastern Iran to northern India.[35][36] However, Dost Mohammad Khan is
sometimes considered to be the founder of the first modern Afghan
state.[37] Following the Durrani Empire's decline and the death of Ahmad Shah
Durrani and Timur Shah, a succession crisis occurred between Zaman Shah
Durrani, Mahmud Shah Durrani, and Shah Shuja Durrani. Under the rule of Mahmud
Shah, the execution of Fateh Khan Barakzai led to the overthrow of the Durrani
dynasty, leading it to be divided into multiple smaller independent kingdoms,
including but not limited to Herat, Kandahar, and Kabul. Afghanistan would be
reunited in the 19th century after seven decades of civil war from 1793 to 1863, with
wars of unification led by Dost Mohammad Khan from 1823 to 1863, where he
conquered the independent principalities of Afghanistan under the Emirate of Kabul.
Dost Mohammad died in 1863, days after his last campaign to unite Afghanistan,
and Afghanistan was consequently thrown back into civil war with fighting amongst
his successors. During this time, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great
Game between the British Empire (in British-ruled India) and the Russian Empire.
From India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in
the First Anglo-Afghan War. However, the Second Anglo-Afghan War saw a British
victory and the successful establishment of British political influence over
Afghanistan. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, Afghanistan became
free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent Kingdom of
Afghanistan in June 1926 under Amanullah Khan. This monarchy lasted almost half
a century, until Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973, following which the Republic of
Afghanistan was established.
Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive
warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The conflict began
in 1978 when a communist revolution established a socialist state, and subsequent
infighting prompted the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in
1979. Mujahideen fought against the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan
War and continued fighting amongst themselves following the Soviets' withdrawal in
1989. The Islamic fundamentalist Taliban controlled most of the country by 1996, but
their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan received little international recognition before its
overthrow in the 2001 US invasion of Afghanistan. The Taliban returned to power in
2021 after capturing Kabul and overthrowing the government of the Islamic Republic
of Afghanistan, thus bringing an end to the 2001–2021 war.[38] In September 2021 the
Taliban re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan with an interim
government made up entirely of Taliban members.[39] The Taliban government
remains internationally unrecognized.[40]
Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including lithium, iron, zinc, and copper. It is
also the world's largest producer of opium,[41] second largest producer
of cannabis,[42] and third largest of both saffron[43] and cashmere.[44] The country is a
member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and a founding
member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. Due to the effects of war in
recent decades, the country has dealt with high levels of terrorism, poverty, and child
malnutrition. Afghanistan remains among the world's least developed countries,
ranking 180th in the Human development Index. Afghanistan's gross domestic
product (GDP) is $81 billion by purchasing power parity and $20.1 billion by nominal
values. Per capita, its GDP is amongst the lowest of any country as of 2020.

Etymology
Main article: Name of Afghanistan
Some scholars suggest that the root name Afghān is derived from
the Sanskrit word Aśvakan, which was the name used for ancient inhabitants of
the Hindu Kush.[45] Aśvakan literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or
"cavalrymen" (from aśva, the Sanskrit and Avestan words for "horse").[46] However,
others such as Ibrahim Khan have contended that the word Afghan comes
from Bactrian.[47]
Historically, the ethnonym Afghān was used to refer to ethnic Pashtuns.[48] The Arabic
and Persian form of the name, Afġān, was first attested in the 10th-century
geography book Hudud al-'Alam.[49] The last part of the name, "-stan", is a Persian
suffix meaning "place of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the
Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third
edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam:[50]
The name Afghanistan (Afghānistān, land of the Afghans / Pashtuns, afāghina,
sing. afghān) can be traced to the early eighth/fourteenth century, when it designated
the easternmost part of the Kartid realm. This name was later used for certain
regions in the Ṣafavid and Mughal empires that were inhabited by Afghans. While
based on a state-supporting elite of Abdālī / Durrānī Afghans, the Sadūzāʾī Durrānī
polity that came into being in 1160 / 1747 was not called Afghanistan in its own day.
The name became a state designation only during the colonial intervention of the
nineteenth century.
The term "Afghanistan" was officially used in 1855, when the British recognized Dost
Mohammad Khan as king of Afghanistan.[51]

Ancient history
Main article: History of Afghanistan

Tents of Afghan nomads in the northern Badghis

province of Afghanistan. Early peasant farming villages came into existence in
Afghanistan about 7,000 years ago.
Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in Afghanistan, such as
the Greco-Bactrians, Indo-
Scythians, Kushans, Kidarites, Hephthalites, Alkhons, Nezaks, Zunbils, Turk
Shahis, Hindu
Shahis, Lawiks, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Khaljis, Kartids, Lodis, S
urs, Mughals, and finally, the Hotak and Durrani dynasties, which marked the
political origins of the modern state.[52] Throughout millennia several cities within the
modern day Afghanistan served as capitals of various empires, namely, Bactra
(Balkh), Alexandria on the Oxus (Ai-
Khanoum), Kapisi, Sigal, Kabul, Kunduz, Zaranj, Firozkoh, Herat, Ghazna (Ghazni),
Binban (Bamyan), and Kandahar.
The country has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them
the ancient Iranian peoples, who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian
languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within
vast regional empires; among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian
Empire, the Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire.[53] For its success in resisting
foreign occupation during the 19th and 20th centuries, Afghanistan has been called
the "graveyard of empires",[54] though it is unknown who coined the phrase.[55]
Prehistory and antiquity
Main article: Ancient history of Afghanistan
Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now
Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area
were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities,
many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of
its archaeological sites.[56][57]
Ancient era
See also: Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan

The extent of the Indus Valley civilization during

its mature phase
Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical
area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its
neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of
the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages have been found in
Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and
the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar in the south of the country) was a center
of the Helmand culture. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley
Civilization stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient
civilization today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. In more detail, it extended
from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan.
An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern
Afghanistan.[58][59] There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan
as well. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in
northern Afghanistan, which shows Afghanistan to have been a part of Indus Valley
Civilization.[60]
After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began
moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many Indo-European-
speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western
Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the Caspian Sea. The region at the
time was referred to as Ariana.[56][61]
 A "Bactrian gold" Scythian belt depicting Dionysus,
from Tillya Tepe in the ancient region of Bactria
By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and
incorporated Arachosia, Aria, and Bactria within its eastern boundaries.
An inscription on the tombstone of Darius I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley in a
list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.[62] The region of Arachosia,
around Kandahar in modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily
Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to Persia and is thus
considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism". [63][64][65]
Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE
after defeating Darius III of Persia a year earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela.
Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid
Empire controlled the region until 305 BCE, when they gave much of it to the Maurya
Empire as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of
the Hindu Kush until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began
60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest by
the Greco-Bactrians. Much of it soon broke away from them and became part of
the Indo-Greek Kingdom. They were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in
the late 2nd century BCE.[66][67]

Approximate maximum extent of the Greco-

Bactrian kingdom, formed by the fragmentation of Alexander the Great's Empire, c.
180 BCE
 SASANIAN
EMPIRE

BYZANTINE
EMPIRE

NORTHERN
WEI

LIANG

Alchon
Huns

GUPTA
EMPIRE

JUAN-JUAN KHAGANATE
Gaoju Turks

The Imperial Hephthalites c. 500 CE

The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished
with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia, and north to the cities
of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva in present-day Uzbekistan.[68] Goods and ideas
were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman
gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading lapis
lazuli stones[69] mainly from the Badakhshan region.
During the first century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but lost it to
their Indo-Parthian vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast Kushan
Empire, centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture,
making Buddhism flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by
the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE, though the Indo-Sassanids continued to rule at
least parts of the region. They were followed by the Kidarites who, in turn, was
replaced by the Hephthalites. They were replaced by the Turk Shahi in the 7th
century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before
the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was called Hindu
Shahi.[70] Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained
dominated by Buddhist culture.[71][72]
Medieval history
Main articles: Muslim conquests of Afghanistan and Mongol invasion of Central Asia
Islamic conquest

Saffarid rule at its greatest extent under Ya'qub ibn

al-Layth al-Saffar
Arab Muslims brought Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642 CE and began spreading
eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others
revolted. Before the arrival of Islam, the region used to be home to various beliefs
and cults, often resulting in Syncretism between the dominant religions[73][74] such
as Zoroastrianism,[63][64][65] Buddhism or Greco-Buddhism, Ancient Iranian
religions,[75] Hinduism, Christianity,[76][77] and Judaism.[78][79] An exemplification of the
syncretism in the region would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still
worshipped local Iranian gods such as Ahura Mazda, Lady Nana, Anahita or Mihr
(Mithra) and portrayed Greek Gods like Heracles or Tyche as protectors of
Buddha.[80][75][81] The Zunbils and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by
the Saffarid Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the Samanids extended their Islamic influence
south of the Hindu Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side
by side in Kabul before the Ghaznavids rose to power in the 10th century.[82][83][84]
By the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and
effectively Islamized the wider region,[85] with the exception of Kafiristan.[86] Mahmud
made Ghazni into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the
historian Al-Biruni and the poet Ferdowsi.[87] The Ghaznavid dynasty was overthrown
by the Ghurids in 1186, whose architectural achievements included the
remote Minaret of Jam. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century
before being conquered by the Khwarazmian dynasty in 1215.[88]
Mongols and Babur with the Lodi Dynasty

