Introduction to Sanskrit

A Study Guide to Accompany

Michael Coulson's
Sanskrit, An Introduction to the Classical Language
(a.k.a. Teach Yourself Sanskrit)

Stephen M. Beall, Ph.D.

stephen.beall@marquette.edu

This work is licensed under a

Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

Foreword
This text is intended to accompany Sanskrit, An Introduction to the Classical Language, by Michael
Coulson. Coulson's book provides a complete overview of Sanskrit grammar, along with exercises,
vocabulary lists, and answer keys. His explanation of certain features of the language is superior, in my
opinion, to that found in other texts. Unfortunately, the book can be heavy-going for the true beginner.
Thus, I have focused this Study Guide on essential grammatical information, which I have divided into daily
units. Coulson's long vocabulary lists are partitioned here into Memorization Vocabulary, which consists of
essential, high-frequency words, and Reading Vocabulary, which need not be memorized but is necessary
to complete the exercises. I have also rewritten the Sanskrit-to-English sentences in two ways: first in
unbroken Roman type, as they would appear in a typical printed book, and again without sandhi, so that
the original forms will be easier to recognize. In some of the longer exercises I have made a selection of
sentences.

Coulson's fuller explanations, Devanagari exercises, and answer keys remain indispensable.
A PDF of the book is available here: http://www.scribd.com/doc/34076502/Teach-YourselfSanskrit. It is
also available for sale: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0844238252

Chapter 1

To read this chapter in RTF, you will need to download two TTF fonts, which can be found here:

URW Palladio CSX+ (for Romanized Sanskrit)

http://www.sanskritweb.net/fonts/#CSX RK
Sanskrit (for Devanagari)
http://reinhold.kainhofer.com/rk_fonts/

Subsequent chapters will be entirely in Romanized Sanskrit.

Day 1

The Sounds of Sanskrit

Sanskrit is usually written and printed in a script called Devanagari, '(the script of) the City of the Gods'.
This alphabet is derived from the simpler Brahmi script of ancient India, which in turn appears to be
related to the ancient Phoenician alphabet, on which the Hebrew, Arabic, Greek and Roman systems are
also based. This would explain why some Devanagari characters look like 'backward' and 'squared off'
versions of familiar letters.

Unlike our Roman alphabet, which is a random sequence of sounds, the Sanskrit writing system is
arranged according to phonetic principles. Vowels are grouped separately. Sanskrit vowels may be long or
short. As in Latin in Greek, long vowels were originally held for an instant longer than short vowels, but
this feature has disappeared from the language. The long vowels are:

Vowel Sound
à fa (in the musical scale)
ã mi
å oo
é K-ri-shna
The short vowels are:

Vowel Sound
a Americ-a
i mi
u put
ç K-ri-shna

Note that in practice, the quality of i and ç is the same, whether the quantity is long or short.
Sanskrit also has a number of diphthongs, or vowels originally composed of two vowel sounds. These are:

Diphthong Sound
e re (in the musical scale)
o do
ai re (or ai, as in aisle)
au do (or au, as in hofbrau)

E and o are written and pronounced as simple vowels, but they derive from the diphthongs ai and au, in
which a is short. Ai and au are derived from ài and àu, respectively. In modern Sanskrit pronunciation, the
long and short diphthongs have the same sound, but they have different Devanagari characters, and you
may choose to use the alternative pronunciations given above.

There is another vowel (ë), commonly pronounced 'li'. This vowel rarely occurs in Classical Sanskrit, except
in hypothetical root forms.

Now for the consonants. These are sounds produced by the 'sounding together' of various speech organs,
such as the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. Sanskrit grammarians arranged most of the consonants into
five groups. Each group contains all the sounds that are articulated in a certain part of the mouth, starting
at the opening of the throat and moving forwards toward the lips:

Name of Consonant Place of Articulation Example

Group
velar, guttural back of mouth g
palatal soft palate ch, but with tongue
placed farther back
retroflex hard palate (with a curling d, with tongue curled
of the tongue)
dental teeth d, but with tongue placed
farther foward
labial lips b

The alphabet is also divided into columns that distinguish between stops and aspirates, and between
voiced, unvoiced, and nasalized consonants. For example, the following sounds are all made in the same
place in the back of the mouth (the velar position), but they have different qualities:
unvoiced stop unvoiced voiced stop voiced aspirate nasal
aspirate
k kh g gh ng (written ï)

As aspirate is a consonant that includes a puff of air. A voiced consonant is one that is accompanied by a
vibration of the vocal cords. A nasal consonant is vibrated through the nose.

With this arrangement, the Sanskrit alphabet becomes an accurate phonetic table. Here is the entire table,
in Roman characters. As a short a is the most common vowel in Sanskrit, it is added to the consonants on
this table, for ease of pronunciation:

Group Unvoiced Unvoiced Voiced stop Voiced Nasal

stop aspirate aspirate
Velar ka kha ga gha ïa
Palatal ca cha ja jha ¤a
Retroflex ña ñha óa óha õa
Dental ta tha da dha na
Labial pa pha ba bha ma

Note that ca is pronounced like cha (as in cha-cha), but with the tongue against the soft palate. The
aspirated consonants are always pronounced as written; for example, tha is pronounced as in
'that hat', not as in 'thin' or 'there'.

Sanskrit also has a few semi-vowels. These are vowel sounds that acquire the quality of consonants when
they are placed before another vowel. The semi-vowels are:

palatal ya
retroflex ra
dental la
labial va (closer to wa)

Sanskrit possesses a row of sibilants or 'hissing' consonants, which are listed separately. These are:

velar ha
palatal ÷a
retroflex ùa
dental sa

Both ÷a and ùa sound like sha, but the palatal consonant is pronounced with the tongue curled further
back.

Finally, the Sanskrit alphabet contains two 'variable' consonants. The first is called anusvara, and it is
written in Roman as a dot under the letter m (ü). This indicates that the sound of m is nasalized before
consonants. The other 'variable' consonant is called visarga, and it is written in Roman as a letter h with a
dot under it (þ). This letter sounds like an h with a slight repetition of the preceding vowel, so that aþ
sounds like a-ha, and uþ. sounds like u-hu.

You are now familiar with all the sounds of Sanskrit, and you are ready to pronounce complete words. But
you may be wondering where to place the stress. English words often contain two or more syllables, which
are clusters of sounds around a vowel or diphthong. One of these syllables bears the weight of the voice,
as in SYL-lable and com-PLETE. Occasionally, stress distinguishes homographs, such as PER-fect and per-
FECT.

When pronouncing Sanskrit, one can follow the rules for stress used in Latin, except that in
Sanskrit the stress can fall on the fourth syllable from the end, if the second and third syllables are both
'short'. When reciting solemn texts, however, there is a tendency to stress ANY syllable that contains a
long vowel or diphthong or which ends in a consonant cluster. This gives the language an undulating
rhythm, which is pretty cool.

Exercise 1: Using the phonetic charts, pronounce the transliterated words and sentences in Exercise 1a in
Coulson.

Day 2

Reading Devanagari: Part 1

Now that you are familiar with the Sanskrit sound system, you are ready to learn the characters used in
Devanagari script. These, as you have seen, were derived from previous alphabets, including perhaps the
Phoenician alphabet, which is the foundation of the Roman and Greek writing systems. We will note the
similarities between these alphabets as we go along.

Note: It will be possible to complete this course without mastering Devanagari. But since it is a cool-
looking alphabet and it is really more logical than the Roman system, your efforts will be repaid. Moreover,
the gods will be pleased.

Coulson reviews the consonants going down the columns; we will review them going across the rows. Let's
start with the velar consonants:

    
ka kha ga gha ïa

Note that ka looks like a stylized, backward k. Kha is the same character with an additional stroke to the
left. Ga resembles a backwards Greek gamma. Gha is a gamma with a stroke added underneath. ða looks
to me (at least) like a tongue choking on something--a rather graphic reminder of the sound it represents.

Here are the palatal consonants in Devanagari:

    
ca cha ja jha ¤a
Ca resembles the Cyrillic character for the same sound (ч). The initial stroke in ja resembles the letter 'j'.
The initial stroke in ¤a, as we shall see later, resembles the Devanagari character for na with the addition
of a tilde.

Let's pause for a little practice. See if you can read these mostly fake words (the vertical stroke at the end
is equivalent to our comma).

Remember that each character includes the vowel 'a', so that  is pronounced jaja.


Now it's time to learn the retroflex consonants, which are articulated by curling the tongue on the hard
palate:

    
ña ñha óa óha õa

òa resembles the letter t; ñha closes the 'hook' at the bottom. ôa is harder to associate with another
letter, but óha is the same letter with the 'tail' curled the other way. öa looks like a backwards n.

Now try your hand at reading these combinations:


That will do for now--Benares wasn't built in a day. But this would be a good time to talk about vowels. As
you know, many ancient alphabets did not HAVE vowel signs. All the letters were consonants, and one had
to supply the vowels from conjecture or by using special signs written above and below the line. This is still
the case in Hebrew and Arabic, for example. Similarly, Devanagari usually indicates vowel sounds by
modifying the consonant signs. Here are different vowels associated with the consonant, ka:

     

ka kā ke ki kī ko

     

ku kū kai kau kç ké

Remember that the simple form of the character is pronounced ka. On those rare occasions when you
want to pronounce the k sound alone, an additional stroke must be added below ().

The mark for a long à is an additional stroke to the right of the basic character. The mark for the i sound
was originally a loop written over the character, which pointed left for the short vowel and right for the
long vowel. But eventually this loop was extended with a downward stroke, producing the graphemes you
see above. This means that when you want to write ji, you will have to leave space for the i stroke before
j. When typing, hit the i key first.
Occasionally, vowels appear alone or at the beginning of words, and so they cannot be attached to a
consonant sign. There are special forms for these situations, which we shall learn in the next unit.

Exercise 2: Read and transliterate the following combinations:



 
Read and transliterate the following words. It is not necessary to learn them. We will begin acquiring
vocabulary in Chapter 2.

 camp

 tone of voice

 one-eyed

 elephant

 strand, string

 sing

 ox, cow

 pot

 matted hair

 be awake

Day 3: Reading Devanagari, Part 2.

Today we will continue learning the characters for the consonants, going across the rows. Here are the
dental consonants, which are formed on the back of the teeth:

    
ta tha da dha na

These characters are mostly counter-intuitive, but they are so frequently seen that that they will be
assimilated quickly. Notice that da resembles óha, except that the loop extends below the tail, and that na
resembles ¤a without the tilde.

The final complete row in the Sanskrit consonant table gives the labial consonants, pronounced with the
lips:

    
pa pha ba bha ma
Note that pa resembles a backward 'p', and pha adds a loop to the right. Ba resembles the letter 'b'. Ma
looks like the Greek letter mu.

Again, let's pause for a little practice:


The semi-vowels are fairly easy to learn:

   
ya ra la va

Ya looks like a 'y'. Ra resembles a cursive 'r', turned on its side. La looks like a stylized lambda, turned
backwards. Va resembles the character for ba without a line through the loop.

The sibilants are also quite distinctive:

   
÷a ùa sa ha

Sa may remind you of the Hebrew letter samekh or its Greek equivalent, sigma. Ha looks like an h gone
wild.

Here is a little practice with the semi-vowels and sibilants:


You have probably already noticed that some Devanagari characters resemble others, leading to potential
confusion in reading. This is not much of a problem when the similar characters belong to the same
consonant group; you can learn them as variants of each other. But occasionally similar characters come
from different groups, with quite different sound-values. Here is a table of the most troublesome look-
alikes:

   
gha dha tha bha

   
ïa óa óha da

I mentioned in the last class that there are special characters for vowels when they appear at the
beginning of words or by themselves. In general, they appear as stylized versions of the simple vowel signs
you have already learned:
           
a à e i ã o u å ai au ç é

A stylized form of the AU character appears in the symbol for the sacred word AUM

(pronounced OM): .
Sanskrit is a full-bodied language, and consonants are often combined without an intervening vowel, as in
the words Sa-nsk-rit and E-ngl-ish. To mark these combinations, writers of Sanskrit devised various special
graphs, which for the most part show the two letters attached to each other. One way of combining them
is to write only the characteristic element of the first letter, and to join it to the second:

 kçùna

 tatvamasi ('thou art that')

Note that in the first example, the character is ùa is abbreviated before the full character for õa; in the
second, ta is abbreviated before va. This is the most convenient method for printing and typing. But for
many centuries Sanskrit was written by hand, and it was often easier to write one character above the
other, producing combinations such as these:

  
ùña dva ïga

Because they are common and traditional in manuscripts, these junctures often show up in printed books,
as well. Coulson gives you a comprehensive list at the end of the chapter. Most are fairly easy to decipher,
although there are a few tricky ones, such as these:

     
÷va dya tta kta kùa hva

Fortunately, all the exercises in Coulson's book are transliterated, so that you can check or complete your
decipherment of Devanagari as needed.

There are two other common signs for conjunct consonants. When 'r' follows a vowel and precedes a
consonant, it is written as a loop above the following consonant:

 sårya (sun)

 àcàrya (teacher)

When 'r' follows a consonant and precedes a vowel, it is written as a diagonal stroke on the preceding
consonant:

  
pra gra tra
Finally, the character for anusvara (ü) is a dot above the line, and for visargha (þ) it is a colon:

 vanaü (forest)

 àcàryaþ (teacher)

Exercise 3: From the answer key in the back of the book, read and transliterate the words in Devanagari
script for Coulson, Exercise 1a. Do not try to read the longer sentences. After that, read and transliterate
the words in Exercise 1b, again skipping the sentences at the end of the exercise. Check your answers
against the key in the back of the book.

Chapter 2

Day 1

Verb Classes and the Present Tense

The classification of Sanskrit verbs appears at first glance to be a complicated mess, but the principles are
quite simple. The ten classes of Sanskrit verbs are distinguished by the way they form the stem of the
present tense.

Coulson begins by setting out the system of vowel gradation used in Sanskrit verbal formations. This may
look like one of his learned digressions, but the chart will come in handy as we learn various forms over
time. Here is how it works.

Every verb has a root form, which is found in dictionaries but never in actual Sanskrit. The root is a
'grammatical fiction' used to identify the common, underlying element in the forms that actually occur.
For example, the root bhç is the point of reference for the participle bhçta (carried), the present tense
bharati (he carries), and the perfect tense babhàra (he carried). These forms show a lengthening of the
vowel ç in bhç to ar in bharati and to àr in babhàra. Here we see the three grades of a Sanskrit verbal root:
basic (ç), guõa (ar), and vçddhi (àr).

The guõa grade is the real anchor of the verbal system. It shows a root vowel that can be shortened or
lengthened to produce various forms. Here, for quick reference, is Coulson's chart, with the guõa vowels
in the middle:

basic grade a, à i, ã u, å ç, é ë
guõa a e o ar al
vçddhi à ai au àr àl

The chart will help us to see the relationship between the root and present tense forms of the three
classes studied in this chapter.

What distinguishes verbs of Class 1 is that the guõa grade of the root is linked to the personal ending by a
stem vowel, a. (This vowel is equivalent to the epsilon and omicron in Greek verbs, such as lu/-e-i, lu/-o-
men.) For example, the form ÷ocati (he grieves) is derived from the root form ÷uc as follows:

root in guõa grade stem vowel personal ending (he...)

÷oc a ti

If the vowel in the basic grade of the root is long, or if it is short but followed by two or more consonants,
the root remains unchanged in the present tense. An example is jãvati (he lives), from the root jãv:

jãv a ti

If the root ends in one of the diphthongs e, ai, or o, a semivowel (y or v) is inserted for a smoother
transition:

jay (< jai) a ti (he conquers)

Just to add to the fun, there are a few irregular formations in this class:

gacch (< gam) a ti (he goes)

tiùñh (< sthà) a ti (he stands)

In class 6, the stem vowel a is added to the basic grade of the root:

likh (< likh) a ti (he writes)

In class 4, ya (rather than a) is regularly added to the basic grade of the root:

nçt (< nçt) ya ti (he dances)

Because there are variations even within a single class, most Sanskrit textbooks give the present tense
form after the root as a kind of principal part. You can use either the root or the presenttense form to look
up words in online Sanskrit dictionaries, such as Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site. For the purposes of this
course, it is not necessary to memorize the class of each verb.

So far, we have been looking at verbs in the third person, singular (he, she, it, [noun]...). An entire
conjugation table looks like this:

1st Person Singular nayàmi I lead

2nd nayasi you lead
3rd nayati he leads
st
1 Person Dual nayàvaþ we two lead
2nd nayathaþ you two lead
3rd nayataþ those two lead
st
1 Person Plural nayàmaþ we lead
2nd nayatha y'all lead
3rd nayanti they lead

If you have studied Latin, Greek, or any other Indo-European language, the Sanskrit personal endings will
look eerily familiar. Here is a table of cognate endings:
Sanskrit Greek (-mi verbs) Latin Early Modern
English
mi mi m m (am)
si v s st (seekest)
ti si t th (seeketh)
vaþ
thaþ
taþ
maþ men mus
tha te tis
[a]nti asi nt

Note that in Sanskrit, the present tense covers both simple and continuous action (he leads, he is leading),
as well as immediate intention (I am going now; let us go). Your translation will depend on the context.

Vocabulary

One of the charges against Coulson's book is that after the first few chapters he incorporates an
exceptionally large vocabulary, thus adding to the burden of memorization. In this course, we will
distinguish between high-frequency 'memorization' vocabulary and less common words. You should
memorize the former, but only look over the latter. You can use Coulson's vocabulary and answer keys to
remind you of less common words. On tests, words outside of the 'memorization' category will be
supplied for you.

As an aid to the memory, I have listed Indo-European cognates in the third column. Use these ONLY if they
help you to remember the Sanskrit words.

Memorization Vocabulary

anã (I, anayati) bring

iù (VI, icchati) wish
upavi÷ (I, upavi÷ati) sit down
gam (I, gacchati) go
nã (I, nayati) lead, take
nçt (IV, nçtyati) dance
vas (I, vasati) live, dwell
likh (VI, likhati) write

atra here
api also, too, even
evam thus, so
katham how? what?!
kva where?
na not
tatra there, to there

Reading Vocabulary

gai (I, gayati) sing

brahm (I, bhramati) wander, be confused
÷uc (I, ÷ocati) grieve

adya today
adhunà now
itaþ from here, this way

In addition to the vocabulary lists for this chapter, Coulson mentions a few very common words that serve
as conjunctions and as question or quotation markers.

The first of these is ca (and), which corresponds to Latin -que and Greek te. Like the Latin conjunction, it
occurs at the end of a sequence:

÷ocati madyati ca cf. Lat. moeret gaudetque He grieves and rejoices

In a longer sequence, ca may come after the last word. But it can also be attached to all the words in a
sequence: ÷ocati ca madyati ca.

A common interrogative in Sanskrit is kim. Like the Greek interrogative ti/, it can mean either 'what?' or
'why?'.

kim pçcchati. What does he ask? Why does he ask?

Yes/No questions in Sanskrit may also be marked by kim, but they are more commonly introduced by api.

api gacchati. Is he going?

Finally, notice that three of the question words in this lesson begin with k: kim (what, why), kva
(where) and katham (how). The letter k in Sanskrit corresponds to qu in Latin, t in Greek, and wh
(originally hw) in English. Demonstrative adverbs often begin with t, as in tatra (there); cf. Latin tum
(then), Greek tou~to (this), and English there.

Exercise 1 (Selected from Coulson 2b and 2c). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English
or from English to Sanskrit. The appendices in Coulson's book include answer keys and transliterations
from Devanagari to Roman. When you write in Sanskrit, do not worry about joining words together. We
will discuss that in Day 2.