Mongol invasions and conquests

In 1219 CE, Genghis Khan and his Mongol army overran the region. His troops are
said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of Herat and Balkh as well
as Bamyan.[89] The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to
an agrarian rural society.[90] Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest
while the Khalji dynasty administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu
Kush until the invasion of Timur (aka Tamerlane), who established the Timurid
Empire in 1370. Under the rule of Shah Rukh the city[which?] served as the focal point of
the Timurid Renaissance, whose glory matched Florence of the Italian
Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth.[91][92]
In the early 16th century, Babur arrived from Ferghana and captured Kabul from
the Arghun dynasty.[93] Babur would go on to conquer the Afghan Lodi dynasty who
had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the First Battle of Panipat.[94] Between the 16th and
18th century, the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara, Iranian Safavids, and
Indian Mughals ruled parts of the territory.[95] During the Medieval Period, the
northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name Khorasan.
Two of the four capitals of Khorasan (Herat and Balkh) are now located in
Afghanistan, while the regions of Kandahar, Zabulistan, Ghazni, Kabulistan,
and Afghanistan formed the frontier between Khorasan and Hindustan. However, up
to the 19th century the term Khorasan was commonly used among natives to
describe their country; Sir George Elphinstone wrote with amazement that the
country known to outsiders as "Afghanistan" was referred to by its own inhabitants
as "Khorasan" and that the first Afghan official whom he met at the border welcomed
him to Khorasan.[96][97][98][99]

Modern history
Hotak Dynasty
Main article: Hotak dynasty

Map of the Hotak Empire during the reign

of Mirwais Hotak, 1709–1715
In 1709, Mirwais Hotak, a local Ghilzai tribal leader, successfully rebelled against
the Safavids. He defeated Gurgin Khan, the Georgian governor of Kandahar under
the Safavids, and established his own kingdom, also defeating many attempts for the
Safavids to annex the Kingdom.[100] Mirwais died of natural causes in 1715 and was
succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who was soon killed by Mirwais's
son Mahmud for possibly planning to sign a peace with the Safavids. Mahmud led
campaigns into modern Iran, with his first attempt in 1719 besieging Kerman, but this
attempt failed. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital
of Isfahan, and captured the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself
King of Persia.[100] The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by Nader Shah after
the 1729 Battle of Damghan.
Fall of the Hotak Dynasty
 Map of the Hotak Empire at its height in 1728,
disputed between Hussain Hotak (centered in Kandahar) and Ashraf
Hotak (centered in Isfahan)
In 1738, Nader Shah and his forces captured Kandahar in the siege of Kandahar, the
last Hotak stronghold, from Shah Hussain Hotak. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan
forces invaded India, Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside his 16-year-old
commander, Ahmad Shah Durrani who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader
Shah was assassinated in 1747.[101][102]
Rise of the Durrani Empire
Main articles: Durrani Empire and Ahmad Shah Durrani
After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned to
Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000 Pashtuns. The Abdalis had "unanimously
accepted" Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his ascension in 1747, Ahmad
Shah had led multiple campaigns against the Mughal Empire, Maratha Empire, and
then-receding Afsharid Empire. Ahmad Shah had
captured Kabul and Peshawar from the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan.
Ahmad Shah had then conquered Herat in 1750, and had also captured Kashmir in
1752.[103] Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into Khorasan, (1750–1751) and
(1754–1755).[104] His first campaign had seen the siege of Mashhad, however, he was
forced to retreat after four months. In November 1750, he moved to siege Nishapur,
but he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat after heavy losses in
early 1751. Ahmad Shah returned in 1754; he captured Tun, and on 23 July, he
sieged Mashhad once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December,
but Shahrokh was reappointed in 1755. He was forced to give
up Torshiz, Bakharz, Jam, Khaf, and Turbat-e Haidari to the Afghans, as well as
accept Afghan sovereignty. Following this, Ahmad Shah had sieged Nishapur once
again, and captured it.
Objectives and Invasions of India
Main article: Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani
Portrait of Ahmad Shah Durrani c. 1757
Ahmad Shah invaded India eight times during his reign. With the capture
of Peshawar, Ahmad Shah had a convenient striking point to lead his military
campaigns into Punjab and India.
Ahmad Shah had sought out multiple reasons for his invasions. He saw Afghanistan
in a dire state, and one that needed to expand and exploit a weak but rich
neighboring country, so he sought the reasons needed to fill his treasury in a
conquest-based economy.[105] Ahmad Shah launched his first invasion in 1748.
Crossing the Indus River, his armies sacked and absorbed Lahore into the Durrani
Realm. He met Mughal armies at the Battle of Manupur (1748), where he was
defeated and forced to retreat to back to Afghanistan.[106] He returned the next year in
1749 and captured the area around Lahore and Punjab, presenting it as an Afghan
victory for this campaign.[107] From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad Shah led six more invasions,
the most important being the last; the Third Battle of Panipat created a power
vacuum in northern India, halting Maratha expansion.
Death of Ahmad Shah and his successors
Main articles: Timur Shah Durrani, Zaman Shah Durrani, Mahmud Shah Durrani,
and Shah Shujah Durrani
Ahmad Shah Durrani died in October 1772, and a civil war over succession followed,
with his named successor, Timur Shah Durrani succeeding him after the defeat of
his brother, Suleiman Mirza.[108]
Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a
coalition under Shah Wali Khan, the influential prime minister of the Durrani Empire,
and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward
himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders
in Kabul and Kandahar to bring support toward himself. One of Timur Shah's reforms
was to move the capital of the Durrani Empire from Kandahar to Kabul. Kabul was
better as a base of operations since it was essentially the heartland of the empire,
and Kabul is the modern capital of Afghanistan today. Timur Shah fought multiple
series of rebellions to consolidate and hold the empire together, and he also led
campaigns into Punjab against the Sikhs like his father, though more successfully.
The most prominent example of his battles during this campaign was when he led
his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani – with over 18,000 men total of Afghan,
Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen – against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs lost
over 30,000 in this battle and staged a Durrani resurgence in
the Punjab region[109] The Durranis lost Multan in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death.
Following this victory by Timur Shah, Timur Shah was able to lay siege
to Multan and recapture it,[110] incorporating it into the Durrani Empire once again,
reintegrating it as a province until the Siege of Multan (1818). Timur Shah was
succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani after his death on in May 1793. Timur
Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire.
However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, which plunged the empire in civil war over
succession crises.[111]
Zaman Shah Durrani succeeded to the Durrani Throne following the death of his
father, Timur Shah Durrani. His brothers Mahmud Shah Durrani and Humayun Mirza
revolted against him, with Humayun centered in Kandahar and Mahmud Shah
centered in Herat.[112] Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and force the loyalty of
Mahmud Shah Durrani.[112] Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah led three
campaigns into Punjab. The first two campaigns captured Lahore, but he retreated
due to intel about a possible Qajar invasion. Zaman Shah embarked on his third
campaign for Punjab in 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh.[113] However, he
was forced to withdraw, and Zaman Shah's reign was ended by Mahmud Shah
Durrani.[113] However, just under two years in his reign, Mahmud Shah Durrani was
deposed by his brother Shah Shuja Durrani (on 13 July 1803).[114] Shah Shuja
attempted to consolidate the Durrani Realm but was deposed by his brother at
the Battle of Nimla (1809).[115] Mahmud Shah Durrani defeated Shah Shuja and forced
him to flee, usurping the throne again. His second reign began on 3 May 1809. [116]
Barakzai dynasty and British wars
Further information: Dost Mohammad Khan, Herat (1793–1863), Maimana
Khanate, Principality of Qandahar, European influence in Afghanistan, Anglo-Afghan
Wars, Durand Line, and Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)