1. gacchàmi. 4. adhunà kva vasatha? 5. evam icchasi? 8. atra kim ànayataþ [bring]? 9. pa÷yàmi likhàmi ca.
12. smaranti ca ÷ocanti ca.
1. You are wandering. 2. Now we understand [avagam, avagacchati; mor on this in Day 2). 3. There too
she dances. 4. The two of you live here? 6. Let us two sit down. 5. What, are they winning? 9. What shall I
write here? 12. They come and go.

Day 2

Verbal Prefixes; Negation; Sandhi Rules

Like other Indo-European languages, Sanskrit builds vocabulary by adding prefixes to verbal roots. Here
are some examples:

Prefix Verb Meaning

-- gacchati he goes
à- àgacchati he comes
ava- avagacchati he understands

Sometimes, the prefix merely intensifies the verbal idea. At other times, the simple and compound forms
have the same meaning:

Prefix Verb Meaning

-- vi÷ati he enters
pra pravi÷ati he enters

Negation in Sanskrit is simple: one adds the negative particle na before the positive form of the verb:

na gacchati he does not go

The rest of Coulson's chapter is devoted to the rather complicated rules of sandhi. This term denotes the
sound changes that result from the combination of significant elements of speech. Sandhi happens all the
time in English, but we seldom notice it. Here is an example:

Prefix Simple Word Compound

in finite infinite
in possible impossible

The normal form of the prefix is in-, but it changes to im- before the letter p, which is a labial consonant.
This is easier to pronounce than *inpossible, which requires an awkward jump from the hard palate to the
lips. Here we have an example of internal sandhi, a change that takes place inside a word.

In English, moreover, we often make subtle changes between words to effect smoother transitions in
speech. These changes often escape our notice because they are not reflected in spelling. In one of his
novels, J.D. Salinger includes the following conversation:

Jeat?
Huh?
I said, 'Did you eat?'
The humor is based on the fact that in the Northeastern United States, the initial y of you changes the final
d in did to j (a phenomenon called palatalization). The palatalized j then swallows up the initial d and the
short vowel in did. On top of that, the vowels in ja and eat elide, producing jeat.

English spelling does not reflect these changes, for a good reason. In the absence of pragmatic clues, such
as the proximity of a delicatessen, readers would not recognize the original words. Sanskrit scribes, on the
other hand, placed great emphasis on fidelity to the sounds of actual speech, especially in ritual contexts.
Thus, sound changes are faithfully reflected in Sanskrit writing, and this sometimes conceals the words
and forms that are being employed.

Sanskrit textbooks take various approaches to the complicated rules of sandhi between words. Coulson
figures that students will pick up the rules from experience. Thus, he is content to provide tables that you
they can use to decipher combinations encountered in reading or to anticipate changes required in
writing. We will follow his approach, with this difference:
sentences will be given first with sandhi, and then without. For the moment, however, it will help to make
a quick overview of the phenomenon.

A simple type of sandhi occurs when one word ends in a vowel and another begins with a vowel. This can
result in confusion between the vowels or an awkward pause between them (hiatus). To avoid this, one
can blend the two vowels or change one or more of them to make the transition smoother. For example,
the combination tatra iva becomes tatreva; vane eva becomes vana iva.
Many of the combinations will make sense if you recall that e and o correspond to a+i and a+u,
respectively; ai and au result from à+i and à+u. When you use the chart, find the coordinate between the
final vowel of the first word (left column) and the initial vowel of the second word (top row), and you have
the resulting combination.

Most sandhi rules pertain to the combination of two consonants (e.g., tat + ÷arãram = taccharãram).
These rules will usually make sense if you pronounce the two words together without sandhi and attend to
the resulting sound. Sandhi often involves assimilation, by which one of the consonants is made to
resemble the other in its place of articulation (cf. impossible: in- becomes im-, because m and p are both
pronounced on the lips).

Some of the most complicated rules apply to nouns ending in þ. ÿ frequently takes the place of a final -s
(a÷vaþ, from a÷vas, horse; cf. equus) or a final -r (màtaþ from màtar, mother; cf. mhth/r, mater). Since þ is
a weak sound, it sometimes drops out altogether: a÷vaþ asti (the horse is) becomes a÷vo'sti.

Sanskrit writing often presents long strings of characters that comprise several words. For Indian scribes,
the important divisions were between syllables and between sentences. It was assumed that a skilled
reader could divide the words for himself. Thus, when a word ends in a consonant and there is no
following pause, it is written together with the following word, in order to produce a complete syllable:

kim + ànayati kimànayati. What is he bringing?

kim + evam + vanam + kimevaü vanamàgacchàmi. Why then do I come into the
àgacchami forest?
tat + tvam + asi tattvamasi. Thou art that.

There is a word break, however, after anusvara and visarga:

kim + pçcchàmi kiü pçcchàmi. What am I asking?

Sandhi often creates additional junctures between words:

vadati + iti vadatãti. He says (thus).

In the Exercises in this Study Guide, sentences will be given first with sandhi and with the traditional
spacing, then without sandhi and a space between individual words.

Vocabulary

Another very useful word is iti (thus). It is used to mark the end of a direct quotation. Sanskrit does not
use quotation marks.

àgacchàma iti vadanti (àgacchàmaþ iti 'We are coming' (thus) they say.
vadanti).

Two other adverbs in the vocabulary are placed after the words they modify. They are api (when it means
'also, too, even') and punar (when it means 'but').

Memorization Vocabulary

avagam (I, avagacchati) understand

àgam (I, àgacchati) come
ji (I, jayati) win, conquer
jãv (I, jãvati) live
dç÷ (I, pa÷yati) see, look at
prach (VI, pçcchati) ask
vad (I, vadati) speak, say
sthà (I, tiùñhati) stand
smç (I, smarati) remember

punar again, however

punar api yet again, once more

Reading Vocabulary

pravi÷ (I, pravi÷ati) enter (=go before)

mad (IV, madyati) rejoice

Exercise 2a (Coulson 2a): Use the sandhi charts in Coulson's book to complete the following combinations.

1. svairam tamasi i÷varasya a÷vau durjanàþ ÷astraiþ ciràt mu¤canti ra÷mibhyaþ eva.
3. svairam eva i÷varasya mu¤canti a÷vau ÷astraiþ durjanàþ ciràt tamasi ra÷mibhyaþ.

Exercise 2b (Coulson 2b and 2c): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English
to Sanskrit.

2. atra na pravi÷àmaþ. 3. punarapi likhati (punar api likhati). 6. kvapunastiùñhanti (kva punar tiùñhanti?).
7. kathamita àgacchati (katham itaþ àgacchati?). 11. nçtyatho gayatha÷ca (nçtyathaþ gayathaþ ca). 13. atra
pravi÷àva iti vadataþ (atra pravi÷àvaþ iti vadataþ). 14. adhunàpi kathaü nàgacchati (adhunà api kathaü na
àgacchati?). 15. jayàmãti madyàmi (jayàmã iti madyàmi). 16. na jãvantãti ÷ocàmaþ (na jãvanti iti
÷ocàmaþ).

7. The two of them do not say so. 8. Are you asking yet again? 10. Do you not see? 13. Now she both lives
and grieves. 14. He sees and seems to speak. 15. 'What do you [pl.] want?' they ask.
16. We go because they are coming. 17. However, we do not rejoice. 18. So also do the two of us
remember. What do you remember? That he is not coming today.

Chapter 3

Day 1

Nominative and Accusative Cases; Nouns and Pronouns

Sanskrit, like Greek and Latin, uses case-endings to indicate the roles that nouns and pronouns play in
sentences. Classical Sanskrit is somewhat less dependent on this system than other languages, because of
its extraordinary flexibility in the creation of compound forms. More on that later.

In this chapter, Coulson introduces the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases. They are used in pretty
much the same way as in Latin and Greek.

Case Uses English Examples

Nominative Subject Shiva dances. Arjuna
Complement (Predicate) is a warrior.
Vocative Direct Address Hey Rama!
Accusative Direct Object Arjuna asks Krishna.
Goal, Destination Krishna goes to the forest.

In this lesson, you will learn the nominative, vocative, and accusative forms of some common nouns.

You may recall that in Greek and Latin, the so-called Second Declension contains masculine nouns in -oj/us
and neuter nouns in --on/-um. What they all have in common is the stem-vowel
o. There are corresponding forms in Sanskrit, exemplified by a÷vaþ (horse) and phalam (fruit). For all such
nouns, the stem form ends in a.

Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter)

Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam
Vocative a÷va phalam
Accusative a÷vam phalam
Dual Nominative a÷vau phale
Vocative a÷vau phale
Accusative a÷vau phale
Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni
Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni
Accusative a÷vàn phalàni

Notice that neuter nouns have the same form in all three cases of each number. This happens in Latin and
Greek, as well.

The dual ending -e (as in phale) is not subject to sandhi. This is also true of dual forms ending in -i and -u,
which we shall meet later.

There are also many adjectives built on the -a stem and sharing the endings you see above. Adjectives
agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case:

÷ãgrava÷vau (÷ãgrau a÷vau) [two] swift horses

Evidently, Coulson thought that learning these paradigms alone would be too easy! And so he throws in
some personal pronouns for good measure. As in Latin, Greek, and English, the forms of pronouns are
somewhat irregular. But they should also seem vaguely familiar:

Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You)

Singular Nominative aham (I) tvam (you, thou)
Accusative màm (me) tvàm (you, thee)
Dual Nominative àvàm (we two) yuvàm (you two)
Accusative àvàm (us too) yuvàm (you two)
Plural Nominative vayam (we) yåyam (y'all, ye)
Accusative asmàn (us) yuùmàn (y'all, you)

Note the resemblance of these forms to English pronouns such as me (màm), we (vayam), thee (tvàm), us
(asmàn), and you (yåyam).

There are also third-person pronouns (he, she, it, they, that one, those ones). In this lesson, you will learn
the masculine and neuter forms:

Gender of Pronoun Masculine Neuter

Singular Nominative sa, saþ tat
Accusative tam tat
Dual Nominative tau te
Accusative tau te
Plural Nominative te tàni
Accusative tàn tàni
The masculine forms are related to the definite article in Greek (o9, to/n). In the neuter column, tat will
remind you of English that. The final t is also related to the d in Latin pronouns such as id and illud.

Saþ is the regular form in the nominative singular, but it becomes sa before all consonants and before all
vowels except (short) a.

While we're at it, why not look at the interrogative pronoun (who? what?)?

Gender of Pronoun Masculine Neuter

Singular Nominative kaþ kim
Accusative kam kim
Dual Nominative kau ke
Accusative kau ke
Plural Nominative ke kàni
Accusative kàn kàni

These forms closely resemble the personal pronouns saþ, etc., except that the initial letter is k. As we
have seen, kw was the sound in Proto-Indo-European that marked questions. It became qu in Latin, t in
Greek, and wh (originally hw) in English.

We have seen that Sanskrit employs the cases in pretty much the same ways as in Greek and Latin, but
there are a few surprises:

vanaü gacchàmi. I go to the forest.

vanaü tvàü nayàmi. I lead you to the forest.
tat tvàü vadàmi. I say this to you.

For comparison, recall the Latin phrases Romam contendo (I am going to Rome) and haec te doceo (I teach
these things to you; I teach you these things).

See Coulson for other notes on usage. One of the most important points is that Indo-European languages
tend to treat substantives (nouns and pronouns) and attributives (adjectives) as pretty much the same
thing. This is why it is so easy to turn an adjective into a noun (e.g., the Romans). Likewise, demonstratives
can function either as pronouns or as adjectives (I am waiting for those; I am waiting for those things).
Thus, in Sanskrit, saþ and kaþ can also be used to modify a noun:

taü ÷iùyam icchanti. They want that pupil.

kaþ ÷iùya evaü vadati. (kaþ ÷iùyaþ evam Which pupil says so?
vadati?)

Occasionally, saþ is even used as a definite article (the); this is normally not required in Sanskrit.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary
(Masculine nouns end in þ, neuter nouns in m.)

àcàryaþ teacher
a÷vaþ horse
kùetram field
krodhaþ anger
gajaþ elephant
candraþ moon
jalam water
paõóitah scholar
bàlaþ boy
bhojanam food
vanam wood, forest
÷iùyaþ pupil
sukham happiness
suryaþ sun

Reading Vocabulary

parvataþ mountain
braþmaõaþ brahmin

Exercise 1 (From Coulson, 3a and 3b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from
English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.

1. àcàryaü ÷iùyà ànayanti (àcàryaü ÷iùyàþ ànayanti). 2. apia÷vànicchasi (api a÷vàn icchasi?). 4. sukham ko
necchati (sukham kaþ na icchati?). 7. kastvamiti màü pçcchataþ (kaþ tvam iti màm pçcchataþ).

1. We want water and food. 3. Scholars, what do you want? 5. Which two teachers do you see? 8. Teacher,
what brahmin is coming this way? 15. Why do you [pl.] say that he does not want happiness? 16. They are
taking the elephant to the field.

Day 2

Nominal Sentences; Word Order; Iva

A nominal sentence may also be called a linking sentence, in which two elements are being equated:

That man is wise. That man is Arjuna.

These sentences consist of a subject (that man) and a complement (also called a predicate: wise, Arjuna).
The latter may be a substantive (Arjuna) or a predicate adjective (wise). In Sanskrit, one normally omits
the linking verb, and the complement may be placed first:
ramanãyo bàlaþ (ramanãyaþ bàlaþ). Pleasant [is] the child. The
child is pleasant.

svalpaü sukhaü krodhaþ. A small pleasure [is] anger. Anger is a

small pleasure.

This construction is also common in Greek:

sofo/j o9 a0/nqrwpoj. Wise [is] the man. The

man is wise.

If the subject is a demonstrative pronoun, it reflects the gender and number of the predicate:

suryaþ saþ. The sun [is] that. That is

the sun.

The predicate of a linking sentence may also be adverbial:

evaü sarvadà sukhàni. Ever thus [are] joys. Joys

are ever thus.

These sentences are a good illustration of the principles of word-order in Sanskrit. Like Latin and Greek,
Sanskrit allows variable word order:

bàlaþ pa÷yati. pa÷yati The child sees.

bàlaþ

Nevertheless, word order tends to reflect emphasis. The most emphatic word comes first. Sanskrit
nominal sentences often strike us as inverted, because English tends to put the emphatic word at the end:

ramanãyo bàlaþ (ramanãyaþ bàlaþ). The child is pleasant.

For the same reason, modifiers (adjectives and adverbs) tend to come before the words they modify:

ramanãyo bàlo'dya gacchati (ramanãyaþ The pleasant child goes today.

bàlaþ adya gacchati).

A number of words, however, behave enclitically, which is to say that they attach themselves to the end of
the word(s) that they qualify. You have already met iti (thus). Another such word is iva (like, as if):

àcàrya iva ÷iùyo màü pçcchati (acàryaþ iva The pupil is questioning me like a teacher
÷iùyaþ màü pçcchati). (teacher-like).

àcàryamiva màü ÷iùyaþ pçcchati.(àcàryam The pupil is questioning me as if I were a

iva màü ÷iùyaþ pçcchati.) teacher (teacher-like).
In these examples the case of teacher indicates an implied comparison, either with the pupil (in the first
example) or with me (in the second). In nominal sentences, iva can also be used to make 'equal
comparisons':

ahamiva ÷unyamaraõyam (aham iva I-like the forest is desolate.

÷unyam araõyam). The forest is as desolate as I.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary (adjectives are given in their stem form)

janaþ person, people

naraþ man
duþkham pain, sorrow
ramaõãya pleasant
vacanam word, speech
vismita astonished
֋ghra swift
÷obhana bright, beautiful
svalpa small, scant

Exercise 2 (Coulson 3a and 3b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English
to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.

5. svalpaü bhojanam. 10. ÷ãgraü vacanaü nàvagacchàmaþ (...na avagacchàmaþ). 11. àcàrya parvata iva sa
gajaþ (àcàrya, parvataþ iva saþ gajaþ). 13. kiü ÷iùyà yåyam (kim ÷iùyàþ yåyam).
15. ramaõãyamadhunà tatphalamiti vismità vadanti (ramaõãyam adhunà tat phalam iti vismitàþ vadanti).
16. kathamatràpi bàlàþ (katham atra api bàlàþ).

2. The two of them see a swift horse. 4. Anger conquers you as if [you were] a child. 6. The moon is as
bright as the sun today. 9. What is the advantage in this [here]? 7. Is he pleasant? 10. Children, where is
that teacher? 13. Are the teachers astonished?

Day 3

Coordinative (Dvandva) Compounds

One of the best features of Coulson's textbook is his straightforward explanation of compound formations.
These are a distinguishing feature of Sanskrit stylistics, especially in the Classical period.

English also uses compound forms a great deal. Most of these are what we shall call determinative
compounds, where the first element limits the second:

wife-beater a beater of wives

magazine stand a stand for magazines
English often marks compounds by joining them with a hyphen, but it does not always do so (e.g.,
magazine stand). Sanskrit, on the other hand, always marks the first element of a compound by using the
stem form, which is uninflected:

sarva + dç÷ = sarvadç÷ all-seeing, seeing all

We shall see more examples of this type of compound, which is extremely common in Sanskrit, in a later
chapter. In Chapter 2, Coulson introduces a type of compound which is unknown in English. It combines
substantives into a group without the use of a conjunction, such as ca. This is called a coordinative or
dvandva ('two-two') compound.

Phrase Using Conjunction Coordinate Compound Meaning

a÷vogaja÷ca (a÷vaþ a÷vagajau a horse and an elephant
gajaþ ca)

Note that the compound, which means 'horse + elephant', takes the dual ending au because the new
word signifies two critters. If the total number amounts to three or more, the plural ending is used:

àcàrya÷iùyàþ the teacher and the students

Because the first element is given in its invariable stem form, one cannot always tell its original number:

àcàrya÷iùyàþ the teacher and the students OR

the teachers and the students

The final element always determines the gender of the compound. Its case is determined by its function in
the sentence.

àcàrya÷iùyàn pa÷yàmi. I see the teacher and the students.

One can also link together as many words as one likes, creating a virtual circus parade:

a÷vagajamçgasçgàlàþ horses, elephants, deer, and jackals

Exercise 3a. Translate the following phrases and sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to
Sanskrit. In this exercise, don't worry about sandhi. This exercise is not in Coulson, so there is no answer
key (!).

1. candrasuryau. 2. àcàryapaõóitàþ. 3. janagajàþ. 4. jalaphalàni. 5. àcàryabrahmaõàn pa÷yàmi. 6.

àcàrya÷iùyau tat vadataþ.

1. the elephant and the teacher. 2. the elephant and the teachers. 3. the elephants and the teachers. 4.
pleasures and pains. 5. men and boys. 6. I see the man and the horse. 7. The men and the horses see me.

Exercise 3b (Coulson, 3a and 3b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English, or from
English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.
3. ahaü suryacandrau pa÷yàmi. 6. jalama÷vànnaro nayati (jalam a÷vàn naraþ nayati). 8. kiü parvataü
paõóito gacchati (kiü parvataü paõóitaþ gacchati). 9. atra krodho na vasatãti vanaü pravi÷ataþ (atra
krodhaþ na vasati iti vanaü pravi÷ataþ). 12. kiü punaþ pçcchàmi (kiü punar pçcchàmi). 14. jalaü narabàlàþ
pravi÷anti. 18. bàlà atra kiü sukhaü pa÷yatheti ÷iùyànàcàryo vadati (bàlàþ atra kim sukham pa÷yatha iti
÷iùyàn àcàryaþ vadati).

11. Do you not remember even pleasant words? 12. We see scant advantage. 14. The two boys see fields,
mountains, and forests. 17. But where the food [is], you do not tell me. (Use iti). 18. That man is speaking
to the astonished people like a Brahmin.

Chapter 4

Day 1

Past Participles

The past participle is one of the most important critters in Sanskrit. It corresponds, both in form and
usage, to the English past participle (e.g, remembered, written, sunken). It might be more accurately called
the 'perfect participle', since it denotes a completed action, rather than one necessarily performed in the
past. For transitive verbs, the past participle is usually understood as passive.

The forms of the past participle are fairly easy to recognize. The standard suffixes are -ta, -ita, and -na
(corresponding to -ed in remembered and -en in sunken). These are added to the basic grade of the root,
which is sometimes reduced to a weaker vowel (e.g., a becomes i). Since the form of the participle is not
always predictable, it is usually given in dictionaries after the root and present tense forms (e.g., sthà,
tiùñhati, sthita). Here are some examples:

Root Past Participle Meaning

gam gata gone
gai gãta sung
jai jita conquered, beaten
jãv jãvita lived
dç÷ dç÷ta seen
nã nãta led
vad udita said, spoken
sthà sthita stood
smç smçta remembered
nçt nçtta danced
mad matta rejoiced
pravi÷ praviùña entered
likh likhita read
iù iùña desired
A participle is a verbal adjective. As such, it can be used as an attributive (sunken treasure) or as a
predicate (his name is remembered).

iùtaü phalam na pa÷yàmi. I do not see the desired reward.

jito (jitaþ) Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasaþ is beaten.

Either way, the past participle agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun it describes. It has the
same forms as adjectives such as ÷ãgra and ramaõãya.

Sanskrit has a much higher tolerance for passive forms, including the past participle, than does English. It
is not unusual to see sentences like this:

kiü dçùtaü tatudyànam. Has that garden been seen [by you]? Have
you seen that garden?

When the agent (do-er) of the action has to be expressed, the instrumental case is used. We will learn it in
the next section.

Sometimes, the participle appears in nominal sentences without a subject. The subject must be inferred
from the form of the participle:

hanta, na gataþ. Oh, he has not gone!

hanta, na gatàþ. Oh, they have not gone!

The past participle of transitive verbs (i.e., verbs that take a direct object, such as beat) is usually
understood as passive. The participle of intransitive verbs (such as go) is understood as active:

jito (jitaþ) Ràkùasaþ. Ràkùasaþ is beaten.

gato (gataþ) Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasaþ has gone.

This is the case in English, as well. There are some past participles, however, which admit both an active
and a passive sense:

Ràmo (Ràmaþ) praviùñaþ. Rama has entered.

nagaram praviùñam. The city has been entered.

When api follows a participle, it gives it concessive force (although...; cf. Greek kai/toi):

iùñàþ api paõóitàþ na àgacchanti. Though wanted, the pundits do not come.
Even though we want the pundits, they do
not come.

Vocabulary

In addition to the words in the vocabulary lists, Coulson mentions some common idioms. One of these is
eva, which serves mainly to emphasize (underscore) the word before it:
svalpànyevecchàmaþ (svalpàni eva We want the small ones.
icchàmaþ).

Using italics and adding stress to the voice are probably the best 'default' strategies for translating eva.
Coulson mentions some other English equivalents, such as just:

bàla eva saþ (bàlaþ eva saþ). He is a child.

He is just a child.

Another useful word is the pronoun/adjective eùaþ (this). It has the same endings as saþ. Eùaþ has a
strong deictic (pointing) force, meaning 'this here' or even 'see':'

eùa Ràmo bàlànànayati (eùaþ Ràmaþ This here Rama brings the children.
bàlàn ànayati). See, Rama brings the children.

It can even be used in the latter sense with first- and second-person verbs:

eùa udyànaü pravi÷àmi (eùaþ udyànaü This here I go into the garden.
praviֈmi). See, I am going into the garden.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

gçham house (masc. in plural)

devaþ god, his majesty
nagaram city, town
putraþ son

dåra far off

pari÷rànta exhausted, tired
prathama first

eva in fact, actually, quite,

only, the very
eùaþ this (here)
prathamam already
he O!

Reading Vocabulary

adbhuta extraordinary, marvelous

avasaraþ opportunity, occasion
udyànam garden, park
Exercise 1 (Coulson 4a, 4b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to
Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.

2. etadudyànaü pravi÷àmaþ (etat udyànam pravi÷àmaþ). 5. ka eva gçhamàgacchati (kaþ eva gçham
àgacchati?). 7. dçùtamavagataü ca (dçùtam avagatam ca). 9. dårameva nagaraü vayaü ca pari÷ràntà
bhramàmaþ (...pari÷ràntàþ bramàmaþ). 12. putràþ sa evaiùovasaraþ (putràþ, sa eva eùaþ avasaraþ). 13.
ete vayaü nagaramàgatàþ (ete vayam nagaram àgatàþ). 15. he paõóita tvama÷vaü kva nayasãti pçùtopi
vacanaü na vadati (he paõóita, tvam a÷vaü kva nayasi iti pçùtaþ api vacanaü na vadati).

1. Your majesty is tired; let us sit down here. 3. This is quite beautiful. 4. He remembers [his] son although
he has gone to the forest. 8. What is extraordinary in this? I have already seen this man.
9. See, his majesty Candragupta has actually arrived.

Day 2

Instrumental Case, Saha

As we saw in the last section, Sanskrit has a high tolerance for passive constructions with the past
participle. Where English prefers the straightforward construction subject + active verb + object (Rama
sees the elephant), Sanskrit will often supply subject + passive verb + agent (The elephant is seen by
Rama).

In Sanskrit, both agency (by whom a thing is done) and means (with what a thing is done) are expressed in
the instrumental case. This case existed in Proto-Indo-European, but its functions were absorbed by the
ablative case in Latin and by the dative and genitive cases in Greek. You will find traces of it in some of the
forms used in those languages.

Here is an expanded paradigm of a÷va and phalam, incorporating the instrumental case:

Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter)

Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam

Vocative a÷va phalam
Accusative a÷vam phalam
Instrumental a÷vena phalena

Dual Nominative a÷vau phale

Vocative a÷vau phale
Accusative a÷vau phale
Instrumental a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm

Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni

Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni
Accusative a÷vàn phalàni
Instrumental a÷vaiþ phalaiþ
Note that the plural ending (iþ) corresponds to -is in Latin and -ij in Greek. The ending -ena becomes -eõa
if it is preceded by r or ç.

These endings are also added to adjectives with a stem form ending in -a, such as ֋ghra. As always,
adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case:

÷ãghreõà÷vena (÷ãghreõa a÷vena) with a swift horse

The instrumental forms of pronouns should also be learned now.

Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You)

Singular Nominative aham tvam

Accusative màm tvàm
Instrumental mayà tvayà

Dual Nominative àvàm yuvàm

Accusative àvàm yuvàm
Instrumental àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm

Plural Nominative vayam yåyam

Accusative asmàn yuùmàn
Instrumental asmàbhiþ yuùmàbhiþ

Person/Gender of Pronoun 3rd Masculine (He...) 3rd Neuter (It...)

Singular Nominative sa, saþ tat

Accusative tam tat
Instrumental tena tena

Dual Nominative tau te

Accusative tau te
Instrumental tàbhyàm tàbhyàm

Plural Nominative te tàni

Accusative tàn tàni
Instrumental taiþ taiþ

Gender of Pronoun Masculine (Who...?) Neuter (What...?)

Singular Nominative kaþ kim

Accusative kam kim
Instrumental kena kena

Dual Nominative kau ke

Accusative kau ke
Instrumental kàbhyàm kàbhyàm

Plural Nominative ke kàni

Accusative kàn kàni
Instrumental kaiþ kaiþ

Note that the 3rd-person and interrogative pronouns have the same endings as nouns and adjectives with
a stem-form ending in -a. The ending à in mayà, etc., and the ending -bhiþ in asmàbhiþ, etc., are also
common instrumental forms, which we shall meet again later.

The instrumental case is equivalent to English prepositional phrases using with..., by..... As we have seen, it
denotes both agency (by whom) and means (with what, by means of what):

jalenà÷vànsi¤cati (jalena à÷vàn si¤cati). He sprinkles the horses with water.

jito Ràkùasa÷càõakyena (jitaþ Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasa is beaten by Càõaka.
Càõakyena).

It can also be used to signify accompaniment (with, together with):

bàlairàgacchati (bàlaiþ àgacchati). He is coming with the children.

When it indicates accompaniment, however, the instrumental noun usually appears with the 'preposition'
saha (cf. Slavonic съ and Greek su/n), which typically comes after the noun:

bàlaiþ sahàgacchati (bàlaiþ saha àgacchati). He is coming with the children.

The instrumental case can also be used to indicate manner (how? in what manner?).

viùàdena calati. He moves with dejection (dejectedly).

In this sense, the instrumental can often be translated with an English adverb (dejectedly).

Sanskrit also has real adverbs. Coulson notes that they are not marked by a special suffix, analogous to
Latin -e (pulchre, beautifully) and Greek -wj (kalw~j). Instead, they take the accusative neuter singular
form of the corresponding adjective:

÷ãghraü calati. He moves swiftly.

This older way of creating adverbs survives in some Greek and Latin forms (e.g. multum, polu/, much).
Coulson concludes this chapter with a rather long essay on internal sandhi, meaning the sound changes
that occur within a word. He is mainly concerned with explaining how s and n suddenly become ù and õ in
certain environments. The short explanation is that when a previous sound, such as r or a retroflex
consonant, bends the tongue backward, the tongue tends to remain in that position, and this modifies the
following sounds. Thus, the -ena ending of the instrumental singular appears as eõa in Ràmeõa (by Rama),
because the initial r has caused the tongue to
'retroflex'.

Vocabulary

The enclitic particle và (or; cf. Latin vel) is the evil twin of ca, since it is disjunctive, while ca is conjunctive.
Like ca, it follows the word it disjoins; it can also be repeated to mean 'either...or...'.

àcàryeõa và ÷i÷yairvà gaja eùa anãtaþ This elephant was brought either by the
(àcàryeõa và ÷i÷yaiþ và gajaþ eùaþ anãtaþ) teacher or by the pupils.

Kçtam and alam mean 'done with...' and 'enough with...'; they are followed by a noun in the instrumental
case:

alaü ÷okena. Enough with the sadness!

Kim has a similar idiomatic use, corresponding to 'What's with...?'

kimudyàyena (kim udyàyena?). What's with the garden?

What's the point of a garden?

Memorization Vocabulary

jãvita alive
jãvitam life
dar÷anam sight, spectacle
priya dear, beloved
madãya my
vayasyaþ friend

kç (Class 8), karoti do, make

tyaj (Class 1), tyajati abandon, leave, give up
vismç (Class 1), vismarati forget

alam enough
dåram a long way
và or
saha with
Reading Vocabulary

kutåhalam curiosity, interest

prayatnaþ effort, attempt
viùàdaþ despair, dejection
saüdehaþ doubt

Exercise 2 (Coulson 4a, 4b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to
Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.

1. putraiþ saha gçhaü tyajati. 3. àcàryeõa ÷iùyai÷càdbhutaþ prayatnaþ kçtaþ (àcàryeõa ÷iùyaiþ ca
adbhutaþ prayatnaþ kçtaþ). 4. priyo madãyo vayasya iti jãvitametena tyaktaü (priyaþ madãyaþ vayasyaþ iti
jãvitam etena tyaktam) . 6. ramaõãyeõa darùanena kiü na màdyasi?. 8. atraite naràþ kimicchantãti
kutåhalena gçhaü pravi÷ati (atra ete naràþ kim icchanti iti kutåhalena gçham pravi÷ati). 10. icchathaivaitan
na và (icchatha eva etat na và?). 11. krtaü vacanairgatovasra iti viùàdena vadataþ (krtaü vacanaiþ, gataþ
avasaraþ iti viùàdena vadataþ). 14. vismçto vayasyàbhyàü prathamo viùàdaþ (vismçtaþ vayasyàbhyàm
prathamaþ viùàdaþ). 16. kiü prayatnena? naiva tvàü pa÷yati devaþ (na eva...).

2. The people did not forget these words. 5. We came only today. 6. Your majesty, these two
children have even now not left the garden. 7. He stands with his friends. 10. We have seen the garden
with interest. 11. He has gone either to the forest or to the park. 12. Friends, we have been brought a long
way by this horse. 13. An end of doubt: here come the two pupils alive. 14. Even today it is with pleasure
that we remember that extraordinary sight. 15. Despair has conqurered them. 16. Although astonished by
this sight, they are not giving up the attempt.

Chapter 5

Day 1

Dative, Ablative, Genitive, and Locative Cases

In this chapter, Coulson introduces the remaining cases in Sanskrit: the dative, ablative, genitive, and
locative. Sankrit grammarians were somewhat less creative in naming the cases: they called them the
'fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh' cases. You have already learned the first case (nominative), the second
case (accusative), and the third case (instrumental). The vocative was traditionally listed at the end as the
eighth case.

Here is a very quick overview of the way the cases are used, as presented by Coulson. See his text for
examples in Sanskrit.

Case Use English Example

Dative (to, for) Indirect Object I give...to the brahmins.
Purpose ...for seeing (to see)
Predicate ...is for a fault (is culpable)
Ablative (from) Separation Cause He goes from the city.
from starvation
Genitive (of) Possessive the king's treasure the
Subjective Objective king's fear fear of the king
Point of view to the king, this seems...

Locative (in...; into...) Station on the table on seeing

Circumstance his friends...
Destination into the water
Object of feelings, etc. fondness for (toward) him

If you are familiar with the cases in Latin and Greek, Sanskrit usage will present a few surprises.

First, you may already have noticed the confusion in Latin and Greek over which case expresses
possession: is it the dative or the genitive? What actually happened is that the genitive, which properly
expresses source, took over the possessive function as well. Sanskrit takes this 'genitival imperialism' even
further. The genitive is used to express point of view (to the king it seems..., in the view of the king it
seems...). Worse yet, it is often used instead of the dative to indicate the indirect object. Thus, in Sanskrit,
you can say 'I give the gift of the brahmins' when you mean '...to the brahmins'. Go figure.

The locative case disappeared from the parent dialects of Latin and Greek, but it left behind a few traces in
forms such as Romae (at Rome). In Sanskrit, the locative not only survived, but it partially usurped the role
of the accusative case in expressing destination or goal. Thus you can say 'I put the book on the table'
using the locative case in Sanskrit.

When the ancestors of the Greeks lost the instrumental, ablative, and locative cases, they 'outsourced' the
functions of these cases to the genitive and dative. In Latin, the ablative case survived, and it took on the
additional burden of the instrumental and locative cases. But Sanskrit, like the modern Baltic languages
(Latvian and Lithuanian) held on to the entire IndoEuropean case system. Thanks, guys.

Now that we know that there are all those other cases out there, we can look at their forms. The good
news is that the charts will NOT get any bigger than this.

Coulson refers you to the paradigm at the back of the book for the adjective kànta. Here I will present the
complete charts for the nouns a÷vaþ and phalam, which you have previously encountered.

Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter)

Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam

Vocative a÷va phalam
Accusative a÷vam phalam
Instrumental a÷vena phalena
Dative a÷vàya phalàya
Ablative a÷vàt phalàt
Genitive a÷vasya phalasya
Locative a÷ve phale

Dual Nominative a÷vau phale

Vocative a÷vau phale
Accusative a÷vau phale
Instrumental a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm
Dative a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm
Ablative a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm
Genitive a÷vayoþ phalayoþ
Locative a÷vayoþ phalayoþ

Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni

Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni
Accusative a÷vàn phalàni
Instrumental a÷vaiþ phalaiþ
Dative a÷vebyaþ phalebyaþ
Ablative a÷vebyaþ phalebyaþ
Genitive a÷vànàm phalànàm
Locative a÷veùu phaleùu

The plethora of new case endings may seem daunting, but you have seen some of these forms before. The
ablative singular ending -àt corresponds to archaic Latin -od, which eventually dropped the d. The genitive
ending -asya appears in Homeric Greek as -oio, from *-osyo. The dative and ablative plural ending -bhyaþ
is familiar to Latin students as -bus. The -àm in the genitive plural corresponds to Greek -wn.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

de÷aþ country
pàdaþ foot
mitram friend
sarva all, every (sarve: all men)

prabhå (1), prabhavati arise, prevail, have power

idànãm now

Reading Vocabulary

andha blind
kaõa one-eyed
praticchandakam portrait, picture

abilikh (Class 6), abilikhati draw (pictures)

Note also the proper names, Kalahaüsaka, Màdhava, and Ràma.

Exercise 1 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to
Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.

6. kùetreùu sarve bhramanti. 13. duþkhàyaiva mitràõàmidànãü Ràmasya dar÷anam (duþkhàya eva
mitràõàm idànãü Ràmasya dar÷anam). 16. andhànàü de÷e kàõa eva prabhavati (andhànàü de÷e kanaþ
eva prabhavati). 17. kalahaüsaka kenaitanmàdhavasya praticchandakamabhilikhitam (Kalahaüsaka, kena
etat Màdhavasya praticchandakam abhilikhitam?).

10. He falls at the blind (man)'s feet.

Day 2

Pronouns in the New Cases; Ayam; Expressions of Time

As we play catch-up with the cases, we may now examine the complete paradigms of the personal,
demonstrative, and interrogative pronouns that we have learned so far.

Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You)

Singular Nominative aham tvam

Accusative màm tvàm
Instrumental mayà tvayà
Dative mahyam (me) tubhyam (te)
Ablative mat, mattaþ tvat, tvattaþ
Genitive mama (me) tava (te)
Locative mayi tvayi

Dual Nominative àvàm yuvàm

Accusative àvàm (nau) yuvàm (vàm)
Instrumental àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm
Dative àvàbhyàm (nau) yuvàbhyàm (vàm)
Ablative àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm
Genitive àvayoþ (nau) yuvayoþ (vàm)
Locative àvayoþ yuvayoþ

Plural Nominative vayam yåyam

Accusative asmàn (naþ) yuùmàn (vaþ)
Instrumental asmàbhiþ yuùmàbhiþ
Dative asmabhyam (naþ) yuùmabhyam (vaþ)
Ablative asmat, asmattaþ) yuùmat, yuùmattaþ
Genitive asmàkam (naþ) yuùmàkam (vaþ)
Locative asmàsu yuùmàsu

Person/Gender of Pronoun 3rd Masculine (He...) 3rd Neuter (It...)

Singular Nominative sa, saþ tat

Accusative tam tat
Instrumental tena tena
Dative tasmai tasmai
Ablative tasmàt tasmàt
Genitive tasya tasya
Locative tasmin tasmin

Dual Nominative tau te

Accusative tau te
Instrumental tàbhyàm tàbhyàm
Dative tàbhyàm tàbhyàm
Ablative tàbhyàm tàbhyàm
Genitive tayoþ tayoþ
Locative tayoþ tayoþ

Plural Nominative te tàni

Accusative tàn tàni
Instrumental taiþ taiþ
Dative tebhyaþ tebhyaþ
Ablative tebhyaþ tebhyaþ
Genitive teùàm teùàm
Locative teùu teùu

Eùaþ and kaþ follow the forms for saþ, given above.

The first- and second-person pronouns have alternate forms, which appear above in parentheses (me, te,
nau, vàm, naþ, vaþ). These are only used enclitically, which is to say that, like eva, iti, etc., they tend to
'lean' on an emphatic word:

ime naþ gçhàþ. Here are our houses.

Compare Latin me, te, nos, and vos, and the unaccented forms in Greek (mou, sou, etc.). The plural forms
also show up in the Slavic languages (e.g., Slavonic nas, vas).
Most of the pronoun-endings resemble those found on nouns, but there are a few clunkers, such as
tasmai and tasmin. These are easily learned with practice.

While we are on the subject of pronouns, Coulson introduces a new one, ayam (this). It is synonymous
with eùaþ, except that the latter has the stronger pointing force (this here). Ayam has somewhat irregular
forms, because it is a composite of two demonstrative elements: a (cf. atra, here) and i (cf. itaþ, this way).