Map of Afghanistan 1839–1863, showing the

First Anglo-Afghan war, and unification of Afghanistan by Dost Mohammad Khan
By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the Persians in
the west and the Sikh Empire in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe,
installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire, mostly
ruling as governors of major cities and provinces. Fateh Khan was brutally
murdered in 1818 by Mahmud Shah. As a result, the brothers of Fateh Khan and
the Barakzai tribe rebelled, and a civil war brewed between the Sadozais and the
Barakzais. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan fractured into many states.
These included the Principality of Qandahar, Emirate of Herat, Khanate of
Qunduz, Maimana Khanate, and many more states. The most prominent state was
the Emirate of Kabul, ruled by Dost Mohammad Khan after he declared himself emir
in summer 1826, having usurped the throne from his brother Sultan Mohammad
Khan. He was later granted the title of Amir al-Mu'minin for waging jihad against
the Sikhs in 1834.[117][118] With the collapse of the Durrani Empire, and the exile of
the Sadozai Dynasty to be left to rule in Herat while Afghanistan was in this turbulent
period of civil war, Punjab and Kashmir were lost to Ranjit Singh, ruler of the Sikh
Empire, who invaded Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in March 1823 and captured the city
of Peshawar following the Battle of Nowshera, placing the Peshawar Sardars under
his suzerainty. (This was one of the many entities that split following the collapse of
the Durrani Empire)[119] In 1834, Dost Mohammad Khan led numerous campaigns,
firstly campaigning to Jalalabad, and then allying with his rival brothers
in Kandahar to defeat Shah Shuja Durrani and the British in the Expedition of Shuja
ul-Mulk.[120] In 1837, Dost Mohammad Khan attempted to conquer Peshawar and sent
a large force under his son Wazir Akbar Khan, leading to the Battle of Jamrud near
the Khyber Pass. Akbar Khan and the Afghan army failed to capture the Jamrud
Fort from the Sikh Khalsa Army, but killed Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa, thus
ending the Afghan-Sikh Wars. By this time the British were advancing from the east,
capitalizing off of the decline of the Sikh Empire after it had its own period of
turbulence following the death of Ranjit Singh, which engaged the Emirate of
Kabul in the first major conflict during "The Great Game".[121]
 Afghan tribesmen in 1841, painted by British
officer James Rattray
In 1839, a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan, invading
the Principality of Qandahar, and in August 1839, seized Kabul, forcing Dost
Mohammad into shelter while he raised resistance. Dost Mohammad Khan defeated
the British in the Parwan campaign, but surrendered following his victory. He was
replaced with the former Durrani ruler Shah Shuja Durrani as the new ruler of Kabul,
who was, unbeknownst to him, a de facto puppet of the British on the
throne.[122][123] Following an uprising that saw the assassination of Shah Shuja,
the 1842 retreat from Kabul of British-Indian forces and
the annihilation of Elphinstone's army, and the punitive expedition of The Battle of
Kabul that led to its sacking, the British gave up on their attempts to try and
subjugate Afghanistan, which allowed Dost Mohammad Khan to return as ruler. He
would spend most of his reign consolidating the parts of Afghanistan that were lost in
the Afghan civil war which raged from 1793 to 1863. He launched numerous
campaigns after returning to power in 1842, ruling only from Kabul, Ghazni, and
other cities when he had returned. Dost Mohammad united most of the Afghan realm
in his reign, securing the last major state, Herat, in his final campaign. During his
campaigns of re-unification, he held friendly relations with the British despite internal
and external pressure to invade the British during the Sepoy mutiny, and affirmed
their status toward each other in the Second Anglo-Afghan treaty of 1857. Dost
Mohammad died on 9 June 1863, a few weeks after his campaign to capture Herat.
Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne of Afghanistan,
between Sher Ali Khan, Mohammad Afzal Khan, and Mohammad Azam Khan in
the Afghan Civil War (1863–1869). Sher Ali would win this civil war and would go on
to rule the realm until 1878, when the British returned in the Second Anglo-Afghan
War to fight over perceived Russian influence in the region. Abdur Rahman
Khan replaced Ayub Khan, who had succeeded Sher Ali Khan after his death in
1879. Britain gained control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the Treaty of
Gandamak of 1879, making it an official British Protected State.[124] In 1893, Amir
Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the
ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line, which forms
the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Shia-
dominated Hazarajat and pagan Kafiristan remained politically independent until
being conquered by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron
Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes.[125] He viewed railway
and telegraph lines coming from the Russian and British as trojan horses and
therefore prevented railway development in Afghanistan.[126] He died in 1901,
succeeded by his son, Habibullah Khan.
How can a small power like Afghanistan, which is like a goat between these lions
[Britain and Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding
mill, [could] stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?
— Abdur Rahman Khan, the "Iron Amir", in 1900[127][128]
During the First World War, when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was
met by officials of the Central Powers in the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition. They
called on Afghanistan to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join
them and attack British India, as part of the Hindu–German Conspiracy. The effort to
bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it sparked discontent among the
population about maintaining neutrality with the British. Habibullah was assassinated
during a hunting trip in February 1919, and Amanullah Khan eventually assumed
power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan
provoked the Third Anglo-Afghan War, entering British India via the Khyber Pass.[129]

Emir Amanullah invaded British India in 1919 and

proclaimed Afghanistan's full independence thereafter. He proclaimed himself King
of Afghanistan in June 1926.
After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of
Rawalpindi on 19 August 1919, Emir Amanullah Khan declared the Emirate of
Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved to end his country's
traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international
community, particularly with the Soviet Union and the Weimar Republic of
Germany.[130][131] He proclaimed himself King of Afghanistan on 9 June 1926, when the
Emirate of Afghanistan became the Kingdom of Afghanistan. Following a 1927–1928
tour of Europe and Turkey, he introduced several reforms intended to modernize his
nation. A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of
the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 constitution,
which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of slavery was
abolished in the Emirate of Afghanistan in 1923.[132] King Amanullah's wife, Queen
Soraya, was an important figure during this period in the fight for woman's education
and against their oppression.[133]
Some of the reforms that were put in place, such as the abolition of the
traditional burqa for women and the opening of several co-educational schools,
quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, and this led to the Afghan Civil
War (1928–1929). Faced with the overwhelming armed opposition, King Amanullah
abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to Saqqawist forces led
by Habibullah Kalakani.[134] Prince Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, in
turn defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir
Shah.[135] He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual
approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq, a 15-
year-old Hazara student who was an Amanullah loyalist.[136]
Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and
reigned as king from 1933 to 1973. During the tribal revolts of 1944–1947, King
Zahir's reign was challenged by Zadran, Safi, Mangal, and Wazir tribesmen led
by Mazrak Zadran, Salemai, and Mirzali Khan, among others – many of whom
were Amanullah loyalists. Close relations with the Muslim states Turkey,
the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq and Iran/Persia were also pursued, while further
international relations were sought by joining the League of Nations in 1934. The
1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a national bank,
and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing
cotton and textile industry.[137] The country built close relationships with the Axis
powers, with Nazi Germany having the largest share in Afghan development at the
time, along with the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Japan.[138]
Afghanistan has performed the function in central Asia which Korea and Laos-
Cambodia have performed in East and Southeast Asia: a regional flashpoint of
colliding Great Power interests.
— James Phillips of The Heritage Foundation[139]

Contemporary history

King Zahir, the last reigning monarch of Afghanistan, who

reigned from 1933 until 1973
Until 1946, King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post
of prime minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's
uncles, Shah Mahmud Khan, became prime minister in 1946 and began an
experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went
further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the
King's cousin and brother-in-law, and a Pashtun nationalist who sought the creation
of a Pashtunistan, leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan.[140] During his 10
years at the post (until 1963), Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms
and sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union. Afterward, the 1964
constitution was formed, and the first non-royal prime minister was sworn in.[137]
King Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national
independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and
improving relations with the United Kingdom. However, Afghanistan remained
neutral and was neither a participant in World War II nor aligned with either power
bloc in the Cold War thereafter. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as
both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building
Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure in the post-war
period. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet development
aid than any other country. Afghanistan had, therefore, good relations with both Cold
War enemies. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless
coup and became the first president of Afghanistan, abolishing the monarchy.
Democratic Republic and Soviet war
Main articles: Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Soviet–Afghan War, and Afghan
Civil War (1989–1992)
Further information: History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)

Soviet troops in Gardez, Afghanistan in 1987

Hezb-i Islami Khalis fighters in the Sultan Valley of Kunar Province, 1987

In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA)

seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President Mohammed Daoud
Khan, in what is called the Saur Revolution. The PDPA declared the establishment
of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, with its first leader named as People's
Democratic Party General Secretary Nur Muhammad Taraki.[141] This would trigger a
series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded
(albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism.[142] The PDPA initiated
various social, symbolic, and land distribution reforms that provoked strong
opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and
quickly expanded into a state of civil war by 1979, waged by
guerrilla mujahideen (and smaller Maoist guerrillas) against regime forces
countrywide. It quickly turned into a proxy war as the Pakistani government provided
these rebels with covert training centers, the United States supported them through
Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI),[143] and the Soviet Union sent thousands of
military advisers to support the PDPA regime.[144] Meanwhile, there was increasingly
hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the
dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham.[145]
In September 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal
coup orchestrated by fellow Khalq member, then-prime minister Hafizullah Amin,
who became the new general secretary of the People's Democratic Party. The
situation in the country deteriorated under Amin, and thousands of people went
missing.[146] Displeased with Amin's government, the Soviet Army invaded the country
in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin just three days later. [147] A
Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both
factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial
numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the
beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War.[148] The United States and Pakistan,[143] along
with smaller actors like Saudi Arabia and China, continued supporting the rebels,
delivering billions of dollars in cash and weapons including two thousand FIM-92
Stinger surface-to-air missiles.[149][150] Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of
between 562,000[151] and 2 million Afghans,[152][153][154][155][156][157][158][excessive citations] and displaced
about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly
to Pakistan and Iran.[159] Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside
villages, millions of landmines were planted,[160] and some cities such
as Herat and Kandahar were also damaged from bombardment. Pakistan's North-
West Frontier Province functioned as an organizational and networking base for the
anti-Soviet Afghan resistance, with the province's influential Deobandi ulama playing
a major supporting role in promoting the "jihad".[161] After the Soviet withdrawal,
the civil war ensued until the communist regime under People's Democratic Party
leader Mohammad Najibullah collapsed in 1992.[162][163][164]
The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan.
The militarization of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly
armed civil defense groups, and other such things becoming the norm in Afghanistan
for decades thereafter.[165] The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy,
community elders, intelligentsia, and military in favor of powerful warlords.[166]
Post–Cold War conflict
See also: Afghan Civil War (1992–1996), Afghan Civil War (1996–2001), Islamic
Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001), and Northern Alliance
 Development of the civil war from
1992 to late 2001
Another civil war broke out after the creation of a dysfunctional
coalition government between leaders of various mujahideen factions. Amid a state
of anarchy and factional infighting,[167][168][169] various mujahideen factions committed
widespread rape, murder and extortion,[168][170][171] while Kabul was heavily bombarded
and partially destroyed by the fighting.[171] Several failed reconciliations and alliances
occurred between different leaders.[172] The Taliban emerged in September 1994 as a
movement and militia of students (talib) from Islamic madrassas (schools) in
Pakistan,[171][173] who soon had military support from Pakistan.[174] Taking control
of Kandahar city that year,[171] they conquered more territories until finally driving out
the government of Rabbani from Kabul in 1996,[175][176] where they established
an emirate[177] that gained international recognition from three
countries: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.[178] The Taliban
were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of
Islamic sharia law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans,
especially women.[179][180] During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed
massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians
and conducted a policy of scorched earth, burning vast areas of fertile land and
destroying tens of thousands of homes.[181][182][183][184][185][186][excessive citations]
After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid
Dostum formed the Northern Alliance, later joined by others, to resist the Taliban.
Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif in
1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, Pervez Musharraf, began sending
thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern
Alliance.[187][174][188][189][190][excessive citations] By 2000, the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of
territory, cornered in the northeast. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was
assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers in Panjshir Valley. Around 400,000
Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.[191]
US invasion and Islamic Republic
Further information: War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan, Taliban insurgency, and Fall of Kabul (2021)