Singular Nominative ayam idam

Accusative imam idam
Instrumental anena anena
Dative asmai asmai
Ablative asmàt asmàt
Genitive asya asya
Locative asmin asmin

Dual Nominative imau ime

Accusative imau ime
Instrumental àbhyàm àbhyàm
Dative àbhyàm àbhyàm
Ablative àbhyàm àbhyàm
Genitive anayoþ anayoþ
Locative anayoþ anayoþ

Plural Nominative ime imàni

Accusative imàn imàni
Instrumental ebhiþ ebhiþ
Dative ebhyaþ ebhyaþ
Ablative ebhyaþ ebhyaþ
Genitive eùàm eùàm
Locative eùu eùu

Many of these forms will remind you of Latin is, ea, id.

You may remember that Latin has a few adjectives that inexplicably show pronoun endings in certain cases
(e.g., alter shows a genitive singular in alterius). Sanskrit also has a few of these anamolous adjectives:
anya (other), sarva (all), eka (one), and sva (own, cf. Latin suus). Anya can also mean 'else', as in anyaþ
kaþ (who else?).

Like Latin and Greek, Sanskrit uses different cases to talk about time. The following chart summarizes
Coulson's rules:

Semantic Category Sanskrit Case Example

Duration of Time Accusative trãn divasàn for
 three days
Time Within Which Instrumental tribhiþ divasaiþ within
three days
Time After Which Ablative (or Genitive) tribhyaþ divasebhyaþ
after three days
Time When Locative trãtye divase on
the third day

Note that Latin collapsed the last three categories into the ablative case.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

ayam this
anya other
upàyaþ method, means, way
eka one
kumàraþ prince
prativacanam answer, reply
muhårta short while, minute

÷ru (5), ÷çõoti hear, listen

api and, too

Exercise 2 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to
Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.

5. asminnudyàne muhårtamupavi÷àvaþ (asmin udyàne muhårtam upavi÷àvaþ ). 8. kamupàyaü pa÷yasi

mama putrànàü dar÷anàya (kam upàyam pa÷yasi mama putrànàm dar÷anàya?). 10. ayaü kumàrastiùñhati
(ayam kumàraþ tiùñhati). 14. anyebhyo'pi devenaitacchrutam (anyebhyaþ api devena etat ÷rutam).

2. From this house he was led to the woods. 4. The anger of these two is extraordinary. 5. You have been
seen, my sons. 12. This reply of the prince (will make) for anger.

Day 3

To Be, To Have, To Feel; The Absolutive

We are used to thinking of the verb to be in various languages as 'irregular'. This is often due, however, to
the fact that two or three different verbs have been collapsed into one paradigm. Sanksrit has two verbs
meaning 'to be': bhu (cf. English be) and as (cf. English is).

Bhu is conjugated in the present tense as a regular Class 1 verb:

1st Person Singular bhavàmi I am
2nd bhavasi you are
3rd bhavati he is
st
1 Person Dual bhavàvaþ we two are
2nd bhavathaþ you two are
3rd bhavataþ those two are
st
1 Person Plural bhavàmaþ we are
2nd bhavatha y'all are
3rd bhavanti they are

Bhu may be used in linking sentences as an alternative to the nominal sentence structure we studied
earlier. It can also mean 'exist' and 'arise'.

dar÷anam eva asya ramiõãyaü bhavati. The mere sight of it is delightful.

khrodàdbhavati saümohaþ (khrodàt bhavati From anger arises delusion.
saümohaþ)

The verb as is cognate with Latin esse and Greek ei~nai. It's forms will look vaguely familiar:

1st Person Singular asmi I am

2nd asi you are
3rd asti he is
st
1 Person Dual svaþ we two are
2nd sthaþ you two are
3rd staþ those two are
st
1 Person Plural smaþ we are
2nd stha y'all are
3rd santi they are

As in Latin, the present stem of this verb is really s, to which the personal endings are added directly. An
additional vowel a is added to the singular forms (cf. Latin e-st).

As can be used as a linking verb in the first and second persons, but in the third person it typically has an
existential force:

asti parvateùu nagaram. There is a city in the mountains.

This construction is also common in both Greek and Latin:

Est musca in iure. There is a fly in my soup.

Another thing that our favorite dead languages have in common is the use of the verb to be to express
possession:

Filiis tuis nulla est pecunia. There is no money to your sons. Your
sons have no money.

In both Latin and Greek, the dative case is used for the possessor (e.g., filiis). In Sanskrit, however, the
genitive is used:

tava putràõàü dhanaü na bhavati. There is no money of your sons. Your

sons have no money.

The verb bhu or as may be omitted in such sentences.

Another idiomatic use of the verb to be occurs in conjunction with iva (as if), where it means 'to feel'

a÷arana ivàsmi (a÷aranaþ iva asmi). I am as if helpless. I

feel helpless.

Now we will move on the absolutive construction. But first: remember the Latin supine? Who could forget!
You probably learned that it comes in two flavors: an accusative form (e.g., cubitum, to lie down) and an
ablative form (dictu, in the telling).

As it happens, the Latin supine is a survival of an Indo-European verbal noun-formation ending in -tu,
which was declined in various cases. A relic of this thing also turns up in Sanskrit. The accusative -um form
became the Sanskrit infinitive (e.g. netum, to lead). We will come back to this later. The other surviving
case is the instrumental, which ends in -tvà.

The instrumental form is used in Sanskrit as an adverbial modifier: 'after...-ing', 'by ...ing.' For this reason,
it is called the absolutive or gerund form. -Tvà is added to the weak grade of the root (also seen in the past
participle), producing forms such as these:

Root and Past Participle Absolutive Meaning

nã, nãta nãtvà after leading
dç÷, dçùta dçùtvà after seeing
vad, ukta uktvà after saying

The absolutive in -tvà may only be used with uncompounded verbs (i.e., verbs without a prefix).
Compound verbs add the ending -ya (or -tya or -mya), which may bring internal sandhi into play:

Root Absolutive Meaning

saüdç÷ saüdç÷ya after seeing
àgam àgamya after coming
prativad pratyucya after replying
The absolutive forms are usually easy to recognize, but in case of doubt you will find them in Coulson's list
of principal parts in Appendix 2.

Finally, some odds and ends. You may recall that Latin forms indefinite pronouns by adding indeclinable
suffixes such as -que (quisque, anyone) and -cumque (quicumque, whoever). In Sanskrit, the indefinite
particles are cit and api.

udyàne ka÷ciccarati (udyàne kaþ cit carati). Somebody is walking in the park.

kenàpi jalaü pãtam (kena api jalam pitam). The water has been drunk by somebody.
Somebody has drunk the water.

These particles also generalize adverbs:

kçtaþ kathamapi gañhaþ. Somehow the pot was made. Somehow he

made the pot.

Add the negative particle na to get across ideas such as no one, nowhere, etc.:

udyàne na ka÷ciccarati (udyàne na kaþ cit Nobody is walking in the park.

carati).

We also have khalu, which functions in the same way as eva, as a particle of emphasis.
The difference is that eva conveys new information, while khalu stresses what is already known. For this
reason, it is often translated 'indeed':

dàruõa eva asi. You are cruel.

dàruõaþ kahlvasi (dàruõa kahlu asi). You are cruel indeed (just as I thought).

Finally, Coulson calls your attention to a couple of regular, but counter-intuitive examples of external
sandhi. First, when the consonant n follows a short vowel and precedes another vowel, it is doubled:

tvaü tadàtmannasi (tvam tat àtman asi). You are the Self.

When a final t combines with a following ÷, the combination is spelled cch.

tacchobhanaü nagaram (tat ÷obhanam that beautiful city.

nagaram)

Note also the proper names, Kalahaüsaka, Màdhava, and Ràma.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

ka÷cit, ko'pi someone, etc.

puùpam flower
pustakam book
màrgaþ road
hçdayam heart

as (2), asti be
grah (9), gçhõati seize, take
pat (1), patati fall
bhu (1), bhavati become, be

Reading Vocabulary

àvegaþ alarm
kùaõaþ second, moment
pàpa evil, bad; villain

iha here, in this world

khalu indeed
tu but, however
hà! ah! oh!

Exercise 3 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to
Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.

1. imau svaþ. 2. prativacanaü me ÷rutvà kim anyadicchanti (prativacanaü me ÷rutvà kim anyat icchanti?).
3. nàstyeva te pustakam (na asti eva te pustakam). 4. vayasya hçdayamivàsi mama (vayasya, hçdayam iva
asi mama). 7. deva anyasmànnagaràdbràhmanaþ ka÷cidàgataþ (deva, anyasmàt nagaràt brahmanaþ kaþ
cit àgataþ). 9. khrodhamasya dçùtvàvega iva no hçdaye (khrodam asya dçùtvà avegaþ iva naþ hçdaye). 11.
kathaü kùaõamevopavi÷ya dçùte mayà punarapi mitre (kathaü, kùaõam eva upavi÷ya dçùte mayà punar
api mitre). 12. anyaþ ko'pi màrgo na bhavati (anyaþ kaþ api màrgaþ na bhavati). 15. gçhaü pravi÷ya kva
kvedànãm sa pàpa iti sarvàn pçcchati (gçhaü pravi÷ya kva kva idànãm saþ pàpaþ iti sarvàn pçcchati).

1. You are blind indeed. 3. And they went to the park and seized the villains. 6. But we have friends in
Candanadàsa's house. 7. I ask because I'm tired. 8. We have seen this on all the country's roads. 9. Your
majesty, I am that same prince. 11. By some means I saw (them) all. 13. But hearing this they sit on the
road. 14. Kalahaüsaka, we have no interest in books. 15. In just one garden there are a few flowers. 16.
Even after seeing everything your highness says nothing. 17. What, have you doubt about it (atra)? 18. Oh
Makaranda, oh Kalahaüsaka, your friend has gone. 19. But the prince stayed in another place and heard
the villain's whole reply. 20. What advantage does this man see in anger?

Chapter 6

Day 1
Feminine Gender

So far, we have been studying nouns and adjectives in the Sanskrit equivalent of the Second Declension in
Latin and Greek. Thus, we have only seen masculine and neuter forms. Now we will look at feminine
forms, which correspond to the First Declension in our favorite dead languages.

Coulson refers you to the feminine column of the adjective kànta in the back of the book. Here, I will set
out the forms of the noun senà (army).

Singular Nominative senà

Vocative sene
Accusative senàm
Instrumental senayà
Dative senàyai
Ablative senàyàþ
Genitive senàyàþ
Locative senàyàm

Dual Nominative sene

Vocative sene
Accusative sene
Instrumental senàbhyàm
Dative senàbhyàm
Ablative senàbhyàm
Genitive senayoþ
Locative senayoþ

Plural Nominative senàþ

Vocative senàþ
Accusative senàþ
Instrumental senàbhiþ
Dative senàbhyaþ
Ablative senàbhyaþ
Genitive senànàm
Locative senàsu

This paradigm has many endings in common with the masculine and neuter forms you have already
learned. The chief difference is that the femine forms are built on a stem ending in à (or ayà). This
corresponds to the h/a of Attic Greek. Senayàþ, for example, corresponds to the genitive singular form,
strati/aj. Other forms overlap with those of pronouns (e.g, senayà, cf. mayà).

Pronouns also have feminine forms, but only in the third person. The feminine equivalent of saþ is sà:
Singular Nominative sà
Accusative tàm
Instrumental tayà
Dative tasyai
Ablative tasyàþ
Genitive tasyàþ
Locative tasyàm

Dual Nominative te
Accusative te
Instrumental tàbhyàm
Dative tàbhyàm
Ablative tàbhyàm
Genitive tayoþ
Locative tayoþ

Plural Nominative tàþ

Accusative tàþ
Instrumental tàbhiþ
Dative tàbhyaþ
Ablative tàbhyaþ
Genitive tàsàm
Locative tàsu

These forms follow the noun paradigm quite closely, but notice the occasional intrusion of s (e.g., tasyai,
tàsàm). The same endings will seen on the pronouns eùaþ (feminine eùà) and kaþ (feminine kà).

Here are the feminine forms of the demonstrative ayam (this one, this). For the most part, they show
predictable feminine endings built on a variable stem (im-, an-, as-, à-).

Singular Nominative iyam

Accusative imàm
Instrumental anayà
Dative asyai
Ablative asyàþ
Genitive asyàþ
Locative asyàm

Dual Nominative ime

Accusative ime
Instrumental àbhyàm
Dative àbhyàm
Ablative àbhyàm
Genitive anayoþ
Locative anayoþ

Plural Nominative imàþ

Accusative imàþ
Instrumental àbhiþ
Dative àbhyaþ
Ablative àbhyaþ
Genitive àsàm
Locative àsu

Note especially the nominative singular forms of ayam: ayam (masculine), idam (neuter), and iyam
(feminine). These correspond to the Latin forms, is, ea, id.

There are also a number of feminine nouns and adjectives in Sanskrit that end in -ã (e.g. nadã, river).
These will be learned later.

Keep in mind that adjectives must agree with nouns and pronouns in gender, number, and case:

ramaõãyà vàrttà pleasant news

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

ambà (voc. amba) mother

àrya noble
kaùta grievous, harsh
cintà worry
mudrà seal
vàrttà news
sevà attendance, servitude

prati + sidh (I), restrain, forbid

pratiùedhati past part.
pratiùiddha

kim-artham for what purpose, why?

kutaþ from where?
Reading Vocabulary

avasthà state, condition

à÷aõkà apprehension

Exercise 1 (Coulson 6a and 6b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and from
English to Sanskrit.

4. kutaþ punariyaü vàrttà (kutaþ punar iyam vàrttà?). 7. tvam àryàbhiþ putra iva gçhãtaþ (tvam
àryàbhiþ putraþ iva gçhãtaþ). 9. amba kà asi. kimarthamahaü tvayà pratiùiddhaþ (amba, kà asi? kim-
artham ahaü tvayà pratiùiddhaþ?). 11. saiveyam (sà eva iyam). 13. kaùñà khalu sevà. 15. kiü tavànayà
cintayà (kim tava anayà cintayà?).

5. In that case whose is this seal? 9. Do not be apprehensive (away with apprehension).11. How (is
it that) you do not see Rama's condition?

Day 2

Determinative Compounds

One gets the impression that speakers of Sanskrit, having evolved a complicated set of endings for nouns,
pronouns, and adjectives, thereupon decided to use these endings as little as possible. Classical Sanskrit is
rich in compound formations, which frequently stand in for the seven cases.

As it happens, this is a feature of Modern English, as well. Consider the following examples:

English Compound Meaning

girlfriend a friend who is a girl
door-stop something that stops a door
sword-fight a fight with a sword
dining room a room for dining
book-learning learning from a book
status-symbol a symbol of status
side door a door on the side

Notice that each of these examples corresponds to one of the Sanskrit cases. Compound formations allow
one to side-step the formal markers of case-grammar (endings in Sanskrit, phrases in English) and to leave
these relationships implied.

Each of the compounds above is called determinative, because the first element limits the meaning of the
second. For example, a sword-fight is not any kind of fight, but a fight with swords. Compounds in which
the first element could have been expressed in one of the oblique cases (i.e., accusative through locative)
are called dependent determinatives. Compounds expressing a relationship in the nominative case (e.g.,
girlfriend) are called descriptive determinatives. Coulson uses punctuation marks to distinguish these two
types (e.g., sword-fight, girl:friend).
Compounds may be composed of different parts of speech. The same basic structure can be used to
combine a noun with another noun (sword-fight), an adjective with a noun (great:king), a noun with an
adjective or participle (man-slaying), or an adverb with a adjective (far-seeing).

Notice also that when you hear the word garage-owner, it is not immediately clear whether the guy owns
one garage or several. This is because the first element of a compound always appears in its basic form,
which is not marked for number (cf. child welfare, which relates to the welfare of children).

Sanskrit compounds likewise show the uninflected, basic form of the determining element. This is usually
the stem in short a for masculine and neuter nouns, and à for feminine nouns:

Sanskrit Compound Meaning

priya:bàlaþ (= priyaþ bàlaþ) dear boy
nara-pustakam (= narasya pustakam) man-book (a man's book)
satya-sthaþ (= satye sthaþ) truth-established (established in truth)
vàrttà-÷ravaõam (= vàrttàyàþ ÷ravanam) news-hearing (hearing of the news)

See Coulson's essay for additional wrinkles and examples. His main point is that compounds are used very
freely in Sanskrit, and this can result in considerable ambiguity. For example, 'ice cold' in English is a
descriptive determinative compound, meaning 'cold as ice'. In Sanskrit, however, hima-÷i÷era can mean
either 'cold as ice' (descriptive determinative) or 'cold from the ice'
(dependent determinative). Usually, the context will make the meaning clear.

Vocabulary

At this point in the textbook, Coulson begins to pile on the new vocabulary, as his sentences get more
complex. This is where my distinction between high-frequency 'memorization' vocabulary and lower-
frequency 'reading' vocabulary should pay off. You will only be responsible for the former on your tests
and quizzes. You might want to keep alphabetized list of the latter handy for working through the
exercises. You can also use the vocabularies in the back of Coulson's book, or the 'Sanskrit Made Easy'
lemmatizer in Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site (in French).

Memorization Vocabulary

à÷ramaþ hermitage
katama which
nirvànam bliss
netram eye
prayojanam purpose
mçgaþ deer
lokaþ world
satya true
satyam truly

labh (I), labhate (a middle take, gain, win

form; we will learn it later)
past participle labdham

ittham thus, so

Reading Vocabulary

àgamanam coming, arrival

anarthaþ reverse, disaster
abhij¤a conversant with (gen.)
amàtyaþ minister
àrambhaþ beginning
udde÷aþ region, part, place
kàryam task
kàlaþ time
Kusumaparm name of a city
ku÷ulam welfare
dvayam duo, pair
parihàsaþ joke
paurajanaþ citizenry, townfok
prade÷a place
pravàtam breeze
Màrãcaþ proper name
mådha deluded, idiotic
vistãrõa extensive
vçttàntaþ news, happening
vyavahàraþ usage
Lakùmanaþ proper name
øoõottarà proper name
subhaga delightful

pari + grah (IX), parigçhnàti accept

kaùñam alas!

Exercise 2 (Coulson 6a and 6b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and from
English to Sanskrit.

1. ÷oõottare kimàgamanproyojanam (øoõottare, kim àgamana-prayojanam?). 2. kaùtam

anarthadvayamàpatitam (kaùtam, anartha-dvayam àpatitam). 3. mahàràja api ku÷alaü
kumaralakùmaõasya (mahàràja, api ku÷alaü kumàralakùmaõasya kumàra:Lakùmanasya?). 5.
satyamitthaübhåta evàsmi (satyam itthaü-bhåtaþ eva asmi). 6. amàtya vistãrõaþ Kusumapuravçtàntaþ
(amàtya, vistãrõaþ Kusumapura-vçtàntaþ). 8. katamasminprade÷e Màrãcà÷ramaþ (katamasmin prade÷e
Màrãca-à÷ramaþ?).

1. This is a deer-of-the-hermitage. 2. A-beginning-in-the-task has been made. 3. Here stands

Minister:Rakùasa. 4. Idiot, this is no time-for-jokes. 6. You are indeed conversant with the usagesof-the-
world. 7. Then did the townsfolk not accept our:word? 8. Oh, this part-of-the-wood is delightful-for-its-
breeze. 10. (I) have gained a bliss-for-the-eyes.

Day 3

Prepositions; Action Nouns in -a; External Sandhi

With six oblique cases and optional compound formations at its disposal, Sanskrit has little use for
prepositional phrases. Nevertheless, a few prepositions are common:

Preposition Case Meaning Example

à ablative up to à samudràt up
to the ocean
prati accusative towards, against, vanaü prati towards
with regard to the forest
saha instrumental with saha gajaiþ with
elephants
vinà instrumental without gajaiþ vinà without
elephants

Note that in Sanskrit, some 'prepositions' regularly come after the word they modify. This occasionally
happens in Latin and Greek, as well (e.g., vobiscum).

Note that in Sanskrit, à + ablative means 'up to', not 'away from'. Presumably, the ablative is used because
the emphasis is on the boundary-making function of the preposition.

Coulson's discussion points to the fact that many prepositions originated as adverbs (e.g., prati); this is
why they can also be prefixed to verbs. Others originated as nouns (e.g., vinà, which shows an
instrumental ending). These facts explain some common difficulties with Latin and Greek prepositions, as
well (e.g., Latin contra, which is both an adverb and a preposition).

Next, we turn to word-building. Cicero, when he was writing on philosophy, famously complained about
the shortage in Latin of abstract nouns. Greek, he thought, was better suited to philosophical discourse.
He should have learned Sanskrit.

Sanskrit commonly creates nouns from verbs by adding -a to the verbal root. This produces a masculine
noun of the a÷va type:

Verbal Root Noun Formation

krudh (be angry) krodhaþ (anger)
di÷ (point) de÷aþ (point, place, country)
Note that turning a verb into a noun often results in an 'upgrade' of the root vowel from its basic form to
the guõa grade (krudh > krodh), and in some cases to the vçddhi grade (bhç, to bear > bhàraþ, burden).
Another common change is from palatal consonants to velar consonants (÷uc, grieve > ÷okaþ, grief). You
will learn these nouns as you go along, but knowing how they were formed will help you make
connections with familiar verbs.

Finally, Coulson notes a few examples of ambiguity in external sandhi. This often happens in spoken
English, too:

'n all my days in all my days

what with the riot 'n' all what with the riot and all

Usually, the context clarifies what is going on. Similarly in Sanskrit:

a÷va eva (a÷vaþ eva) vanaü gacchati. The horse goes to the forest.
a÷va eva (a÷ve eva) bàlastiùñhati. The boy stands on the horse.

Have a look at Coulson's examples and be on the lookout for these combinations.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

à÷à hope
ãdç÷a of this kind, such
ubha both (only dual)
kanyà daughter, girl
kulam family
puram city
pauraþ citizen

à + pat (I), àpatati befall, happen

upa + gam (I), upagacchati go to, reach

aho oh
iha here
prati (+ accusative) to, towards, with regard to

Reading Vocabulary

akùaram syllable, written character

anu÷ayaþ repentance, regret
abhilàùaþ craving, passion for
asphuña unclear, illegible
uparàgaþ eclipse
Kaumudãmahotsavaþ Full Moon Festival
caritam conduct, deeds
tàpasaþ ascetic
Duþùantaþ proper name
niyata unconstrained
niyatam necessarily
niyojyaþ servant
pathaþ (usually at the end of path
a compound)
Pauravaþ descendant of Paru
prajà subject (of a king)
pratiùedhaþ prohibition, cancellation
prathita widely known
prave÷aþ entry
priyà beloved (woman)
bhadra good; f. madam
maõóapa (m. or n.) pavilion, bower
mahàràjaþ great king
mahotsavaþ great festival
Màdhavyaþ proper name
latà creeper
Vàsavaþ (epithet of) Indra
Vçùalaþ proper name
vyasanam vice, vicious failing
vratam vow
øakuntalà proper name
÷ravanam hearing
÷rotriyhaþ learned (brahmin), scholar
saüvegaþ agitation
sthànam place, occasion
sthàne in place, appropriate

pari + bhuj (VII), enjoy

paribhunakti; past participle
paribhukta
pra + nam (I), praõamati make obeisance to (+
dative, genitive, locative, or
accusative)
vi + pra + labh, vipralabhate mislead, deceive

tat (as connecting particle) so, then

tarhi in that case
nanu surely (as in the movie
Airplane)

Exercise 3(Coulson 6a and 6b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and from English
to Sanskrit.

10. nanvanu÷ayasthànametat (nanu anu÷aya-sthànam etat). 12. ubhàbhyàmapi vàü vàsavaniyojyo

duþùantaþ praõamati (ubhàbhyàm api vàm Vàsava-niyojyaþ Duþùantaþ praõamati). 14. na khalu vçùalasya
÷ravanapathamupagatoyaü mayà kçtaþ kaumudãmahotsavapratiùedaþ (na khalu Vçùalasya ÷ravana-
patham upagataþ ayam mayà kçtaþ Kaumudãmahotsava-pratiùedaþ?). 16. màdhava apyasti te
÷akuntalàdar÷anaü prati kutåhalam (Màdhava, api asti te øakuntalà-dar÷anam prati kutåhalam?). 17.
÷rotriyalikhitànyakùaràõi prayatnalikhitànyapi niyatamasphuñàni bhavanti (÷rotriya-likhitàni akùaràõi
prayatna-likhitàni api niyatam asphuñàni bhavanti).

12. Sàrïgarava, such agitation on your part (of you) from-entering-the-city is indeed appropriate. 13.
Descendants of Puru have this family:vow. 14. Madam, Duþùanta's-conduct is widely known among his
subjects. 15. Then have done now with the vice-of-hope. 16. I do not of course truly have a passion for the
ascetic's-daughter. 17. But with regard to the eclipse-of-the-moon someone has misled you. 18. I'll stay for
a while just here in the bower-of-creepers enjoyed-by-my-beloved.

Chapter 7

Day 1

Feminine Nouns in -ã; Consonant Stem Nouns

In the last chapter, we saw feminine nouns and adjectives in -à (e.g., senà). Some other feminine nouns
follow the paradigm of nadã (river):

Singular Nominative nadã

Vocative nadi
Accusative nadãm
Instrumental nadyà
Dative nadyai
Ablative nadyàþ
Genitive nadyàþ
Locative nadyàm

Dual Nominative nadyau

Vocative nadyau
Accusative nadyau
Instrumental nadãbhyàm
Dative nadãbhyàm
Ablative nadãbhyàm
Genitive nadyoþ
Locative nadyoþ

Plural Nominative nadyaþ

Vocative nadyaþ
Accusative nadãþ
Instrumental nadãbhiþ
Dative nadãbhyaþ
Ablative nadãbhyaþ
Genitive nadãnàm
Locative nadãùu

For the most part, these forms follow the paradigm for senà, except that the endings are built on the
vowel -ã, which changes to y before vowels. Note also the forms nadyau and nadyaþ, which are
'borrowed' from other declensions.

Some adjectives follow this paradigm in the feminine gender. Others show both the à-stem and the ã-stem
forms (e.g., papà and papã, wicked). Adjectives of this type are indicated in vocabularies and dictionaries.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

udvigna distressed
cira long (of time)
ciram for a long time
devã goddess, queen, majesty
sakhã female friend
Sãtà proper name

pratibudh caus. wake (someone)

pratibodhayati
viyuj (7), viyuïkte disjoin, deprive of (+
instrumental)

Reading Vocabulary

atyàhitam calamity
adar÷anam lack of sight, not seeing
aye ah!
tãram bank
dåre far away
pratikàraþ remedy
bhayam fear, danger
sarasã lake
svàgatam welcome to (+ dative)

anugraþ (9), anugçhõati favor

Exericse 1 (Coulson 7a and 7b).

1. aye, iyaü devã. 2. pratibhodita evàsmi kenàpi (pratibhoditaþ eva asmi kena api). 9.
ciramadar÷anenàryasya vayamudvignàþ (ciram adar÷anena àryasya vayam udvignàþ). 14. àrye
kimatyàhitaü sãtadevyàþ (àrye, kim atyàhitam Sãta:devyàþ?). 10. svàgataü devyai.

1. I am Atreyi. 3. This is the bank-of-the-lake. 9. Dear [sakhã] Madyantikà, welcome. You [bhavatã] have
favored our-house. 12. Why did you two ladies check me?

Day 2

Consonant Stem Nouns

Most nouns in Sanskrit belong to the -a, -à and -ã types. But a number of common nouns, as well as
suffixed forms, add the endings directly to a stem which ends in a consonant. This type, which reflects an
older stage of Indo-European noun-formation, corresponds to the Third Declension of Latin and Greek:

Singular Nominative cor fu/lac

Genitive cord-is fulak-o/j

Nouns of this type often seem 'irregular', principally for two reasons. First, the consonant on the end of
the stem may change to suit the ending (e.g. rex, regis). Second, a shift in stress may alter the stem (e.g.,
a0nh/r, a0ne/ra, a0ndro/j [< a0nero/j]). We will iron out these wrinkles over the next few lessons. The
endings, however, remain more or less constant.

For now, let's have a look at the nouns suhçd (friend; cf. cor, cordis), goduh (cowherd), and manas (mind;
cf. mens).

Sing. Nominative suhçt (m.) godhuk (m. or f.) manaþ (n.)

Vocative suhçt godhuk manaþ
Accusative suhçdam goduham manaþ
Instrumental suhçdà goduhà manasà
Dative suhçde goduhe manase
Ablative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manasaþ
Genitive suhçdaþ goduhaþ manasaþ
Locative suhçdi goduhi manasi

Dual Nominative suhçdau goduhau manasã

Vocative suhçdau goduhau manasã
Accusative suhçdau goduhau manasã
Instrumental suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm
Dative suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm
Ablative suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm
Genitive suhçdoþ goduhoþ manasoþ
Locative suhçdoþ goduhoþ manasoþ

Dual Nominative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi

Vocative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi
Accusative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi
Instrumental suhçdbhiþ godhugbhiþ manobhiþ
Dative suhçdbhyaþ godhugbhyaþ manobhyaþ
Ablative suhçdbhyaþ godhugbhyaþ manobhyaþ
Genitive suhçdàm goduhàm manasàm
Locative suhçtsu godhuksu manaþsu

First, let's just look at the endings. Some of these have turned up before, especially on pronouns and
feminine nouns (-à [instrumental singular], -au, -bhyàm, -oþ, -bhiþ, -bhyaþ, -su). Others will look more
familiar if you remember their Latin and Greek cognates:

Accusative Singular suhçd-am reg-em fu/lak-a

(originally a
vocalized m)
Genitive Singular suhçd-aþ (<-as) reg-is fu/lak-oj
Nominative and suhçd-aþ reg-es fu/lak-ej fu/lak-aj
Accusative Plural
Genitive Plural suhçdàm reg-um fula/k-wn

What makes these paradigms a little more difficult is the frequency of changes in the stem.

First, a noun may show one stem before endings that begin with a vowel (e.g, goduh-aþ) and another
before endings that begin with a consonant (e.g., godhug-bhyam). These changes can be learned on a
case-by-case basis.

Second, the rules of internal sandhi sometimes require a change in the final consonant of the stem (e.g.,
godhug-bhyàm vs. godhuk-su). These rules are somewhat complex, but it will help to remember the
phonetic classes to which the consonants belong (see Chapter 1). For example, godhug- and ghoduk- both
end in velar (guttural) consonants; the difference is that g is voiced, and k is unvoiced. Thus, the stem
changes to harmonize with the following consonant (bh is voiced; s is unvoiced).

Likewise, the 'permitted finals' to which Coulson alludes are usually the unvoiced stops in each phonetic
class (e.g, k, ñ, t, and p; velars and palatals are treated as one class). These are the sounds that you will
find on the end of the nominative singular (e.g. suhçt, from the stem suhçd).
Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kathà story, talk

yatnaþ effort
÷arãram body
÷iras (n.) head
suhçd (m.) friend
sva one's own

avaté (1), avatarati caus. descend remove

avatàrayati
upahç (1), upaharati offer
pà (1), pibati drink
vçdh (1), vardhate caus. grow increase
vardhayati

Reading Vocabulary

atyanta excessive, extreme

àbharanam ornament
asthàne not in place, inappropriate
auùadam medicine
ghàtakaþ executioner
chàyà shade
bhavatã you (polite form of adress to
a woman)
vatsala affectionate, loving
vadhya condemned to death
vedanà ache, pain
vaidyaþ doctor
sahya bearable
saujanyam kindness
snehaþ affection

apahç (1), apaharati carry off

à÷ri (1), a÷rayati, a÷rayate resort to (+ accusative)
past part. à÷rita
dç÷ caus. dar÷ayati past show
part. dar÷ita
niyuj (7) niyuïkte engage (someone) upon (+
 locative)
pratipàl (10), pratipalayati wait for
preù (pra + iù) preùayati despatch, send

vidru (1), vidravati caus. run away

vidràvayati disperse, chase away
lajj (6), lajjate caus. embarrass
lajjayati

tàvat, yàvat just (I'll just buy a

newspaper)

Exercise 2

4. aho vatsalena suhçdàviyuktàþ smaþ (aho vatsalena suhçdà viyuktàþ smaþ). 6. aryàpi sahyà ÷irovedanà
(arya, api sahyà ÷iraþ-vedanà?). 7. lajjayati màmatyantasaujanyameùàm (lajjayati màm atyanta:saujanyam
eùàm). 17. kaùñamubhayorapyasthàne yatnaþ (kaùñam, ubhayoþ api asthàne yatnaþ). 19. vayamapi
tàvad bhavatyau sakhãgataü kiücitpçcchàmaþ (vayam api tàvat bhavatyau sakhã-gatam kiücit pçcchàmaþ).
20. amàtya idamàbharaõaü kumàreõa sva÷arãràdavatàrya preùitam (amàtya, idam àbharaõam kumàreõa
sva:÷arãràt avatàrya [having removed] preùitam).

2. You increase my curiosity. 4. I will just wait for these girls having resorted to the shade. 7. Oh, you have
shown love-for-[your]-friend. 15. I have in fact engaged her-dear-friend Buddharakùità on the matter
[tatra]. 17. This dear-friend Siddhàrthaka chased the executioners away and carried me off from the place-
of-the-condemned. 20. That doctor indeed was made to drink the same medicine, and [at once] died [use
ca...ca...].

Day 3

Causative Verbs; Compounds Again

In your previous language studies, you gamely tackled the complexities of tense, mood, and voice. Each of
these categories generated a new set of paradigms, in which the stem and/or endings underwent some
signal modification. But you may also have been vaguely aware of other verbal derivations, which were
not presented as something new to be learned.

For example, you may have noticed that in Latin there are apparently two ways of saying I sing: cano (inf.
canere) and canto (inf. cantare). Later, you discovered that other Latin verbs have an evil twin of the -tare
type (e.g., dico > dicto; lego > lectito, capio > capto). The second verb often has the semantic feature of
repeated action (e.g., lectito, I keep reading). This is called the frequentative derivation: it is marked by the
letter t and a switch to the first conjugation. Since only a handful of Latin verbs have frequentative forms,
most textbooks keep silent on the subject. You would have to go to Wikileaks to get the whole story.

Sanskrit, on the other hand, has a number of such systems, including the desiderative (ninãùati, he wants
to lead), the intensive (nenãyate, he leads forcibly), and the causative (nàyayati, he causes to lead). In this
lesson, Coulson introduces the most common of these systems: the causative.
Causative forms are marked in Sanskrit by the infix -aya- and strengthening of the root to the guõa grade,
and sometimes to the vçddhi:

Root Present Indicative Causative

dç÷ pa÷yati dar÷ayati
see he sees he causes to see he
shows
kç do karoti he kàrayati he
does causes to do
bhu be bhavati he bhàvayati he
is causes to be

Some verbs (especially those whose root ends in à) add a p to the infix:

Root Present Indicative Causative

sthà stand tiùñhati sthàpayati he
he stands causes to stand he
establishes

In the past participle of causative verbs, aya is replaced by ita:

Root Past Participle Causative

labh take labhda taken labhita
caused to take, given

One of the awkward things about using a causative verb is that it may take two direct objects:

harayati bhàram dàsam. He causes-to-carry the luggage a servant.

He has a servant carry the luggage.

Sanskrit writers often avoid this situation by putting the intended agent in the instrumental case:

harayati bhàram dàsena. He causes to carry the luggage by a servant.

He has a servant carry the luggage.

Coulson notes that many causative forms do not have an obvious causative meaning (e.g., dar÷ayati, he
shows), and that causatives often behave in sentences in the same way as indicative verbs. Moreover, the -
aya- infix is also characteristic of present indicative verbs in Class 10 (e.g., chàd, chàdayati, he covers), so
that even Sanskrit grammarians are not always certain whether a verb is causative or indicative. We need
not be concerned about these subtleties, however. The main thing is to be aware of the causative
formation and its basic meaning.

As a side note, Coulson mentions that causative derivations can be found in English, as well:
Basic Form (Intransitive) Causative
The tree falls. He fells a tree.
He lies down. He lays the knife on the table.

As in Sanskrit, the English causative is marked by a change of the root vowel. Confusion of the verbs lie and
lay is one of the most common errors in Standard English. Now you know the 'cause' of the problem!

And now, a word about compounds. So far, we have been looking at coordinating (dvandva) compounds,
such as a÷vagajau (horse and elephant), and determinative compounds, such as ràmadasaþ (Rama's-
servant) and mahàràjaþ (great:king). The elements of these compounds are words that could exist in
isolation. Sometimes, however, the first element in a descriptivedeterminative compound never appears
by itself. It is, for all practical purposes, a prefix:

First Element (Prefix) Meaning Example

su well, very (cf. eu0 ) su:kçta well
done
dus ill, badly (cf. dus) duù:kçta badly
done
sa (saha) together (cf. sun, con) sa:brahmacàrin fellow-
student
a (an) not (cf. a, in) a:kçta
unmade

The negative prefix a- is the usual way of negating absolutive forms:

a:dçùtvà not having seen, without having seen

Many verbal prefixes can also be tacked onto nouns, to create descriptive-determinative compounds:

prati:÷abdaþ responding sound, echo

adhi:pati overlord

Once a language has caught the compounding bug, things can get a little complicated. Consider the
following example:

waste paper basket a basket for paper that is waste

You can see that we really have two compounds here. First, we discover that we are not talking about any
old basket, but a waste paper basket. But waste paper itself is a descriptive determinative compound
(paper that is waste). Thus, using Coulson's system of punctuating compounds, we have (waste:paper)-
basket.

Knowing (or guessing) how to analyze these super-compounds can be crucial for understanding Classical
Sanskrit. Coulson gives several hair-raising examples, along with rules that will probably make your eyes
glaze over. But here is a simple rule of thumb.
Compounds are logically read backwards. The key term is at the end, and the terms that go most closely
with it are placed closest to it. Consider this frightful example from Coulson:

pratyagrasayaütanasnànasavi÷eùa÷ãtala completely cool from the recent evening

bath

You can read this monster backwards, grouping the modifiers into logical units as you go:

֋tala cool
savi÷eùa:÷ãtala completely cool
snàna-savi÷eùa:÷ãtala from bath completely cool
sayaütana:snàna-savi÷eùa:÷ãtala from evening bath completely cool
pratyagra:sayaütana:snàna- from recent evening bath completely
savi÷eùa:÷ãtala cool

In other words, reading Sanskrit compounds can be like reading Latin sentences. When in doubt, jump to
the end.