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In October 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from
power after they refused to hand over Osama bin Laden, the prime suspect of
the September 11 attacks, who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating
his al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan.[192][193][194] The majority of Afghans supported the
American invasion of their country.[195][196] During the initial invasion, US and UK forces
bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the
Taliban regime came to an end.[197]

US troops and Chinooks in Afghanistan, 2008

In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the Afghan Interim
Administration under Hamid Karzai was formed. The International Security
Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist
the Karzai administration and provide basic security.[198][199] By this time, after two
decades of war as well as an acute famine at the time, Afghanistan had one of the
highest infant and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much
of the population were hungry,[200][201][202] and infrastructure was in ruins.[203] Many foreign
donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country.[204][205]
Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition
troops entered Afghanistan to help the rebuilding process.[206][207] The Taliban began
an insurgency to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the next decade, ISAF
and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban, but failed to fully defeat
them. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a
lack of foreign investment, government corruption, and the Taliban insurgency.[208][209]
Meanwhile, Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country, [210] and the Afghan
government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in
2004 with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with
the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare,
education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the Afghan
National Security Forces. Following 2002, nearly five
million Afghans were repatriated.[211] The number of NATO troops present in
Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,[212] dropping to about 16,000 in 2018.[213]
In September 2014 Ashraf Ghani became president after the 2014 presidential
election where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically
transferred.[214][215][216][217][218][excessive citations] On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF
combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the
Afghan government. The NATO-led Operation Resolute Support was formed the
same day as a successor to ISAF.[219][220] Thousands of NATO troops remained in the
country to train and advise Afghan government forces[221] and continue their fight
against the Taliban.[222]
 A map of Afghanistan showing the 2021 Taliban
offensive
On 19 February 2020, the US–Taliban deal was made in Qatar. The 2020 US–
Taliban deal was one of the critical events that caused the collapse of the Afghan
National Security Forces (ANSF);[223] following the signing of the deal, the US
dramatically reduced the number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical
edge in fighting the Taliban insurgency, leading to the Taliban takeover of Kabul.[224]
Second Taliban era
NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg announced on 14 April 2021 that the
alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1
May.[225] Soon after NATO troops began withdrawing, the Taliban launched
an offensive against the Afghan government and quickly advanced in front of
collapsing Afghan government forces.[226][227] The Taliban captured the capital city of
Kabul on 15 August 2021, after regaining control over a vast majority of Afghanistan.
Several foreign diplomats and Afghan government officials, including president
Ashraf Ghani,[228] were evacuated from the country, with many Afghan civilians
attempting to flee along with them.[229] An unofficial "coordination council" led by
senior statesmen was formed the next day to transfer the state institutions of the
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban.[230] On 17 August, first vice
president Amrullah Saleh proclaimed himself caretaker president and announced the
formation of an anti-Taliban front with a reported 6,000+ troops[231][232] in the Panjshir
Valley, along with Ahmad Massoud.[233][234] However, by 6 September, the Taliban had
taken control of most of Panjshir Province, with resistance fighters retreating to the
mountains.[235] Clashes in the valley ceased mid-September,[236] as Saleh and
Massoud had fled to neighboring Tajikistan.[237][238][235]
According to the Costs of War Project, 176,000 people were killed in the conflict,
including 46,319 civilians, between 2001 and 2021.[239] According to the Uppsala
Conflict Data Program, at least 212,191 people were killed in the
conflict.[240] Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7 million refugees returned to
Afghanistan;[241] however, in 2021, 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in
Iran and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced.[242]
 Taliban fighters in Kabul on a
captured Humvee following the 2021 fall of Kabul
The Taliban government is led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada[243] and
acting prime minister Hasan Akhund, who took office on 7 September
2021.[244][245] Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban[246] and was a deputy
prime minister of the previous emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise
between moderates and hardliners.[247] A new, all-male cabinet was formed, which
included Abdul Hakim Haqqani as minister of justice.[248][249] On 20 September
2021, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter from
acting minister of foreign affairs Amir Khan Muttaqi to formally claim Afghanistan's
seat as a member state for their official spokesman in Doha, Suhail Shaheen.
The United Nations did not recognize the previous Taliban government and chose to
work with the then-government in exile instead.[250]
Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following
the Taliban's August 2021 takeover of the country; the World Bank and International
Monetary Fund also halted their payments.[251][252] More than half of Afghanistan's 39
million people faced an acute food shortage in October 2021.[253] Human Rights
Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing
widespread famine due to an economic and banking crisis.[254]
Though the state of war in the country ended in 2021, armed conflict persists in
some regions[255][256][257] amid fighting between the Taliban and the local branch of the
Islamic State, as well as an anti-Taliban Republican insurgency. A year into Taliban
rule, former president Hamid Karzai said in an interview: "In terms of [an] end to
widespread fighting and conflict, we are happy – there's more stability, there's more
security. But in terms of Afghanistan having a government that all Afghan people find
themselves [in], we still have a way to go. In terms of the economy of the country, it's
a disaster."[258]
Following their return to power, the Taliban have significantly tackled corruption, now
being placed as 150th on the corruption watchdog perception index. A massive
upgrade from its former position at 180th in 2011, and 174th in 2021. In 2011, the
country ranked next to Somalia, and North Korea. The Taliban have also reportedly
reduced bribery and extortion in public service areas.[259]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Afghanistan
Iran

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

Kyrgyzstan

Tajikistan

China

India

Pakistan
Kabul
Kandahar
Herat
Mazar-i-Sharif
Jalalabad
Kunduz
Amu Darya
Indus
Helmand
Pamirs
Karakoram
Spin Ghar
Hindu Kush
Sistan
Noshaq

Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia.[260][261][262][263][264] The region centered at

Afghanistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia",[265] and the country has had the
nickname Heart of Asia.[266] The renowned Urdu poet Allama Iqbal once wrote about
the country:
Asia is a body of water and earth, of which the Afghan nation is the heart. From its
discord, the discord of Asia; and from its accord, the accord of Asia.
At over 652,864 km2 (252,072 sq mi),[267] Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest
country,[268] slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size
of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan is landlocked.
Afghanistan shares its longest land border (the Durand Line) with Pakistan to the
east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the northeast, Iran to the west,
Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the far
northeast; India recognizes a border with Afghanistan through Pakistani-
administered Kashmir.[269] Clockwise from south-west, Afghanistan shares borders
with the Sistan and Baluchestan Province, South Khorasan Province and Razavi
Khorasan Province of Iran; Ahal Region, Mary Region and Lebap Region of
Turkmenistan; Surxondaryo Region of Uzbekistan; Khatlon Region and Gorno-
Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan; Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region of China; and the Gilgit-Baltistan territory, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
province and Balochistan province of Pakistan.[270]
The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with
some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins. [271] It is
dominated by the Hindu Kush range, the western extension of the Himalayas that
stretches to eastern Tibet via the Pamir Mountains and Karakoram Mountains in
Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of
fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "Roof of the World". The Hindu
Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest,
namely the Turkestan Plains and the Sistan Basin; these two regions consist of
rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively.[272] Forests
exist in the corridor between Nuristan and Paktika provinces (see East Afghan
montane conifer forests),[273] and tundra in the northeast. The country's highest point
is Noshaq, at 7,492 m (24,580 ft) above sea level.[274] The lowest point lies in Jowzjan
Province along the Amu River bank, at 258 m (846 ft) above sea level.