Finally, let's look at some tricky compound formations. The word purva (previous) is unusual in that it can
be placed either before or after another word in a compound:

purvakçta kçtapurva previously done

Likewise, keep an eye out for gataþ (gone to). In compounds, it can mean 'being in', 'about', or
'towards'

citragatà nàrã the picture-gone woman

the woman in the picture
putragataþ snehaþ son-gone affection affection
towards a son

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kùudra mean, common, low

tàtaþ (one's own) father
puruùaþ man
purva previous
mi÷ra mixed
vyakta evident, clear
spar÷aþ touch
kath (10), kathayati say, tell, relate
k×p (1), kalpate caus. be suitable arrange,
kalpayati prepare
prayuj (7), prayuïkte employ

Reading Vocabulary

Alokità proper name

avinayàþ lack of breeding, courtesy
astram missle, weapon
Urva÷i proper name
çtvij (nom. çtvik) priest
kùãra-vçkùaþ fig-tree
gàtram limb
Candraguptaþ proper name
darbhaþ a type of grass
nirvçta content, happy
prakàraþ manner, way
prabhàvaþ power
bhagavatã her reverence
madanaþ sexual love
madanodyànam Park of (the temple of) Love

yogacårõam magic powder

Ràkùasaþ proper name
Ràmàyanam name of an epic poem
vaõij (nom. vaõik) businessman, trader
vibhàgaþ part, portion
vivàdaþ disagreement, dispute
vçkùaþ tree
vedã sacrificial altar
saüstaraõaü (act of) strewing
samidh (f.) fire wood

kùud (1), kùodati past trample, tread

part. kùunna
dhç caus. dhàrayati hold, carry, wear
pratã (prati + i) caus. make confident
pratyàyati
prasthà (1), pratiùñhate set out
vikrã (9), vikrãõãte sell to (+ locative)
vicint (10), vicintayati consider, think of
vidhà (3), vidadhàti arrange, manage
tena hi therefore

Exercise 3

3. idam amàtyaràkùasagçhaü (idam amàtya:Ràkùasa-gçham). 5. suvicintitaü bhagavatyà. 8. tena hãmàü

kùãravçkùacchàyàmà÷rayàmaþ (tena hi imàm kùãra-vçkùa-cchàyàm à÷rayàmaþ). 11.
alamasmadavinayà÷aïkayà (alam asmat-avinaya-à÷aïkayà) [à÷aïka = apprehension]. 12. amàtya
kalpitamanena yogacårõami÷ramauùadhaü Candraguptàya (amàtya, kalpitam anena yogacårõami÷ram
auùadham Candraguptàya). 13. aye Urva÷igàtraspar÷àdiva nirvçtaü me ÷arãram (aye, Urva÷i-gàtra-spar÷àt
iva nirvçtam me ÷arãram). 15. yàvadimànvedãsaüstaraõàrthaü darbhànçtvigbhya upaharàmi (yàvat imàn
vedã-saüstaraõa-artham darbhàn çtvigbhyaþ upaharàmi) [-artham = for the sake of, in order to]. 16.
kathitamavalokitayà madanodyànaü gato madhava iti (kathitam Avalokitayà 'Madanodyànam gataþ
Madhavaþ' iti). 18. nàyaü kathàvibhàgo'smàbhiranyena và ÷rutapurvaþ (na ayam kathà-vibhàgaþ
asmàbhiþ anyena và ÷ruta:purvaþ).

5. This is a road trodden-by-the-common-people. 6. Clearly, these [n.] too were sold to us by a trader
employed-by-Càõakya. 10. It is this dispute which makes me confident. 11. The two of us set out for-the-
fetching-of-firewood. 13. That is well-managed on the occasion-of-the-entry-ofKalahaüsaka-and-
Makaranda. 14. What, [was] this ornament once-worn by my father? 16. Are these the-two-men-in-the-
Ràmàyaõa-story? 18. Quite different [anya] is this un-trodden: way-ofspeaking by Her Reverence. 19. This
must be [khalu] the power-of-the-Vàruõa-weapons employed-by-Prince-Lava.

Chapter 8

Day 1

Changeable-Stem Nouns

There is a class of nouns in Sanskrit in which not only the endings, but also the stems change significantly
as you go through the cases:

Singular Accusative ràjànam (king)

Singular Instrumental ràj¤à
Singular Locative ràjani

In these examples, you see the familiar endings of the consonant-stem declension, but the stem appears
in various grades. The strongest grade shows the element àn (ràjàn-am). In the middle grade, the vowel is
shortened (ràjani). In the weakest grade, a disappears altogether (ràj¤-à).

The causes of this variation can be traced to the Indo-European nominal system. In the old, old days,
accented syllables showed the stronger grades of a vowel, while unaccented syllables had the weakest
grade. In the 'oblique' cases (instrumental through locative), the accent shifted forward, and the original
long vowel would become short or simply disappear.

In the form-eat-form world of linguistic evolution, these changes were gradually eliminated. But they still
show up in a few words, such as ràjan (king) and nàman (name):

Singular Nominative ràjà (masculine) nàma (neuter)

Vocative ràjan nàma(n)
Accusative ràjànam nàma
Instrumental ràj¤à nàmnà
Dative ràj¤e nàmne
Ablative ràj¤aþ nàmnaþ
Genitive ràj¤aþ nàmnaþ
Locative ràjani, ràj¤i nàmani, nàmni

Dual Nominative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã

Vocative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã
Accusative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã
Instrumental ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm
Dative ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm
Ablative ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm
Genitive ràj¤oþ nàmnoþ
Locative ràj¤oþ nàmnoþ

Plural Nominative ràjànaþ nàmàni

Vocative ràjànaþ nàmàni
Accusative ràj¤aþ nàmàni
Instrumental ràjabhiþ nàmabhiþ
Dative ràjabhyaþ nàmabhyaþ
Ablative ràjabhyaþ nàmabhyaþ
Genitive ràj¤àm nàmnàm
Locative ràjasu nàmasu

In the paradigm for ràjan, the strong stem (ràjàn-) appears in the nominative, vocative, and accusative
cases (except the vocative singular and the accusative plural). The middle stem (ràjan-) appears as an
optional form in a few places (e.g., in the locative singular). Elsewhere, the weak stem (ràj¤-) is used,
although it occurs in two forms. Before endings that begin with a vowel, the n sound in retained and
assimilated to the previous palatal consonant (e.g., ràj¤à, ràj¤e, etc.). Before endings which begin with a
consonant, n is vocalized and becomes a (e.g., ràjabhyàm, ràjasu, etc., from *ràjnbhyam, ràjnsu).

Likewise, the stem for nàman occurs in a strong grade (nàman-) and in two versions of the weak grade
(nàmn-, nàma-).

The nominative singular is a special case (no pun intended). Ràjà and nàma actually show the strong
grade of the stem with no case-ending, but the final n has dropped off. This also happens in Latin (e.g.,
Plato, Platonis; contrast Greek Pla/twn, Pla/twnoj). Like Sanskrit, Latin has an entire class of -n- nouns
(e.g., sermo, sermonis; nomen, nominis), but the Romans simplified things by using either the strong grade
(sermºn-) or the weak grade (nomin-) in both the direct and oblique cases. That was a smart move.
Finally, let's jump ahead in Chapter 8 and look at words that signify the 'self'. English frequently uses self in
one of two ways: as a suffix for the intensive pronoun (he is coming himself), or as a suffix for the reflexive
pronoun (he is killing himself). Latin and Greek distinguish the two uses with different pronouns (ipse vs.
se; au0to/j vs. e9auto/n), but even these languages tend to blend the two concepts. This is true in
Sanskrit, as well.

First, Sanskrit has a reflexive adjective, sva, which corresponds to Latin suus. It often has the meaning own,
as in 'one's own servant' (svabçtyaþ). But unlike the Latin adjective, it need not refer only to the logical
subject of the clause:

ràmo'sya svabçtyaü pa÷yati (Ràmaþ asya Ràma sees that man's own servant (not his
svabçtyaü pa÷yati). own servant).

As an intensifier, Sanskrit employs the indeclinable form svayam. It is derived from sva, and thus it
sometimes has a reflexive meaning, too:

svayamàgacchati (svayam àgacchati). He is coming himself.

svayamadhigata (svayam adhigata) self-acquired, acquired by oneself

Another word for 'self' is àtman. This is a noun of the ràjan type, which is used in philosophical contexts to
denote the Self or real being, the subject of consciousness. The word is also used as a kind of reflexive
pronoun:

àtmànam pra÷aüsatha You are praising the self (yourselves).

Note that only the masculine singular forms of àtman are used, because àtman is technically a noun, not a
pronoun/adjective.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

àtman m. self
avasànam termination, end, conclusion

karman m. and n. deed, work

divasaþ day
doùaþ fault, inconvenience
dharmaþ relgious law, duty, piety
nàman n. name
ràjan m. king
sundara (f. -ã) beautiful

vid (II), vetti past know, learn, discover

participle vidita
Reading Vocabulary

aparàdhaþ offence
abhiyukta diligent
atravbhavatã this lady
arthaþ meaning, matter; purpose,
object
anvayaþ succession, lineage; family
Dakùiõàpathaþ southern region (of India),
the Deccan
dur:bodha difficult to understand
Padmapuram name of a city
pariõirvànam complete extinction
pratigrahaþ present (to a brahmin from a
king)
vatsaþ dear child
vçttàntaþ news, event, scene (of
activity)
ve÷man n. residence
sadç÷a (f. -ã) similar, suitable, worthy
÷aïkà suspicion

Exercise 1

2. kçtaü ràmasadç÷aü karma. 3. asti dakùiõàpathe padmapuraü nàma [named] nagaraü. 5.

ràmaõãyaþ khalu divasàvasànavçttanto ràjave÷mani (ràmaõãyaþ khalu divasa-avasàna-vçttantaþ ràja-
ve÷mani). 7. vatsa alamàtmàparàdha÷ankayà (vatsa, alam àtma-aparàdha-÷aõkayà). 9. kàü
punaratrabhavatãmavagacchàmi (kàm punar atrabhavatãm avagacchàmi?). 10. kumàra
nàyamatyantadurbodho'rthaþ (kumàra, na ayam atyanta:durbodhaþ arthaþ). 18. sundari aparinirvàõo
divasaþ (sundari, a:parinirvàõaþ divasaþ).

1. This is a present from the king. 5. Why, you [pl.] too are exhausted by this work-of-piety. 7.
Vçùala, these inconveniences happen to [bhu + genitive] kings [who are] themselves not-diligent. 10. Did
[my] friend [m.] learn her-family-and-name?

Day 2

Exocentric (Bahuvrãhi) Compounds

So far, we have studied the following compound formations:

Compound Type Sankrit Example Meaning

Coordinative (Dvandva) a÷vagajau horse and elephant
Dependent Determinative ràmadàsaþ servant-of-Rama
Descriptive Determinative mahàràjà great:king
Both coordinative and determinative compounds are self-enclosed. Coordinative compounds designate a
closed group, while determinative compounds designate a particular instance of the second element
(Rama-servant, great:king). This is technically called a hyponym.

There are many compounds in both English and Sanskrit, however, which have a different function
altogether:

two-footed one who has two feet

grim-faced one whose face is grim

These expressions do not indicate a particular pair of feet or a particular type of face; rather, their
meaning must be completed by a third element (e.g., a grim-faced warrior). English often uses the suffix -
ed to mark this type of compound, but this is not always the case:

two-car (garage) (a garage) that has two cars

This type of compound is called exocentric, because it does not 'center upon' or enclose itself. Rather, both
elements point to an 'external' (exo-) element, without which the compound makes no sense or changes
its meaning. Sanskrit grammarians also use the name bahuvrãhi, which means 'much-riced'. This is an
epithet of rich men, and it serves as an illustration of the exocentric function.

Exocentric compounds in Sanskrit are formed in the same way as determinative compounds. The first
element is posited in its basic form, and the second is inflected to agree with the noun it modifies, even if
this is only implied:

ugramukhàþ (naràþ) grim-faced (men)

Exocentric compounds can be difficult to identify, because they are essentially coordinative and
determinative compounds that have been kidnapped for a new semantic function. For example,
ugramukham could stand on its own as a descriptive compound (a grim face), but here it is being pressed
into service as a modifier of men. Coulson has devised a clever way of marking both the original and the
new functions of the compounded elements, using a subscript hyphen to signify an exocentric application:

ugra:mukhàþ (naràþ) grim:faced (men)

Another wrinkle is that determinative compounds sometimes function as modifiers, without thereby
becoming exocentric. You can see the difference when you compare these compounds:

well-educated (determinative) well-heeled (exocentric)

Well-educated does not require a shift of meaning when the two words are compounded: it just means
'educated well'. Well-heeled, on the other hand, does not mean 'heeled well', but rather 'having a good
[rich] heel'. The fact that an additional word ('having') is required to unpack the compound is a good
indicator of 'exocentricity'.

Sanskrit writers were fond of exocentric compounds, and they used them in all sorts of creative ways. This
can make analyzing and translating them rather tricky. At this stage of the game, it is good to have one or
two metaphrases (plug-in translations) handy for immediate use. The creation of fake participles in -ed is
one useful technique (e.g., grim-faced). Another is to affix 'having' to the compound:

ugra:mukhaþ (naraþ) (a man) having a grim face

Traditional Sanskrit grammarians also recommended turning the compound into a relative clause:

ugra:mukhaþ (naraþ) (a man) whose face is grim

But Coulson notes that these strategies can sometimes be misleading. For example, when participles are
involved in the compound, more than one translation is possible:

dçùñakaùñàþ (naràþ) (men) whose calamity is seen

(men) by whom calamity has been seen

For the time being, then, it is best to roll with the punches and get used to Sanskrit usage as we find it in
the exercises.

Let's conclude this unit with a few odds and ends from Coulson's chapter. We have already looked at the
'selfish' words (sva, svayam, àtman). He also mentions a class of adjectives and nouns derived from verbs,
which are marked by the suffix -ana:

Verbal root Derived Form Meaning

÷ubh (shine) ÷obhana shining, beautiful
nand (rejoice) nandana gladdening
dç÷ (see) dar÷anam (act of) seeing

Although nouns in this category may have the force of a gerund (act of...), they more often signify the
product or result of the verb:

Verbal root Derived Form Meaning

vac (speak, say) vacanam speaking; word
bhuj (enjoy, eat) bhojanam eating; food

A similar ambiguity exists in some English verbal derivations, such as 'action', which can mean
'acting' or 'act'.

Another interesting construction is the so-called predicative accusative, which also parallels English
usuage:

mårkhaü tvàmavagacchàmi (mårkhaü tvàm I think you a fool.

avagacchàmi).

Note that both tvàm and mårkhaü are in the accusative case. This construction is a handy device, because
can be used as a form of indirect statement (I deem you to be a fool; I think that you are a fool). Sanskrit
does not possess the tools developed in Latin and Greek for the latter construction (accusative + infinitive,
o9/ti, etc.), and so this is your main alternative to direct quotations with iti, discussed earlier:

mårkhaü tvàmavagacchàmi (mårkhaü tvàm I think you a fool.

avagacchàmi).
mårkhastvamityavagacchàmi (mårkaþ tvam 'Your are a fool', I think.
iti avagacchàmi).

Finally (and I mean it this time), Coulson notes two Sanskrit idioms for 'became' or 'has become':

eùo'smi nçpaþ saüvçttaþ (eùaþ asmi nçpaþ Behold, I am king happened. Behold, I
saüvçttaþ) have become king.
niþsahàsi jatà (niþsahà asi jatà) You (f.) are born exhausted.
You have become exhausted.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

gamanaü going
guõaþ merit, quality, worth
tàdç÷a of such a kind
daivam fate, chance, fortune
manas n. mind

adhigam (I), adhigacchati find; realize, perceive

jan causative beget, produce, arouse
janayati
saüvçt (I), saüvartate happen, become

kim tu but
tadà then, at that time
svayam -self, personally, etc.
hanta alas!
hi (enclitic) for (conjunction)

Reading Vocabulary

aïgurãyaka m., n. ring (for finger)

ati:bãbhatsa extremely repulsive, foul
anukåla favorite
apavàrita hidden
araõyaü forest
avasita terminated, over
àmodaþ scent
àyatanam abode
àsakta fastened, fixed, occupied
autsukyam eagerness
kañaka m.,n. (royal) camp
kaùàya astringent, sharp (of scent)
Kàma:devaþ the god of Love
kusumam flower
kesaram hair, filament
kautukam curiosity
krauryam cruelty
caryà movement, riding (in vehicle)

cittam thought, mind

jàpyam (muttered) prayer
Dàruvarman m. proper name
dur:vipàkaþ cruel turn (of fortune)
nàmadheyam appellation, name
nç÷aüsa injurious; m. monster
pariõàmaþ evolution, outcome
parivçta surrounded, having a retinue

pariùad f. assembly, audience

parãta overcome
pàdapaþ tree
puõóarãkam lotus
prabandhaþ (literary) work
bahumànaþ respect for (loc.)
manda sluggish, slack
mahànt great
mukham face
mudrà authorizing seal or stamp;
pass
rathaþ chariot
vaikhànasaþ hermit, anchorite
vaitàlikaþ royal bard
vaimanasyam despondency
vairam hostility
vya¤janam sign, insignia, disguise
÷àpaþ curse
֋tala cool
-sad dweller (in)
saüdhyà twilight, evening
siddha achieved
stambhaþ pillar
aïk (X), aïkayati brand, stamp
anukamp (I), anukampate sympathize with, take pity on

abhyas (abhi + as, I), familiar to one (through

abhyasyati practice)
past participle abhyasta
avanam (I), avanamati past bow down, bend down
participle avanata
utsva÷ (II), ucchvasiti bloom, blossom
upa÷ru (V), upa÷çnoti hear, learn of
nirdi÷ (nis + di÷, VI), nirdi÷ati designate, specify

niùkram(I) niùkràmati go out of (+ ablative)

parãkù (pari + ikù, I), examine, scrutinize
parãkùate
paryañ (pari + añ, I), wander about
paryañati
prativas (I), prativasati dwell, live (in)
pratyabhij¤à (prati + abhi + recognise
j¤a, IX), pratyabhijànàti
bandh (9), badhnàti past bind, fix, enter into
participle baddha (friendship or hate)
vàs (X), vàsayati perfume

adhastàt (+ genitive) beneath

itaþ from here
nanu why! well!
bho bhoþ ho there!

Exercise 2

1. hanta siddhàrthau svaþ (hanta, siddha:arthau svaþ). 4.vayasya itaþ stambhàpvàrita÷arirau

tiùñhàvaþ (vayasya, itaþ stambha-apavàrita:÷arirau tiùñhàvaþ). 6. kimarthamagçhãtamudraþ
kañakànniùkramasi (kim-artham a:gçhãta:mudraþ kañakàt niùkramasi?). 8. bhobhoþ
kiüprayojano'yama÷vaþ parivçtaþ paryañati? (bho bhoþ, kim:prayojanaþ ayam a÷vaþ parivçtaþ
paryañati?). 11. kiü tvamàtyaràkùasa÷cànakye baddhavairo na Candragupte (kim tu amàtya:Ràkùasaþ
Cànakye baddha:vairaþ, na Candragupte). 12. tadeùa svayaü parãkùitaguõànbràhmanànpreùayàmi (tat
eùaþ svayam parãkùita:guõàn bràhmanàn preùayàmi). 13. hà kaùñamatibãbhatsakarmà nç÷aüso'smi
saüvçttaþ (hà kaùñam, atibãbhatsa:karmà nç÷aüsaþ asmi saüvçttaþ). 14. kathaü kçtamahàparàdho'pi
bhagavatãbhyàmanukampito'ràmaþ (katham, kçta:mahà:aparàdhaþ api bhagavatãbhyàm anukampitaþ
Ràmaþ?). 16. sa tadaiva devyàþ Sãtàyàstàdç÷aü daivadurvipàkamupa÷rutya vaikhànasaþ saüvçttaþ (sa
tadà eva devyàþ Sãtàyàþ tàdç÷am daiva-durvipàkam upa÷rutya vaikhànasaþ saüvçttaþ). 17.
aphalamaniùñaphalaü và dàruvarmanaþ prayatnamadhigacchàmi (a:phalam ani:ùña:phalaü và
Dàruvarmanaþ prayatnam adhigacchàmi). 19. ÷akuntalàdar÷anàdeva mandautsukyo'smi nagaragamanaü
prati (øakuntalàdar÷anàt eva mand:autsukyaþ asmi nagara-gamanam prati).

2. I went, my curiosity-aroused-by-Avalokità, to the the temple of Kàmadeva. 3. This signet ring is

stamped-with-the-minister's-name. 4. We do not find a work with-the- qualities-specified-bythe-
audience. 6. 'See, I have become Kàmandakã.' 'And I, Avalokità.' 8. Then why are you standing [sthita]
with-the-lotus-of-your-face-bent-down. 9. For there lives a dear friend of mine [of me:] having-the-
disguise-of-a-royal-bard, called Stanakala÷a. 11. Dearest, even the cruelty practised [prayukta] by me
upon you has come [saüvçt] to-have-a-favorable-outcome. 12. Though my-mind-is-concerned-with [gata]-
Urva÷i, I have the same respect for Her Majesty. 13. But we are forest-dwellers, to-whom-riding-in-a-
chariot-is-unfamiliar. 14. So let us (both) just sit beneath this very kà¤canàra tree, which-perfumes-the-
garden-with-a-sharkp-cool-scent-from-thefilaments-of-blossomed-flowers. Right.

Chapter 9

Day 1

Stems in Short I and U; -Vant, -Mant

Beginning students of Greek experience some frustration when they learn the so-called Third Declension.
No sooner have they mastered the consonant-stem forms of nouns such as fu/lac than they encounter a
trainwreck in po/lij, ge/noj, h9du/j, etc. Most of the confusion stems from the fact that, in these nouns,
the stem ends in a vowel, rather than a consonant (e.g., gene-oj > ge/nouj).

Sanskrit also has a number of 'consonant-stem' nouns and adjectives whose stem actually ends in a vowel
(i or u). The situation is complicated by the infiltration of endings from other declensions. Have a look at
the adjective ÷uci (clean):

Sing. Nominative ÷uciþ (m.) ÷uci (n.) ÷uciþ (f.)

Vocative ÷uce ÷uci ÷uce
Accusative ÷ucim ÷uci ÷ucim
Instrumental ÷ucinà ÷ucinà ÷ucyà
Dative ÷ucaye ÷ucine ÷ucyai
Ablative ÷uceþ ÷ucinaþ ÷ucyàþ
Genitive ÷uceþ ÷ucinaþ ÷ucyàþ
Locative ÷ucau ÷ucini ÷ucyàm

Dual Nominative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã

Vocative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã
Accusative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã
Instrumental ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm
Dative ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm
Ablative ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm
Genitive ÷ucyoþ ÷ucinoþ ÷ucyoþ
Locative ÷ucyoþ ÷ucinoþ ÷ucyoþ
Plural Nominative ÷ucayaþ ÷ucãni ÷ucayaþ
Vocative ÷ucayaþ ÷ucãni ÷ucayaþ
Accusative ÷ucãn ÷ucãni ÷ucãþ
Instrumental ÷ucibhiþ ÷ucibhiþ ÷ucibhiþ
Dative ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ
Ablative ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ
Genitive ÷ucãnàm ÷ucãnàm ÷ucãnàm
Locative ÷uciùu ÷uciùu ÷uciùu

To sort this mess, let's look at the neuter forms first. The basic stem is ÷uci. The infix -n- appears before
vowel endings (e.g., ÷ucine, ÷ucinaþ), but not before consonants (÷ucibhyàm, etc.). The infix is sometimes
omitted on neuter adjectives, which then resemble the masculine forms.

On the feminine side, we find the singular endings -yai, -yàþ, and -yàm. These have been borrowed from
the feminine -ã declension (cf. nadã), and they are optional. Originally, masculine and feminine forms
were identical (cf. Latin facilis).

The remaining forms, which are masculine or masculine/feminine, seem less predictable. Most are built on
the stem ÷uci. When the ending begins with a consonant, it can be added directly to this stem (e.g.,
÷ucibhiþ). When the ending begins with a vowel, the -i may become a semi-vowel (÷ucyoþ) or combined
according to the sandhi rules with the ending (÷uci + aþ = ÷uceþ). A 'stronger' form of the stem appears in
the nominative/vocative plural (÷ucayaþ), as well as the dative singular (÷ucaye; cf. po/lij, dative po/le-i).
Finally, a number of forms may remind you of the -a declension (÷uciþ, ÷ucim, ÷ucinà, ÷ucãn, ÷ucãnàm).
Thus, nouns of this type are a mixed bag.

Luckily, the -u forms follow the same pattern, except that u replaces i and v replaces y:

Sing. Nominative mçduþ (m.) mçdu (n.) mçduþ (f.)

Vocative mçdo mçdu mçdo
Accusative mçdum mçdu mçdum
Instrumental mçdunà mçdunà mçdvà
Dative mçdave mçdune mçdvai
Ablative mçdoþ mçdunaþ mçdvàþ
Genitive mçdoþ mçdunaþ mçdvàþ
Locative mçdau mçduni mçdvàm

Dual Nominative mçdå mçdunã mçdå

Vocative mçdå mçdunã mçdå
Accusative mçdå mçdunã mçdå
Instrumental mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm
Dative mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm
Ablative mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm
Genitive mçdvoþ mçdunoþ mçdvoþ
Locative mçdvoþ mçdunoþ mçdvoþ

Plural Nominative mçdavaþ mçdåni mçdavaþ

Vocative mçdavaþ mçdåni mçdavaþ
Accusative mçdån mçdåni mçdåþ
Instrumental mçdubhiþ mçdubhiþ mçdubhiþ
Dative mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ
Ablative mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ
Genitive mçdånàm mçdånàm mçdånàm
Locative mçduùu mçduùu mçduùu

Of the two types, the short -i declension is the more common, since many substantives at the end of
bahuvrãhi compounds adopt these forms.

Another type of consonant-stem form is marked with the suffix -vant/-mant. This is one handy way of
turning a noun into an adjective (e.g., pakùa, wing > pakùavant, winged). -Mant replaces vant after certain
sounds (i, u, short ç, o, iù, uù), but it may show up on other stems as well.

Here is the complete paradigm of dhanavant (rich):

Sing. Nominative dhanavàn (m.) dhanavat (n.) dhanavatã (f.)

Vocative dhanavan dhanavat dhanavati
Accusative dhanavantam dhanavat dhanavatãm
Instrumental dhanavatà dhanavatà dhanavatyà
Dative dhanavate dhanavate dhanavatyai
Ablative dhanavataþ dhanavataþ dhanavatyàþ
Genitive dhanavataþ dhanavataþ dhanavatyàþ
Locative dhanavati dhanavati dhanavatyàm

Dual Nominative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau

Vocative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau
Accusative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau
Instrumental dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm
Dative dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm
Ablative dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm
Genitive dhanavatoþ dhanavatoþ dhanavatyoþ
Locative dhanavatoþ dhanavatoþ dhanavatyoþ

Plural Nominative dhanavantaþ dhanavanti dhanavatyaþ

Vocative dhanavantaþ dhanavanti dhanavatyaþ
Accusative dhanavataþ dhanavanti dhanavatãþ
Instrumental dhanavadbhiþ dhanavadbhiþ dhanavatãbhiþ
Dative dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavatãbhyaþ
Ablative dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavatãbhyaþ
Genitive dhanavatàm dhanavatàm dhanavatãnàm
Locative dhanavatsu dhanavatsu dhanavatãùu

These forms are quite predictable, thank Heaven. The feminine forms are all taken from the -ã paradigm
(cf. nadã). In the masculine and neuter columns, you see the strong and weak grades of the stem
(dhanavant- and dhanavat-, respectively) in the usual places. Before an ending beginning with a voiced
consonant, dhanavat- becomes dhanavad- (e.g., dhanavadbhyàm).

You have probably noticed that forms in -vant bear an uncanny resemblance to active participles in both
Greek and Latin (e.g. amantes, pau/santej, etc.). In Sanskrit, the -vant suffix can be added to the past
participle, which is usually passive, to create a past active participle (e.g., likhitavant-, having written). This
makes it possible to avoid constant recourse to the passive construction:

tena likhito lekhaþ. The letter [is] written by him.

The letter has been written by him.
sa lekhaü likhitivàn. He [is] in-a-state-of-having-written the
letter.
He has written the letter.

This formation is unnecessary if the past participle already has an active sense:

sa vanaü gataþ. He has gone to the forest.

Finally, a note on etiquette. Many languages, including modern ones such as Spanish, substitute the third
person for the second as a mark of respect. In Sanskrit, direct address in the second person is permissible,
but there are various titles and circumlocutions that can be used instead, often with verbs in the third
person. Here are a few examples:

bhavant (fem. bhavatã) [your] Reverence (cf. Spanish Usted, from

Vuestra Merced, 'Your Mercy', and
Romanian Dumneavoastra, 'Your Lordship').

àryaþ (fem. àryà) noble one, excellency

àyuùmant long-lived one (often used when addressing
a king)

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

agni m. fire
çùi m. seer
guru heavy; m. teacher, elder,
senior, guardian
dhãmant wise
patnã dharma-patnã wife lawful
wife
prakçti f. nature, disposition; subjects
of a king
bhavant you
hetu m. motive, ground for
(+locative)

upalabh (I), upalabhate acquire, ascertain, discover

nikùip (VI) nikùipati throw, cast into (locative),

place, deposit
vac (II), vakti past say
part. ukta

hi assuredly

Reading Vocabulary

aïguli, aïgulã (f.) finger

a¤jali the hands joined together
(in salutation or for alms)
atyudàra proud, noble
anu_råpa conformable, suitable,
proper
aparàgaþ disaffection
a:pårva unprecedented, strange
a:viùayaþ [non-sphere:] matter
beyond the scope of
àkhyà appellation, name
tatrabhavatã that lady
paravant [having another:] under
another's control; beside
oneself, overwhelmed
Puõóarãkaþ proper name
bakulam bakula-tree blossom
bahumànaþ respect
bhagavant reverend (sir)
Bhårivasu masculine proper name
ramaõãya attractive
viùam viùa-kanyà poison poison-girl

velà time (of day)

vyasanam weak spot, weakness
sakhe (voc. of sakhi) friend
sàdhu good; bravo!
homaþ oblation, sacrifice

abhidhà (III), abhidadhàti say, speak

past part. abhihita
upasthà (I), upatiùñhate stand near, be at hand
past participle upastitha
tarj, caus. tarjayati threaten, scold
nivid, caus. nivedayati report, inform somone
(dat., gen.) of something
(accusative)
pratibudh (VI), wake up (intransitive)
pratibhudyate
han, caus. ghàtayati cause to be killed, have
killed

kaccid perhaps...?
nàma indeed
pràk previously, before

Exercise 1

1. kimuktavànasi (kim uktavàn asi?). 3. kçtà¤jaliþ praõamati (kçta:a¤jaliþ praõamati). 5. sakhe Puõóarãka
naitadanuråpaü bhavataþ (sakhe Puõóarãka, na etat anuråpam bhavataþ). 6. yàvadupasthitàü homavelàü
gurave nivedayàmi (yàvat upasthitàm homa-velàm gurave nivedayàmi). 7. kaccidahamiva
vismçtavàüstvamapi (kaccid aham iva vismçtavàüs tvam api?).
8. paravanto vayaü vismayena (paravantaþ vayam vismayena). 9. àryàpi satrorvyasanamupalabdham (àrya,
api satroþ vyasanam upalabdham?) 12. bhagavan na khalu ka÷cidaviùayo nàma dhãmatàü (bhagavan, na
khalu kaþ cit a:viùayaþ nàma dhãmatàm). 13. øakuntalà sakhãmaïgulyà tarjayati (øakuntalà sakhãm
aïgulyà tarjayati). 14. sàdhu sakhe Bhårivaso sàdhå. 15. kimayaü pratibuddho'bhihitavàn (kim ayam
pratibuddhaþ abhihitavàn?). 16. atha sà tatrabhavatã kimàkhyasya ràjaçùeþ patnã (atha sà tatrabhavatã
kim:àkhyasya ràja:çùeþ patnã?).

3. But where did Màlatã see Màdhava before? 5. What do you [bhavant, pl.] say? 6. Màlatã has-anoble-
nature. 7. The riches of Minister-Bhårivasu are indeed attractive. 9. I told you [bhavant] the story
[vçttàntaþ]-of-my-first-sight of øakuntalà. 13. A rather [ko'pi] strange ground-for-respect towards [locative]
[one's] elders, Saudhàtaki. 14. This [man], employed-by-Rakùasa, had Parvate÷vara killed by a poison-girl.
15. [She] casts the garland-of-bakulas into Màdhava's joined hands. 19. To Candragupta's-subjects
assuredly it is Cànakya's-faults which are grounds-fordisaffection. 21. Bravo, Vçsala, bravo!

Day 2
Middle Voice (âtmanepada); More on Compounds; Word-Building

Most of the finite verbs you have learned so far have active forms, or what Sanskrit grammarians call
parasmaipada ('word for another'). There is another set of verb-forms, which in Greek are called middle.
The Sanskrit term is àtmanepada ('word for oneself'). Originally, middle forms conveyed the idea that the
action affects the subject:

Active Voice yajati he (the priest) sacrifices (on

behalf of someone else)

Middle Voice yajate he (the devotee) sacrifices

(for his own benefit)

This is comparable to the difference in Greek between lu/ei (he sets free) and lu/etai (he ransoms). The
middle voice implies that the subject has a 'vested interest' in the action.

Note, by the way, that we are not speaking here of passive forms. The passive voice did not exist as a
separate formal category in Proto-Indo-European, and IE languages had to come up with various ways of
creating it. In Sanskrit, most of the weight is carried by the passive participle, but there are also other
passive forms, which we will learn later.

As Coulson points out, the original force of the middle voice became blunted, with the result that some
verbs have both active and middle forms with exactly the same meaning:

Active Voice cintayati he thinks

Middle Voice cintayate he thinks

Other verbs possess only middle forms. Many of these are intransitive verbs, such as vartate (he is, exists,
etc.; cf. Latin versatur). But others are middle for no obvious reason:

Middle Voice Only upalabh (I), upalabhate acquire, ascertain, discover

Thus, it is probably better to think of the middle voice as an accidental distinction, like grammatical gender.
Dictionaries will alert you to the existence of active and middle forms for a given verb, and whether there
is any semantic distinction between them.

Here are the middle forms for the present tense of the verb nã (nayati; middle nayate):

1st Singular naye (I lead)

2nd nayase
3rd nayate
1st Dual nayàvahe
2nd nayethe
3rd nayete
1st Plural nayàmahe
2nd nayadhve
3rd nayante

Note that the middle endings somewhat resemble the active forms you have already learned. In many
cases, the difference is that the vowel i has been replaced by e (cf. the diphthong ai in lu/etai, etc.). The
stem vowel e in naye, nayethe, and nayete results from internal sandhi combining the stem vowel a with
the endings i, ithe, and ite.

So much for the middle voice; now let's return to compounds. We have already learned the main
compound-fomations in Sanskrit: coordinative, determinative, and exocentric. In this chapter, Coulson ties
together some loose ends. First, he notes that some prepositional compounds do not fit the usual pattern,
in that the relationship between the elements is neither coordinative nor determinative. Consider these
examples in English:

over:load (determinative) an excessive load

over:sexed (exocentric, based on a one whose sexual behavior is excessive
determinative)
over_head (exocentric, not based on a one that stands over the head
determinative)

In the first two examples, over modifies load and sexed as if it were an adjective or adverb. But in the last
example, it functions simply as a preposition with head. Thus, we can think of such compounds as
prepositional phrases that have been turned into adjectives. Their function is necessarily exocentric.

Into this class fall a number of compounds with the elements sa- (with, and, having) and nis- (without,
lacking):

sa_viùam auùadham with_poison medicine medicine

containing poison
nir_à÷aü kulam without_hope family hopeless
family

Coulson also mentions compounds with the prefix yathà-, meaning as:

yathà_nirdiùña as_specified

Prepositional compounds of this type often become adverbs:

à_målam to the root, radically

prati-dinam by day, daily

Coulson rounds out his lesson with some observations about world-building. These are not rules to be
memorized, but they can be a great help to the memory as the vocabulary piles up.

First, a great many verbs in Sanskrit are derived from nouns and adjectives (cf. blacken, from the adjective
black). Often, this is accomplished by adding -ya to the nominal stem:
tapas (religious austerity) tapasyati (he practices austerities)
namas (homage) namasyati (he pays homage)
deva (god) devayati (he cultivates the gods)

Another common device for building vocabulary is to raise the grade of the root vowel to vrãddhi, the
highest grade:

øiva (the god Shiva) ÷aiva (devoted to Shiva)

÷aivaþ (devotee of Shiva)
puram (city) paura (urban) pauraþ
(citizen)
vidyà (learning) vaidya (learned)
vaidyaþ (doctor, physician)

In particular, two types of nouns are created in this way. One class includes patronymic or
'descent' names, such as Pauravaþ (descendant of Puru). The Pauravas and Kauravas are the 'Hatfields and
McCoys' of the Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata. Another type includes abstract substantives, such as
saujanyam (benevolence) from sujanaþ (good person).

Finally, a curious example of compounding involves janaþ (person, people; cf. gens). As the second
element in a compound, it means 'person' or 'folk':

kàmi:janaþ love:person, a lover love:folk,

lovers (in general)
guru:janaþ teacher-person, tutor teacher-folk,
elders

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

cetas n. mind, heart

j¤a knowing, aware of,
recognising
tapas n. religious austerity
màlà garland
lajjà shame, embarrassment

man (IV), manyate think, suppose

vçt (I), vartate exist
vçdh (I), vardhate increase, prosper

tataþ thereupon, then

nis- without, lacking
yathà- as-
sa- with-, etc.

Reading Vocabulary

atikrànta gone:beyond, past

atidàruõa dreadful
anvita accompanied by, full of

arthaþ meaning
avagrahaþ obstacle, restraint
àtapaþ heat (esp. of sun)
àtma-jà [born of oneself:] daughter
àyuùmant long-lived
à÷rama-padam site of hermitage, hermitage

àsanna near; beside

ugra fierce
utsuka eager
utsukam eagerness
upakàraþ help, aiding (of)
upajàpaþ instigation to rebellion,
'overtures'
upapanna suitable, possible
Kaõvaþ proper name
gàthà verse
tatrabhavant his honor
dàruõa cruel
nir_utsuka without eagerness
paryàpta sufficient
pàrthivaþ king, ruler
praõidhi m. (secret) agent
pratij¤à promise
prahçùña delighted
brahman n. religious chastity
bhadra good; good fellow
bhavanam house, residence
mandàraþ mandàra:vçkùakaþ coral-tree

mahiman m. greatness
Mahendraþ the great Indra
mçgayà hunting, the chase
yathokta as stated, as described
rathyà carriage-road, street
ramaõãya attractive
lekhaþ letter, epistle
valaya m., n. bracelet, circle, enclosure
vikramaþ valour
vighnaþ obstacle, hindrance
vibhåti splendour, wealth; riches
vivasvant m. [the Shining One:] the sun
Viùõu÷arman m. proper name
vismayaþ astonishment
Vaidheha belong to the country of
Videha
vyàpàraþ occupation
÷atru m. enemy
÷à÷vata (f. -ã) perpetual
sacivaþ counsellor, minister
saüdar÷anam sight, beholding
saünihita present (as opp. absent)
samàgamaþ meeting with, union
saübhàvya credible
saümardaþ crush, encounter, throng
sutà daughter
Saudhàtaki m. proper name

anusthà (I), anutiùñhati past make an oblation, sacrifice

participle anuùñhita
anusmç (I), anusmarati remember
abhivad caus. greet
abhivàdayate
àdi÷ (VI), àdi÷ati order, proclaim
à÷aïk (I), à÷aïkate fear, doubt, be afraid
utkaõñhate denom. long for, be in love with (+
genitive)
kùam (I), kùamate be patient, endure
gam, caus. gamayati spend (time)
tarj, caus. tarjayati threaten, scold
dah (I), dahati burn
nivçt (I) nivartate go back, return
parivçdh, caus. parivardhayati cause to grow, tend (plants)

prasthà, caus. prasthàpayati despatch

samcar (I), samcarate walk, stroll

samdi÷ (VI), saüdi÷ati command
samç, caus. samarpayati hand over to (gen., dat.)
sammantr (X), saümantrayati take counsel, consult

smç, caus. smàrayati cause to remember, remind

atha now...
kim iti with what in mind? why?
pràyeõa generally
bahu÷aþ often

Exercise 2

2. saüprati nivartàmahe vayam. 4. sarvànabhivàdaye vaþ (sarvàn abhivàdaye vaþ). 10. tatkimityàùaïkase
(tat kim iti à÷aïkase?) 11. ahamadhunà yathàdiùñamanutiùñhàmi (aham adhunà yathà àdiùñam
anutiùñhàmi). 17. bhadràthàgniprave÷e suhçdaste ko hetuþ (bhadra, atha agni-prave÷e [locative noun]
suhçdaþ te kaþ hetuþ?) 18. paravatã khalu tatrabhavatã na ca saünihitagurujanà (paravatã khalu
tatrabhavatã, na ca saünihita:guru:janà). 19. diùñyà dharmapatnãsamàgamena putramukhasaüdar÷anena
ca àyuùmànvardhate (diùñyà dharma-patnãsamàgamena putra-mukhasaüdar÷anena ca àyuùmàn
vardhate). 20. tatkimayamàryeõa salekhaþ puruùaþ Kusumapuraü prasthàpitaþ? (tat kim ayam àryeõa
sa_lekhaþ puruùaþ Kusumapuram prasthàpitaþ?) 21. tatrabhavàïkaõvaþ ÷à÷vate brahmaõi vartate, iyaü
ca vaþ sakhã tasyàtmajeti kathametat (tatrabhavàn Kaõvaþ ÷à÷vate brahmaõi vartate, iyam ca vaþ sakhã
tasya àtmajà iti katham etat?) 22. mamàpi kaõvasutàmanusmçtya mçgayàü prati nirutsukaü cetaþ (mama
api
Kaõva-sutàm anusmçtya mçgayàm prati nir_utsukam cetaþ). 23. api
Candraguptadoùàtikràntapàrthivaguõànsmàrayanti prakçtãþ (api Candragupta-doùàþ atikrànta:pàrthiva-
guõàn smàrayanti prakçtãþ?) 24. etàmasaübhàvyàü bràhmanasya pratij¤àü ÷rutvà sasacivaþ ràjà
prahçùtamanà vismayànvitaþ sabahumànaü tasmai Viùõu÷armaõe kumàrànsamarpitivàn (etàm
a:saübhàvyàm bràhmanasya pratij¤àm ÷rutvà sa_sacivaþ ràjà prahçùta:manà vismaya-anvitaþ
sa_bahumànam tasmai Viùõu÷armaõe kumàràn samarpitivàn).