The mountainous topography of

Afghanistan
Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs, large parts of the country are dry.
The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.[275] The Amu
Darya rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby Hari Rud flows west
towards Herat, and the Arghandab River from the central region southwards. To the
south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of
the Indus River,[271] such as the Helmand River. One exception is the Kabul
River which flows in an easterly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian
Ocean.[276] Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the Hindu
Kush and Pamir Mountains, and the melting snow in the spring season enters
the rivers, lakes, and streams.[277][278] However, two-thirds of the country's water flows
into the neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. As reported in
2010, the state needs more than US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so
that the water is properly managed.[279]
The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and around the Badakhshan
Province of Afghanistan, is in a geologically active area where earthquakes may
occur almost every year.[280] They can be deadly and destructive,
causing landslides in some parts or avalanches during the winter.[281] The last strong
earthquakes were in 1998, which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near
Tajikistan.[282] This was followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over
150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A 2010 earthquake left 11 Afghans
dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed. In June 2022,
a destructive 5.9 earthquake struck near the border with Pakistan, killing at least
1,150 people and sparking fears of a major humanitarian crisis.[283]
Climate

Köppen climate map of Afghanistan[284]

Afghanistan has a continental climate with harsh winters in the central highlands, the
glaciated northeast (around Nuristan), and the Wakhan Corridor, where the average
temperature in January is below −15 °C (5 °F) and can reach −26 °C (−15 °F),[271] and
hot summers in the low-lying areas of the Sistan Basin of the southwest,
the Jalalabad basin in the east, and the Turkestan plains along the Amu River in the
north, where temperatures average over 35 °C (95 °F) in July[274][285] and can go over
43 °C (109 °F).[271] The country is generally arid in the summers, with most rainfall
falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western
Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although
proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside the monsoon zone,[271] except
the Nuristan Province which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.[286]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Afghanistan

The snow leopard is the official national animal of

Afghanistan.
Several types of mammals exist throughout Afghanistan. Snow leopards, Siberian
tigers and brown bears live in the high elevation alpine tundra regions. The Marco
Polo sheep exclusively live in the Wakhan Corridor region of north-east
Afghanistan. Foxes, wolves, otters, deer, wild sheep, lynx and other big cats
populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains,
wildlife include a variety of birds, hedgehogs, gophers, and large carnivores such
as jackals and hyenas.[287]
Gazelles, wild pigs and jackals populate the steppe plains of the south and west,
while mongoose and cheetahs exist in the semi-desert
south.[287] Marmots and ibex also live in the high mountains of Afghanistan,
and pheasants exist in some parts of the country.[288] The Afghan hound is a native
breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the
west.[289]
Endemic fauna of Afghanistan includes the Afghan flying squirrel, Afghan
snowfinch, Paradactylodon (or the "Paghman mountain salamander"), Stigmella
kasyi, Vulcaniella kabulensis, Afghan leopard gecko, Wheeleria parviflorellus,
amongst others. Endemic flora include Iris afghanica. Afghanistan has a wide variety
of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235
breed within.[289]
The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as pine trees, spruce trees, fir
trees and larches, whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of broadleaf trees,
short grass, perennial plants and shrublands. The colder high elevation regions are
composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants.[287] Several regions are
designated protected areas; there are three national parks: Band-e
Amir, Wakhan and Nuristan. Afghanistan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity
Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries. [290]

Demographics
Main articles: Afghans, Demographics of Afghanistan, and Afghan diaspora

A Cold War-era CIA map showing

traditional Afghan tribal territories. Pashtun tribes form the world's largest tribal
society.[291]
The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 by the
Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority,[292] whereas the UN estimates over
38.0 million.[293] In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5
million.[294] About 23.9% of them are urbanite, 71.4% live in rural areas, and the
remaining 4.7% are nomadic.[295] An additional 3 million or so Afghans are temporarily
housed in neighboring Pakistan and Iran, most of whom were born and raised in
those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing
country in the world, a title held for 32 years.
The current population growth rate is 2.37%,[274] one of the highest in the world
outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current
population trends continue.[296] The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until
the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as
Pakistan.[297] Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the
country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa.[298] Afghanistan's healthcare has
recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases
in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside
Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid
population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down. [citation
needed]
The Gini coefficient in 2008 was 27.8.[299]
Ethnicity and languages
Main articles: Ethnic groups in Afghanistan and Languages of Afghanistan
See also: Afghans

Ethnolinguistic map of Afghanistan (2001)

Afghans are divided into several ethnolinguistic groups. According to research data
by several institutions in 2019, the Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group, comprising
42%, followed by Tajiks, comprising 27%[4][5][6][300][8] of the country's population. The
other two major ethnic groups are the Hazaras and Uzbeks, each at 9%. A further 10
other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in the Afghan National
Anthem.[301]
Dari and Pashto are the official languages of Afghanistan; bilingualism is very
common.[302] Dari, which is also referred to as Eastern Persian as it is a variety of and
mutually intelligible with Persian (and very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like
in Iran) functions as the lingua franca in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and
northwestern parts of the country.[303] Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are
sometimes called Farsiwans.[304] Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns,
although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in
Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries,
Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy. [305] According
to CIA World Factbook, Dari Persian is spoken by 78% (L1 + L2) and functions as
the lingua franca, while Pashto is spoken by
50%, Uzbek 10%, English 5%, Turkmen 2%, Urdu 2%, Pashayi 1%, Nuristani 1%, Ar
abic 1%, and Balochi 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken
languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in
the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one
language. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including Uzbek,
Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi, and Nuristani.[306]
When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or
understand Hindustani (Urdu-Hindi), partly due to returning Afghan
refugees from Pakistan and the popularity of Bollywood films
respectively.[307] English is also understood by some of the population,[308] and has
been gaining popularity as of the 2000s.[309] Some Afghans retain some ability
in Russian, which was taught in public schools during the 1980s.[307]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Afghanistan

Blue Mosque in Mazar-i-Sharif is the

largest mosque in Afghanistan.
The CIA estimated in 2009 that 99.7% of the Afghan population was Muslim [274] and
most are thought to adhere to the Sunni Hanafi school.[310] According to Pew
Research Center, as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% Shia and
3% non-denominational.[311] The CIA Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni
or up to 15% Shia.[274]
Afghan Sikhs and Hindus are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul,
Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar)[312][313] accompanied by gurdwaras and
mandirs.[314] According to Deutsche Welle in September 2021, 250 remain in the
country after 67 were evacuated to India.[315]
There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan, living mainly in Herat and
Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced leave due to decades of
warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, nearly the
entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with one known
exception, Herat-born Zablon Simintov. He remained for years, being the caretaker
of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. He left the country for the US after the
second Taliban takeover. A woman who left shortly after him has since been
identified as the likely last Jew in Afghanistan.[316][317][318]
Afghan Christians, who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to
intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches.[319][320]
Urbanization
As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of
2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher
than Cambodia, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Urbanization has increased rapidly,
particularly in the capital Kabul, due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran
after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants.[321] Urbanization in
Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few
cities.[322]
The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of
the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the
Central Highlands, namely Kandahar in the south, Herat in the west, Mazar-i-
Sharif, Kunduz in the north, and Jalalabad in the east.[295]
‹ The template below (Largest cities of Afghanistan) is being considered for deletion. See templates for
discussion to help reach a consensus. ›

 v
 t
 e
Largest cities or towns in Afghanistan
2019 estimate[323]

Rank Name Province Pop.

1 Kabul Kabul Province 4,273,200
2 Kandahar Kandahar Province 614,300
3 Herat Herat Province 556,200
4 Mazar-i-Sharif Balkh Province 469,200
5 Jalalabad Nangarhar Province 356,500
Kabul 6 Kunduz Kunduz Province 263,200
7 Taloqan Takhar Province 253,700
8 Puli Khumri Baghlan Province 237,900
9 Ghazni Ghazni Province 183,000

10 Khost Khost Province 153,300

Kandahar

Education
Main article: Education in Afghanistan

UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afghanistan

Literacy Rate among population aged 15+ (1980–2018)
Education in Afghanistan is overseen by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of
Higher Education. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million
students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime
has thus far forbidden female teachers and female students from returning to
secondary schools.[324][325] Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different universities
around the country. About 21% of these are females.[326] Former Education
Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is
required for the remaining children who are deprived of formal learning.[327] As of 2018
the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and
females 29.81%).[328]
The top universities in Afghanistan are the American University of
Afghanistan (AUAF) followed by Kabul University (KU), both of which are located in
Kabul. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, modeled after the United
States Military Academy at West Point, was a four-year military development
institution dedicated to graduating officers for the Afghan Armed Forces. The Afghan
Defense University was constructed near Qargha in Kabul. Major universities outside
of Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat University in the
northwest, Balkh University and Kunduz University in the north, Nangarhar
University and Khost University in the east. Kabul University was founded in 1932
and is a respected institute that played a significant part in the country's
education;[329] from the 1960s the Kabul University was also a hotbed of radical
political ideologies such as Marxism and Islamism, which played major parts in
society, politics and the war that began in 1978.[330]
After the Taliban regained power in 2021, it became unclear to what extent female
education would continue in the country. In March 2022, after they had been closed
for some time, it was announced that secondary education would be reopened
shortly. However, shortly before reopening, the order was rescinded and schools for
older girls remained closed.[331]
Despite the ban, six provinces, Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-I-Pul, Faryab, and
the Day Kundi provinces still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.[332][333]
Health
Main article: Health in Afghanistan

The Daoud Khan Military Hospital in Kabul is one of

the largest hospitals in Afghanistan.
According to the Human Development Index, Afghanistan is the 15th least
developed country in the world. The average life expectancy is estimated to be
around 60 years.[334][335] The country's maternal mortality rate is 396 deaths/100,000
live births and its infant mortality rate is 66[335] to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live
births.[274] The Ministry of Public Health plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for
every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000 midwives,
with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.[336]
There are over 100 hospitals in Afghanistan,[337] with the most advanced treatments
being available in Kabul. The French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi
Children's Hospital in Kabul are the leading children's hospitals in the country. Some
of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the Jamhuriat Hospital and Jinnah
Hospital.[338] In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for
advanced treatment.
It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-
hour walk of the nearest health facility.[339] Disability rate is also high in Afghanistan
due to the decades of war.[340] It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are
missing limbs.[341][342] Non-governmental charities such as Save the
Children and Mahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental
structures.[343] Demographic and Health Surveys is working with the Indian Institute of
Health Management Research and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan
focusing on maternal death, among other things.[344]

Governance
Main article: Politics of Afghanistan

The Arg (the Presidential palace) in Kabul,

photographed in 2020, before the Fall of Kabul
Following the effective collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan during
the 2021 Taliban offensive, the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A
new caretaker government was announced on 7 September.[345] As of
8 September 2021, no other country had formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of
Afghanistan as the de jure government of Afghanistan.[346]
A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is the loya jirga (grand
assembly), a Pashtun consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a
new head of state, adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue
such as war.[347] Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747,[348] with the most
recent one occurring in August 2020.[349][350]
Development of Taliban government
Main article: Government of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
See also: Cabinet of Afghanistan § Islamic Emirate (2021–present)
 Hasan Akhund
Acting Prime Minister

(2021–2023)

Sirajuddin Haqqani
First Deputy Leader and Acting Interior Minister

Mullah Yaqoob
Second Deputy Leader and Acting Defense Minister

Abdul Ghani Baradar

Third Deputy Leader and Acting First Deputy Prime Minister

On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami

Gulbuddin party, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, met with both Hamid Karzai, the
former President of Afghanistan, and Abdullah Abdullah, the former chairman of the
High Council for National Reconciliation and former Chief Executive, in Doha, Qatar,
with the aim of forming a national unity government.[351][352] President Ashraf Ghani,
having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either Tajikistan or Uzbekistan,
emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations
and was in talks to return to Afghanistan.[353][354] Many figures within the Taliban
generally agreed that continuation of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan may, if
correctly applied, be workable as the basis for the new religious state as their
objections to the former government were political, and not religious.[355]
Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban
official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early
as Friday 3 September after Jumu'ah. It was added that Hibatullah
Akhundzada would be officially named Emir, with cabinet ministers being revealed at
the Arg in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head of
government as Prime Minister, while other important positions would go to Sirajuddin
Haqqani and Mullah Yaqoob. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance
will be entrusted to the cabinet.[356]

US representative Zalmay Khalilzad (left) meeting

with Taliban leaders, Abdul Ghani Baradar, Abdul Hakim Haqqani, Sher Mohammad
Abbas Stanikzai, Suhail Shaheen, unidentified in Doha, Qatar on 21 November 2020
According to CNN, the new government is likely to be a unitary Deobandist Islamic
republic. In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going
to be governed similarly to Iran with Haibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader
similar to the role of Saayid Ali Khamenei, and would be based out of Kandahar.
Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as Prime Minister. The
government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the
Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body known
Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. Abdul Hakim Haqqani is
likely to be promoted to Chief Justice. According to the report, the new government
will take place within the framework of an amended 1964 Constitution of
Afghanistan.[357]
However, later interviews disclosed to News18 that negotiations were not yet
completed and that representatives were still in Kandahar, and that the
announcement of the new government would not take place until 4 September or
later.[358][359][360] Government formation was further delayed with the announcement
postponed to some time during the week of 6 September, due to concerns about
forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community. [361] It
was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership
council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul
Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. This
culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in
Pakistan.[362] It was speculated that the government would be announced on 11
September 2021, the 20th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks, with invitations possibly
being extended to the governments of Turkey, China, Iran, Pakistan, and Qatar. [363]
As of early September, the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to be men-only,
stating that women would not be allowed to "work in high-ranking posts" in the
government and that women were "ruled out" from the Cabinet. Journalists and other
human rights activists, mostly women, protested in Herat and Kabul, calling for
women to be included in the Cabinet.[364] The acting Cabinet announced on 7
September was men-only, and the Ministry of Women's Affairs appeared to have
been abolished.[345] On March 23, 2022, there were reports a cabinet shakeup was
underway as another meeting of the Leadership Council was held in Kandahar for
the second time since the Taliban Islamic Movement came to power as a way to get
international recognition. The last meeting of the Leadership Council was held from
August 28, 2021, to August 30, 2021.[365][366]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Provinces of Afghanistan and Districts of Afghanistan
Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayat).[367] Each province
has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400
provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each
district is represented by a district governor.
The provincial governors are now appointed by the Prime Minister of Afghanistan,
and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors.[368] The provincial
governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are
responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are
also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four
years.[369] The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial
development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other
provincial governance institutions.
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral
law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-
year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government. [370]
The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order:

Afghanistan is divided into 34

provinces, which are further divided into a number of districts.

1. Badakhshan
2. Badghis
3. Baghlan
4. Balkh
5. Bamyan
6. Daykundi
7. Farah
8. Faryab
 9. Ghazni
10. Ghor
11. Helmand
12. Herat
13. Jowzjan
14. Kabul
15. Kandahar
16. Kapisa
17. Khost
18. Kunar
19. Kunduz
20. Laghman
21. Logar
22. Nangarhar
23. Nimruz
24. Nuristan
25. Oruzgan
26. Paktia
27. Paktika
28. Panjshir
29. Parwan
30. Samangan
31. Sar-e Pol
32. Takhar
33. Wardak
34. Zabul
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Afghanistan
See also: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)
Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946.[371] Historically,
Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to
recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided
much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a
Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and India, with which a friendship treaty was
signed in 1950.[372] Relations with Pakistan have often been tense for various reasons
such as the Durand Line border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan
insurgent groups.
The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationally unrecognized,
but has had notable unofficial ties with China, Pakistan, and Qatar.[373][374] Under the
previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number
of NATO and allied nations, particularly the United States, Canada, United
Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and Turkey. In 2012, the United States and the then-
republic in Afghanistan signed their Strategic Partnership Agreement in which
Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally.[375] Such qualification was rescinded by
US President Joe Biden in July 2022.[376]
Military
For broader coverage of this topic, see Afghan Armed Forces.
The Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan captured a large amount of
weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the Afghan National
Security Forces following the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul. The total
value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83 billion. [377][378]
Human rights
See also: Human rights in Afghanistan, Women in Afghanistan, LGBT rights in
Afghanistan, Treatment of women by the Taliban, and Afghan refugees
Homosexuality is taboo in Afghan society;[379] according to the Penal Code,
homosexual intimacy is punished by up to a year in prison. [380] With
implementing Sharia law offenders can be punished by death.[381][382] However an
ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between children and older men
(typically wealthy warlords or elite people) called bacha bazi persists.
Religious minorities such as Sikhs,[383] Hindus,[384] and Christians have reportedly
faced persecution in the country.[385][386]
Since May 2022, all women in Afghanistan have been required by law to wear full-
body coverings when in public (either a burqa or an abaya paired with a niqāb, which
leaves only the eyes uncovered).[387][388] In a May interview with Christiane Amanpour,
First Deputy Leader Sirajuddin Haqqani claimed the decree is only advisory and no
form of hijab is compulsory in Afghanistan,[389] though this contradicts the reality.[390] It
has been speculated that there is a genuine internal policy division over women's
rights between hardliners, including leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, and pragmatists,
though they publicly present a united front.[391] Another decree was issued shortly
after the first, requiring female TV presenters to cover their faces during
broadcasts.[392] Since the Taliban takeover, suicides among women have become
more common, and the country could now be one of the few where the rate of
suicide among women surpasses that among men.[393][394][395]
In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved Afghanistan's Human Rights Commission along
with four other government departments, citing the country's budget deficit.[396]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Afghanistan

Workers processing pomegranates (anaar), for which

Afghanistan is famous in Asia
Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $20.1 billion in 2020, or $81 billion by purchasing
power parity (PPP).[21] Its GDP per capita is $2,459 (PPP) and $611 by
nominal.[21] Despite having $1 trillion or more in mineral deposits,[397] it remains one of
the world's least developed countries. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and
its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been
among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also
slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability.[271] The country imports over
$7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million, mainly fruits and nuts. It has
$2.8 billion in external debt.[274] The service sector contributed the most to the GDP
(55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%).[398]
While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a
small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to
non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United
Nations system and non-governmental organizations.[399]
Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation[400] and
the Afghani (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75
Afghanis to 1 US dollar.[401] A number of local and foreign banks operate in the
country, including the Afghanistan International Bank, New Kabul Bank, Azizi
Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, and the First Micro Finance Bank.

Afghan rugs are one of Afghanistan's

main exports.
One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over
5 million expatriates, who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating
skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now
involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country.[402] Some
of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City
next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the Ghazi Amanullah
Khan Town near Jalalabad.[403][404][405] Similar development projects have also begun
in Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, and other cities.[406] An estimated 400,000 people enter the
labor market each year.[407]
Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the
country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new
jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than
$1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since
2003.[408] Afghan rugs are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers
around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported
group of items.[409]
Afghanistan is a member of WTO, SAARC, ECO, and OIC. It holds an observer
status in SCO. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan
and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.[410]
Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States
has frozen about $9 billion in assets belonging to the Afghan central
bank,[411] blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in US bank
accounts.[412][413]
The GDP of Afghanistan is estimated to have dropped by 20% following the Taliban
return to power. Following this, after months of free-fall, the Afghan economy began
stabilizing, as a result of the Taliban's restrictions on smuggled imports, limits on
banking transactions, and U.N aid. In 2023, the Afghan economy began seeing signs
of revival. This has also been followed by stable exchange rates, low inflation, stable
revenue collection, and the rise of trade in exports.[414]
Agriculture

Afghan saffron has been recognized as the world's

best.
Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy[415] and has
traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of
2018.[416] The country is known for producing pomegranates, grapes, apricots,
melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. It is also known as the world's largest
producer of opium – as much as 16% or more of the nation's economy is derived
from the cultivation and sale of opium.[417] It is also one of the world's top producers
of cannabis.[418]
Saffron, the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan, particularly Herat Province.
In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and
farmers trying to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron
cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by
the International Taste and Quality Institute.[419][420] Production hit record high in 2019
(19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and
$1147.[421]
The availability of cheap diesel-powered water pumps imported from China and
Pakistan, and in the 2010s, of cheap solar power to pump water, resulted in
expansion of agriculture and population in the southwestern deserts of Afghanistan
in Kandahar Province, Helmand Province and Nimruz Province in the 2010s. Wells
have gradually been deepened, but water resources are limited. Opium is the major
crop, but as of 2022, was under attack by the new Taliban government which, in
order to suppress opium production, was systematically suppressing water
pumping.[422][423] In a 2023 report, poppy cultivation in southern Afghanistan was
reduced by over 80% as a result of Taliban campaigns to stop its use toward Opium.
This included a 99% reduction of Opium growth in the Helmand Province.[424]
Mining
Main article: Mining in Afghanistan
 Lapis lazuli stones
The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, lithium, uranium, rare
earth elements, chromite, gold, zinc, talc, barite, sulfur, lead, marble, precious
and semi-precious stones, natural gas, and petroleum.[425][426] In 2010, US and Afghan
government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by
the US Geological Survey are worth at least $1 trillion.[427]
Michael E. O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution estimated that if Afghanistan
generates about $10 billion per year from its mineral deposits, its gross national
product would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and
other critical needs.[428] The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated in
2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average 460 million m3 (2.9 billion bbl)
of crude oil, 440 billion m3 (15.7 trillion cu ft) of natural gas, and 67 billion L
(562 million US bbl) of natural gas liquids.[429] In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil
exploration contract with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for the
development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.[430]
The country has significant amounts of lithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and
other minerals.[425][426][431] The Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province contains
1,000,000 tonnes (980,000 long tons; 1,100,000 short tons) of rare earth
elements.[432] In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the Aynak copper mine to
the China Metallurgical Group for $3 billion,[433] making it the biggest foreign
investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.[434] The state-
run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop the huge Hajigak iron
ore deposit in central Afghanistan.[435] Government officials estimate that 30% of the
country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least $1 trillion.[427] One official
asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a
Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of
lithium".[436] The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of Bolivia,
which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves. [437] Other
larger deposits are the ones of bauxite and cobalt.[437] In a 2011 news story,
the CSM reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne
the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the
bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional
powers."[438]
Access to biocapacity in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016,
Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares[439] of biocapacity per person within its territory,
much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[440] In 2016
Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological
footprint of consumption. This means they use just under double as much
biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a
biocapacity deficit.[439]

Infrastructure
Energy
Main articles: Energy in Afghanistan and Renewable energy in Afghanistan

Afghanistan electricity supply (1980–2019)

According to the World Bank, 98% of the rural population have access to electricity
in 2018, up from 28% in 2008.[441] Overall the figure stands at 98.7%.[442] As of 2016,
Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts of power, but still imports the majority of
electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states. [443] The
majority of electricity production is via hydropower, helped by the amount of rivers
and streams that flow from the mountains.[444] However electricity is not always
reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul.[445] In recent years an increasing
number of solar, biomass and wind power plants have been constructed.[446] Currently
under development are the CASA-1000 project which will transmit electricity from
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI)
gas pipeline.[445] Power is managed by the Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat (DABS,
Afghanistan Electricity Company).
Important dams include the Kajaki Dam, Dahla Dam, and the Sardeh Band Dam.[276]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Afghanistan

Band-e Amir National Park

Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless,
some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016.[447] In particular an
important region for domestic and international tourism is the
picturesque Bamyan Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites,
helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity.[448][449] Smaller
numbers visit and trek in regions such as the Wakhan Valley, which is also one of
the world's most remote communities.[450] From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan
was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail, attracting many Europeans and
Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces
and cities including Herat, Kandahar and Kabul before crossing to northern Pakistan,
northern India, and Nepal.[451][452] Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of
political instability and armed conflict.[453]

The Minaret of Jam is a UNESCO World Heritage Site,

currently under threat by erosion and flooding.
The city of Ghazni has significant history and historical sites, and together
with Bamyan city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South
Asia Cultural Capital respectively.[454] The cities of Herat, Kandahar, Balkh,
and Zaranj are also very historic. The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is
a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's
prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city
founded by Alexander the Great and the first capital of Afghanistan. The citadel of
Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a
popular attraction. In the north of the country is the Shrine of Ali, believed by many to
be the location where Ali was buried.[455] The National Museum of Afghanistan is
located in Kabul and hosts a large number of Buddhist, Bactrian Greek and early
Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly
restoring since the early 2000s.[456]
Communication
Main article: Communications in Afghanistan
Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by Afghan
Telecom, Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, MTN Group, and Roshan. The country uses its
own space satellite called Afghansat 1, which provides services to millions of phone,
internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war,
telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a
$2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet
users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.[457]
Transportation
Main article: Transport in Afghanistan
See also: List of airports in Afghanistan and Rail transport in Afghanistan

The Salang Tunnel, once the highest tunnel in the

world, provides a key connection between the north and south of the country.
Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country has
historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network is Highway 1,
often called the "Ring Road", which extends for 2,210 kilometres (1,370 mi) and
connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-
Sharif,[458] with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while
skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush.[459]
The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the
economy.[460] A key portion of the Ring Road is the Salang Tunnel, completed in
1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects
northern and southern Afghanistan.[461] It is the only land route that connects Central
Asia to the Indian subcontinent.[462] Several mountain passes allow travel between the
Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads
and highways, particularly on the Kabul–Kandahar and the Kabul–Jalalabad
Road.[463] Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant
activities.[464]

An Ariana Afghan Airlines Airbus A310 in 2006

Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier, Ariana Afghan
Airlines,[465] and by the private company Kam Air. Airlines from a number of countries
also provide flights in and out of the country. These include Air India, Emirates, Gulf
Air, Iran Aseman Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, and Turkish Airlines. The
country has four international airports: Hamid Karzai International Airport (formerly
Kabul International Airport), Kandahar International Airport, Herat International
Airport, and Mazar-e Sharif International Airport. Including domestic airports, there
are 43.[274] Bagram Air Base is a major military airfield.
The country has three rail links: one, a 75-kilometre (47 mi) line from Mazar-i-
Sharif to the Uzbekistan border;[466] a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) long line
from Toraghundi to the Turkmenistan border (where it continues as part of Turkmen
Railways); and a short link from Aqina across the Turkmen border to Kerki, which is
planned to be extended further across Afghanistan.[467] These lines are used for
freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between Khaf, Iran
and Herat, western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, is under
construction as of 2019.[468][469] About 125 kilometres (78 mi) of the line will lie on the
Afghan side.[470][471] There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail
lines in the country.[472]
Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis
are yellow in color and consist of both cars and auto rickshaws.[473] In rural
Afghanistan, villagers often use donkeys, mules or horses to transport or carry
goods. Camels are primarily used by the Kochi nomads.[289] Bicycles are popular
throughout Afghanistan.[474]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Afghanistan
An Afghan family near Kholm, 1939 – most Afghans are tribal.
Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ between the
regions of Afghanistan, each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic
obstacles that divide the country.[271] Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and
families are often headed by a patriarch.[475] In the southern and eastern region, the
people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali (the Pashtun
way).[476] Key tenets of Pashtunwali include hospitality, the provision of sanctuary to
those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood.[477] The Pashtuns are
largely connected to the culture of Central Asia and the Iranian Plateau. The
remaining Afghans are culturally Persian and Turkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in
proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process
called Pashtunization, while some Pashtuns have been Persianized. Those who
have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced
by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be
strongly religious.[310]
Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for
personal honor.[478] One writer considers the tribal system to be the best way of
organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a
society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated
lifestyle.[479] There are various Afghan tribes, and an estimated 2–
3 million nomads.[480] Afghan culture is deeply Islamic,[481] but pre-Islamic practices
persist.[482] One example is bacha bazi, a term for activities involving sexual relations
between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys. [483] Child marriage is
prevalent in Afghanistan;[484] the legal age for marriage is 16.[485] The most preferred
marriage in Afghan society is to one's parallel cousin, and the groom is often
expected to pay a bride price.[486]

A house occupied by nomadic kochi people

in Nangarhar Province
In the villages, families typically occupy mudbrick houses, or compounds with
mudbrick or stone walled houses. Villages typically have a headman (malik), a
master for water distribution (mirab) and a religious teacher (mullah). Men would
typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest. [475] About 15% of the
population are nomadic, locally called kochis.[271] When nomads pass villages they
often buy supplies such as tea, wheat and kerosene from the villagers; villagers
buy wool and milk from the nomads.[475]
Afghan clothing for both men and women typically consists of various forms
of shalwar kameez, especially perahan tunban and khet partug. Women would
normally wear a chador for head covering; some women, typically from highly
conservative communities, wear the burqa, a full body covering. These were worn by
some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but
the Taliban enforced this dress on women when they were in power.[487] Another
popular dress is the chapan which acts as a coat. The karakul is a hat made from the
fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of
Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was
constantly worn by President Hamid Karzai.[488] The pakol is another traditional hat
originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla
leader Ahmad Shah Massoud.[489] The Mazari hat originates from northern
Afghanistan.[490]
Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Afghanistan

Kabul skyline, displaying both historical and

contemporary buildings
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in
the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many
remnants from all ages, including Greek and Buddhist stupas, monasteries,
monuments, temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are
the Great Mosque of Herat, the Blue Mosque, the Minaret of Jam, the Chil Zena, the
Qala-i Bost in Lashkargah, the ancient Greek city of Ai-Khanoum.[491] However, many
of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil
wars.[492] The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban, who
regarded them as idolatrous. Despite that, archaeologists are still finding Buddhist
relics in different parts of the country, some of them dating back to the 2nd
century.[493] As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-
style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch at Paghman and the Darul
Aman Palace in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s by the Afghans
themselves.
Afghan Architecture also ranges deep into India such as the Tomb of Sher Shah
Suri, an Afghan Emperor of India.[494]
Art and ceramics
See also: Afghan art

A traditional Afghan embroidery pattern

Carpet weaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are
still handmade by tribal and nomadic people today.[322] Carpets have been produced
in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women.[495] Some
crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the
outbreak of the Soviet–Afghan War, "war rugs", a variant of Afghan rugs, were
created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict. [496] Every
province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs.[497] In some of the Turkic-
populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by
the bride's weaving skills.[498]
Pottery has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of Istalif, north of
Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green
pottery,[499] and their methods of crafting have remained the same for
centuries.[500][501] Much of lapis lazuli stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan
which were used in Chinese porcelain as cobalt blue, later used in
ancient Mesopotamia and Turkey.[502]
The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known
usage of oil painting found in cave murals in the country.[503][504] A notable art style that
developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is Gandhara Art, produced by a
fusion of Greco-Roman art and Buddhist art between the 1st and 7th centuries
CE.[505] Later eras saw increased use of the Persian miniature style, with Kamaleddin
Behzad of Herat being one of the most notable miniature artists of the Timurid and
early Safavid periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques
in art. Abdul Ghafoor Breshna was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from
Kabul during the 20th century.
Media and entertainment
Main article: Media of Afghanistan
Afghanistan has around 350 radio stations and over 200 television stations.[506] Radio
Television Afghanistan, originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster.
Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private
television channels such as TOLO and Shamshad TV. The first Afghan newspaper
was published in 1873,[507] and there are hundreds of print outlets today.[506] By the
1920s, Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services.[508] Voice of America, BBC,
and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's
official languages on radio.[509] Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and
private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls.
Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian Bollywood films and
listening to its filmi songs.[510] It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the
biggest markets for the Hindi film industry.[511] The stereotypes of Afghans in
India (Kabuliwala or Pathani) have also been represented in some Bollywood films
by actors.[512] Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including Salman
Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Aamir Khan, Feroz Khan, Kader Khan, Naseeruddin
Shah, Zarine Khan, Celina Jaitly, and a number of others. Several Bollywood films
have been shot inside Afghanistan, including Dharmatma, Khuda Gawah, Escape
from Taliban, and Kabul Express.
Music
Main article: Music of Afghanistan

The Afghan rubab

Afghan classical music has close historical links with Indian classical music and use
the same Hindustani terminology and theories like raga. Genres of this style of music
include ghazal (poetic music) and instruments such as the
Indian tabla, sitar and harmonium, and local instruments like zerbaghali, as well
as dayereh and tanbur which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucasus and the
Middle East. The rubab is the country's national instrument and precurses the
Indian sarod instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include Ustad
Sarahang and Sarban.[513]
Pop music developed in the 1950s through Radio Kabul and was influential in social
change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first Mermon
Parwin.[513] Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was Ahmad Zahir, who
synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics
long after his death in 1979.[514][513] Other notable masters of traditional or popular
Afghan music include Nashenas, Ubaidullah Jan, Mahwash, Ahmad Wali, Farhad
Darya, and Naghma.[515]
Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by
Afghans of all backgrounds.[516] The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.[517]
Cuisine
Main article: Afghan cuisine
 Non (bread) from a local baker, the most widely
consumed bread in Afghanistan
Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat,
maize, barley and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables
as well as dairy products such as milk, yogurt, and whey. Kabuli palaw is the national
dish of Afghanistan.[518] The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and
geographic diversity.[519] Afghanistan is known for its high-quality pomegranates,
grapes, and sweet melons.[520] Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans. A typical
Afghan diet consists of naan, yogurt, rice, and meat.[475]
Literature
Main article: Poetry of Afghanistan
Classic Persian and Pashto poetry are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry
has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it
has integrated itself into culture.[521] One of the poetic styles is called landay. A
popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are Divs, monstrous
creatures.[522] Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city of Herat when men,
women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems.[523]
The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and writers from
the Middle Ages to the present day, among which three mystical authors are
considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran),
namely: Khwaja Abdullah Ansari of Herat, a great mystic and Sufi saint in the 11th
century, Sanai of Ghazni, author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and,
finally, Rumi of Balkh, in the 13th century, considered the persophonist throughout
the world as the greatest mystical poet of the entire Muslim world. The Afghan
Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last
century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the
influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main
literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves
to be sensitive to genres (novel, theater), movements and stylistic features imported
from Europe.
Khushal Khan Khattak of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other
notable poets include Rabi'a Balkhi, Jami, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah Khalili,
and Parween Pazhwak.[524]
Holidays and festivals
 Haft Mewa (Seven Fruit Syrup) is popularly
consumed during Nowruz in Afghanistan.
Afghanistan's official New Year starts with Nowruz, an ancient tradition that started
as a Zoroastrian celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual
celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at the vernal
equinox. In Afghanistan, Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as
well as holding buzkashi tournaments.[525]
Yaldā, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,[526] commemorates the ancient
goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter
solstice (čelle ye zemestān; usually falling on 20 or 21 December),[527][528] during which
families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits
watermelon and pomegranate, as well as mixed nuts.[529][530]
Religious festivals are also celebrated; as a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic
events and festivals such as Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr and Ashura are widely celebrated
annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated by the Sikh
community[531] and the Hindu festival Diwali by the Hindu community.[532]
National Independence Day is celebrated on 19 August to mark the Anglo-Afghan
Treaty of 1919 under King Amanullah Khan and the country's full
independence.[533] Several international celebrations are also officially held in
Afghanistan, such as International Workers' Day and International Women's Day.
Some regional festivals include the Pamir Festival, which celebrates the culture of
the Wakhi and Kyrgyz peoples, the Red Flower Festival (during Nowruz) in Mazar-i-
Sharif and the Damboora Festival in Bamyan Province.
Sports
Main article: Sport in Afghanistan
See also: Traditional games of Afghanistan
 The ancient national sport of Afghanistan, Buzkashi
Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the Afghan Sports
Federation. Cricket and Association football are the two most popular sports in the
country.[534][535] The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association
football, basketball, volleyball, golf, handball, boxing, taekwondo, weightlifting, bodyb
uilding, track and field, skating, bowling, snooker, chess, and other sports.
Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles at international
events. basketball team won the first team sports title at the 2010 South Asian
Games.[536] Later that year, the country's cricket team followed it with the winning
of 2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup.[537] In 2012, the country's 3x3 basketball
team won the gold medal at the 2012 Asian Beach Games. In 2013,
Afghanistan's football team followed as it won the SAFF Championship.[538]
The Afghan national cricket team, which was formed in 2001, participated in
the 2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier, 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One and
the 2010 ICC World Twenty20. It won the ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007, 2009, 2011
and 2013. The team eventually made it and played in the 2015 Cricket World
Cup.[539] The Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) is the official governing body of the
sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The Alokozay Kabul International Cricket
Ground serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other
stadiums throughout the country, including the Ghazi Amanullah Khan International
Cricket Stadium near Jalalabad. Domestically, cricket is played between teams from
different provinces.
The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in
international football since 1941.[540] The national team plays its home games at
the Ghazi Stadium in Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is governed by
the Afghanistan Football Federation. The national team has never competed or
qualified for the FIFA World Cup but has recently won an international football trophy
in 2013.[538] The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side
variation of football.
The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is buzkashi, mainly popular in
the north, but also having a following in other parts of the country.[541] It is similar
to polo, played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat
carcass.[542] The Afghan Hound (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and
was formerly used in wolf hunting. In 2002, traveler Rory Stewart reported that dogs
were still used for wolf hunting in remote areas.[543]

See also
 Afghanistan portal
 Asia portal

 Outline of Afghanistan

Explanatory notes
1. ^ The last census in Afghanistan was conducted in 1979, and was itself incomplete. Due to
the ongoing conflict in the country, no official census has been conducted since.[4]
2. ^ Other demonyms that have been used are Afghani,[9] Afghanese and Afghanistani
(see Afghans for further details)[10]
3. ^ Afghanistan is a pure autocracy, with all law ultimately originating from the supreme leader.
Consensus rule was initially used amongst the Taliban, but was phased out as the supreme
leader monopolized control in the months following the 2021 return to power.[15][16][17] There is an
advisory Leadership Council, however its role is in question as the supreme leader has not
convened it for many months (as of March 2023), and increasingly rules by decree.[18]
4. ^ /æfˈɡænɪstæn, æfˈɡɑːnɪstɑːn/ i
5. ^
 Pashto: ‫د افغانستان اسالمي امارت‬
 Dari: ‫امارت اسالمی افغانستان‬
6. ^ The Government of India regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all
of Kashmir to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is
administered by Pakistan as Gilgit-Baltistan.[27]