1. Is [your] austerity without-hindrance? 2. Friend Makaranda, are you [bhavant] in love with
Madayantikà? 4. Lady, a shame-less Lakùmaõa herewith [eùaþ] salutes [you]. 8. There is a dreadful throng-
of-people. 10. Reverend Arundhatã, I, Sãradhvaja (King) of Videha greet [you]. 11. Are Candragupta's-
subjects responding to [kùam] our-overtures? 12. He thinks me actually not-present. 16. [I] congratulate
you [bhavant] on your-greatness-in-valor, sufficient-for-theaiding-of-Mahendra. 17. Thereupon there
enters, her-occupation-as-described, together with two [female] friends, øakuntalà. 18. Truly [nanu],
friend, we [two] often walk along [instrumental] the very street-beside-the-minister's-residence--so this is
possible. 20. Friend, the sun burns withoutrestraint, as cruel as fate. 22. Ah! the meaning-of-the-verse is 'I
am one-who-has-[j¤à]-news-ofKusumapara, and your-agent. 23. See, we two have entered Prajàpati's
hermitage, its-coral-treestended-by-Aditi. 24. The time when-the-heat-is-fierce that lady generally spends
with-her-friends on the banks-of-the-Màlinã with [vant]-[their]-enclosures-of-creepers.

Chapter 10

Day 1
Noun-Stems in -ä, -æ, -In, -Ti

We have already seen nouns such as nadã (river), of which the stem consists of more than one syllable
and ends in -ã. There is a corresponding type that ends in -å, exemplified by vadhå (f., woman):

Singular Nominative nadã vadhåþ

Vocative nadi vadhu
Accusative nadãm vadhåm
Instrumental nadyà vadhvà
Dative nadyai vadhvai
Ablative nadyàþ vadhvàþ
Genitive nadyàþ vadhvàþ
Locative nadyàm vadhvàm

Dual Nominative nadyau vadhvau

Vocative nadyau vadhvau
Accusative nadyau vadhvau
Instrumental nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm
Dative nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm
Ablative nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm
Genitive nadyoþ vadhvoþ
Locative nadyoþ vadhvoþ
Plural Nominative nadyaþ vadhvaþ
Vocative nadyaþ vadhvaþ
Accusative nadãþ vadhåþ
Instrumental nadãbhiþ vadhåbhiþ
Dative nadãbhyaþ vadhåbhyaþ
Ablative nadãbhyaþ vadhåbhyaþ
Genitive nadãnàm vadhånàm
Locative nadãùu vadhåùu

With the exception of the nominative singular, the forms of vadhå are parallel to those of nadã, except
that i is replaced by u, and y by v.

There are also stems in -ã and -å that consist of only one syllable; these are declined somewhat like
consonant-stems. Our examples are dhã (f., thought) and bhå (earth):

Singular Nominative dhãþ bhåþ

Vocative dhãþ bhåþ
Accusative dhiyam bhuvam
Instrumental dhiyà bhuvà
Dative dhiye bhuve
Ablative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ
Genitive dhiyaþ bhuvaþ
Locative dhiyi bhuvi

Dual Nominative dhiyau bhuvau

Vocative dhiyau bhuvau
Accusative dhiyau bhuvau
Instrumental dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm
Dative dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm
Ablative dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm
Genitive dhiyoþ bhuvoþ
Locative dhiyoþ bhuvoþ

Plural Nominative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ

Vocative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ
Accusative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ
Instrumental dhãbhiþ bhåbhiþ
Dative dhãbhyaþ bhåbhyaþ
Ablative dhãbhyaþ bhåbhyaþ
Genitive dhiyàm bhuvàm
Locative dhãùu bhåùu

Note that the stem before endings begining with a consonant is dhã- or bhå- (e.g., dhãbhiþ, bhåbhiþ). If
the ending begins with a vowel, the stem changes to dhiy- and bhuv-, respectively.

A somewhat irregular noun of this type is strã, yet another word for 'woman'. Although it has a
monosyllabic stem, it has the same endings as nadã. In a few cases, however, it shows optional endings of
the monosyllabic type (e.g., accusative singular striyam). The whole paradigm can be seen in Coulson,
page 237.
We have also seen how the suffix -vant (-mant) can be used to form 'characteristic' terms (e.g., pakùavant,
winged, dhãmant, wise), as well as active participles (likhitavant, having written). Another productive
suffix is -in. An example of this derivation is dhanin (rich):

Singular Nominative dhanã (masculine) dhani (neuter)

Vocative dhanin dhani, dhanin
Accusative dhaninam dhani
Instrumental dhaninà dhaninà
Dative dhanine dhanine
Ablative dhaninaþ dhaninaþ
Genitive dhaninaþ dhaninaþ
Locative dhanini dhanini
Dual Nominative dhaninau dhaninã
Vocative dhaninau dhaninã
Accusative dhaninau dhaninã
Instrumental dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm
Dative dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm
Ablative dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm
Genitive dhaninoþ dhaninoþ
Locative dhaninoþ dhaninoþ

Plural Nominative dhaninaþ dhanãni

Vocative dhaninaþ dhanãni
Accusative dhaninaþ dhanãni
Instrumental dhanibhiþ dhanibhiþ
Dative dhanibhyaþ dhanibhyaþ
Ablative dhanibhyaþ dhanibhyaþ
Genitive dhaninàm dhaninàm
Locative dhaniùu dhaniùu

The feminine forms, dhaninã, etc., are declined like nadã. Formations with -in function in much the same
way as those with -vant. In fact, they are often interchangeable:

dhanavant rich
dhanin rich

balavant strong
balavin strong

This suffix can also be added to verbal roots to create something like a present participle:

Verbal Root Suffixed Form Meaning

pat (fall, fly) pàtin falling, flying
bhuj (enjoy) bhojin enjoying
sthà (stand) sthàyin remaining, stable

This is not quite a true participle, however, because it cannot govern a direct object in the accusative case.
Its function is rather to characterize something:
vimar÷acchedi vacanaü (vimar÷a-cchedi The speech is doubt-removing.
vacanam).

Additionally, the suffix -ti can be added to verbal roots to create verbal nouns in -ing (or their equivalent).
These words are equivalent to the English gerund, as in 'Seeing is believing':
gati going, procedure, course
dçùti seeing, sight
bhakti devotion
siddhi achievement

They are formed by changing the ending of the past participle from -a to -i. They are declined like
÷uci.

Finally, Coulson notes that the adjective mahant (great) is somewhat irregular, having a strong stem in -ànt
and middle and weak stems in -at (mahat). The feminine is mahatã. The stem form in compounds is
mahà- (for descriptive compounds) or mahat-.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

asuraþ demon
gçham quarters, chamber
balam force, strength; sg. or pl.
military forces
balàt forcibly
muni m. sage
vayas n. youth, age
sakhã [female] friend; wife of
one's friend
suraþ god
svàmin m. master

àkçù (I), àkarùati drag, draw

àpad (IV), àpadyate past attain, come to
participle àpanna
nisgam (I), nirgacchati go away, retire from

Reading Vocabulary

an:adhyayanam non-studying holiday

from lessons
apathya-kàrin doing-what-is- unwholesome
[to king], traitor

àyudham weapon
utsarpin high-soaring
kalakalaþ conciliation, winning over
kidç÷a (f. -ã) of what kind? of what
 kind! What (a)...!

gçha-janaþ family, wife

Candanadàsaþ proper name
tãkùõa sharp, severe; poison
taikùõyam sharpness
trikàlam the-three-times; past,
present, and future
daõóaþ stick; punishment
dar÷in seeing, that see
nyàyya regular, right
pakùa-pàtin on the side of, partial to
Pa¤cavañã name of a place
pratyàsanna near, at hand, about
pràrthanà longing
bañu m. young brahmin (student);
fellow (used
contemptuously)
bhàvin future, imminent
Manmathaþ (name of the god of) Love
vimardaþ conflict
vihàrin roaming
÷iùña learned
÷iùñ-ànadhyayanam holiday in honor of learned
guests
÷reùñhin m. merchant, eminent
businessman
suhçttamaþ close friend

parihç (I), pariharati avoid, shun, resist

aho bata oh alas!

kila apparently, it seems that
bhoþ oh! ho!

Exercise 1

2. mahati viùàde vartate te sakhãjanaþ (mahati viùàde vartate te sakhã:janaþ). 6. bloþ ÷reùñhin
Candanadàsa evamapathyakàriùu tãkùõadaõóo ràjà (bloþ ÷reùñhin Candanadàsa, evam apathyakàriùu
tãkùõa:daõóaþ ràjà). 8. pratyàsannaþ kila mçgayà-vihàrã pàrthivo duþùantaþ (pratyàsannaþ kila mçgayà-
vihàrã pàrthivaþ Duþùantaþ). 13. bhagavanmanmatha kutaste kusumàyudhasya taikùõyametat (bhagavan
Manmatha, kutaþ te kusum:àyudhasya taikùõyam etat?). 16. aho bata kãdç÷ãü vayovasthàmàpanno'smi
(aho bata, kãdç÷ãm vayaþ-avasthàm àpannaþ asmi). 17. adya ÷iùñànadhyayanamiti khelatàü
bañånàmayaü kalakakaþ (adya ÷iùñànadhyayanam iti khelatàü bañånàm ayaü kalakalaþ). 25. mayà tàvat
suhçttamasya Candanadàsasya gçhe gçhajanam nikùipya nagaràn nirgacchatà nyàyyam anuùñhitam (mayà
tàvat suhçttamasya Candanadàsasya gçhe gçha-janam nikùipya nagaràn nirgacchatà nyàyyam
anuùñhitam).

5. Sages-that-see-past-present-and-future have proclaimed [àdi÷] a-conflict-[between]-gods-anddemons

[to be] imminent. 13. Though I am resisting [parihç], love-of-Pa¤cavatã seems to draw me forcibly. 17. The
longing of great [men] is of course [high-soaring] for higher things. 19. (Being) partial-to-your-merits, I
have forgotten the merits-of-my-master.

Day 2

The Present Participle; the Imperative

In the last unit we saw that the suffixes -vant and -in create words that can be translated as participles
(...ing). These are not technically participles, however, because they cannot take their own direct object.

So what does a real present participle look like? Inquire no further! Active forms contain the element -ant-
(cf. ag-ent-em and lu/-ont-a), while middle forms contain -amàn- (cf. lu-o/men-oj):

nayant leading
vartamàna going on

Since a participle is a verbal adjective and must agree with a noun or pronoun, these forms are declined.
The good news is that active participles decline like adjectives in -vant, except for the nominative singular:

Singular Nominative nayan (masculine, neuter) nayantã (feminine)

The neuter NVA dual form is also nayantã. Middle participles decline like kànta (i.e., like a÷va, phalam,
and senà). See Coulson, page 236.

The participle of the verb as (to be) is sant, fem. satã. ('Being' can also mean 'real, authentic, virtuous',
and thus a 'virtuous' [satã] wife was one who immolated herself on her husband's funeral pyre. The
practice of suttee was outlawed under British rule.)

As in Latin and Greek, the present participle indicates action that is contemporaneous with the main verb:

màlatãmupaharannagoraghaõñaþ Agoraghaõñaþ was slain [while] sacrificing

vyàpàditaþ (Màlatãm upaharan Malati.
Agoraghaõñaþ vyàpàditaþ).

Note that the participle agrees with Agoraghaõñaþ and it governs its own accusative object (Màlatãm).

A present participle will sometimes have a causal or concessive sense (the latter with api):

atmanà kçto'yaü doùaþ This mischief was done by [my]self [in]

Saüjãvakamànayatà (atmanà kçtaþ ayam bringing Saüjãvikaü.
doùaþ Saüjãvakam ànayatà). It's all my fault, because I brought
Saüjãvikaü.
Note that in English we sometimes use the present participle in a perfective sense (e.g., after seeing,
meaning after having seen). In Sanskrit, however, this is usually rendered with the absolutive construction:

nçpaü dç÷tvà vanaü gacchàmaþ. After seeing the king, let us go to the
forest.

So much for participles; now, let's change the mood! The imperative is used to express what the speaker
wants to happen. In the second person, it is the commanding mood (go!). In the third person, it expresses
what the speaker wants a third party to do (let him go!). Sanskrit also has imperative forms for the first
person (let us go!), but these are rare and are probably derived from another mood (the Vedic
subjunctive). Here is an overview of the Sanskrit imperative active for the verb ni (lead):

Singular 1st Person nayàni let me lead

2nd naya lead!
3rd nayatu let him (her, it) lead
Dual 1st Person nayàva let us two lead
2nd nayatam you two lead!
3rd nayatàm let those two lead
Plural 1st Person nayàma let us lead
2nd nayata y'all lead!
3rd nayantu let them lead

These forms bear some resemblance to imperatives in Latin and Greek. The second-person imperative
singular is the uninflected present stem (naya; cf. ama, lu=e); the plural adds -ta (cf. amate, lu/ete). The
third-person endings -tu and -ntu are also found in Greek (lue/tw, luo/ntwn), and occasionally in Latin
(esto, sunto).

Here are the imperative middle forms of nã:

Singular 1st Person nayai let me lead

2nd nayasva lead!
3rd nayatàm let him (her, it) lead
Dual 1st Person nayàvahai let us two lead
2nd nayethàm you two lead!
3rd nayetàm let those two lead
Plural 1st Person nayàmahai let us lead
2nd nayadhvam y'all lead!
3rd nayantàm let them lead

Note the ambiguous form nayatàm, which can be 3rd dual active or 3rd singular middle. The e in the 2nd-
and 3rd-person dual forms results from internal sandhi between the stem vowel a and the endings -itham
and -itàm.
The easiest way to issue a negative command is to use the imperative with mà (cf. ne, mh/ ):

mà gaccha. Don't go!

There are other ways to give a negative command, which will be covered later. You have already seen one
of them: alam with a verbal noun in the instrumental case (enough with...):

alaü ÷okena. Enough with grief! Don't grieve!

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

àde÷aþ command
eka pronoun, adjective: one,
alone
÷okaþ grief
salilam water
siddhi f. accomplishment, success

anugam (I), anugacchati follow, attend

anubhå (I), anubhavati experience, undergo
dç÷ caus. dar÷ayati cause to see, show
vand (I) vandate venerate, worship
vij¤à caus. vij¤àpayati say politely, request,
entreat, beg

Reading Vocabulary

a¤calaþ border [of dress]

àve÷aþ attack (of emotion)
kàryam affair, business
tapasvin m. ascetic
tãrtham ford, sacred bathing place
dçóha firm
pataþ cloth, robe
pratij¤à promise, assertion
Màdhavyaþ proper name
sarpaþ snake
s_àvadhàna careful
svãkaraõam marrying

anurudh (IV), anurudhyate adhere to, comply with

 (acc.)
utveùñ, caus. udveùñayati unwrap, open [a letter]
tvar (I), tvarate caus. hurry
tvarayati
nigraþ (IX), nigçhõàti repress, restrain
paritrai (I), paritràyate rescue, save
paripàl (X), paripàlayati guard, preserve, keep in tact

paribhraü÷ (IV), fall, drop, slip

paribhra÷yate
past participle paribhraùña
vãj (X), vãjayate fan
samstambh (IX), make firm, sustain, compose
saüstabhnàti, absol.
saüstabhya

svairam gently

Exercise 2

1. pa÷ya Màdhavasyàvasthàü (pa÷ya Màdhavasya avasthàm). 5. muhårtamupavi÷ata (muhårtam

upavi÷ata). 9. gacchatàü bhavantau. 10. bhostapasvin cintayannapi na khalu svãkaraõamatrabhavatyàþ
smaràmi. (bhoþ tapasvin, cintayan api na khalu svãkaraõam atrabhavatyàþ smaràmi). 11. sakhe Màdhavya
dçdhapratij¤o bhava (sakhe Màdhavya, dçdha:pratij¤aþ bhava). 14. nanu bhavatyaþ pañàncalairvatsau
vãjayadhvaü (nanu bhavatyaþ paña-ancalair vatsau vãjayadhvam). 18. svairaü svairaü gacchantu
bhavatyaþ. 19. paritràyatàü suhçdaü mahàràjaþ. 26. devi saüstabhyàtmànamanurudhyasva bhagavato
Vasiùñhasyàde÷amiti vij¤apayàmi (devi, saüstabhya àtmànam anurudhyasva bhagavataþ Vasiùñhasya
àde÷am iti vij¤àpayàmi).

1. Look, your Excellencies. 3. She stands gazing. 4. This lady must hurry. 8. May you have success in your
affairs. 9. Keeping the seal intact, open [it] and show [me]. 11. Restrain [dual] your attackof-grief and
follow me. 15. Citralekhà, get Urva÷ã to hurry. 21. [It] slipped from your friend's wife at the ford-of-øacã
as she was worshipping the water. 22. Be careful, dear child. 24. Noble Jàjali, you too go back with-the-
servants: Bhàguràyana alone shall attend me.

Day 3

Stem-Forms in Composition; Abstract Nouns; Exclamations

In compounds, words often show forms that differ from their dictionary entries. Coulson's discussion of
these forms can be reduced to the following chart:

Dictionary or Learned Form Compounded Form Examples

Consonant stems (e.g.): middle stem (of 3) or nàma- bhagavat-

nàmàn-, nàma-, namn- weaker stem (of 2) dhani-
bhagavant-, bhagavat-
dhanin-, dhani-
Pronouns: aham, dictionary/neuter form mat-, asmat-, tvat-, yuùmat-,
vayam, tvam, yuyam, yat-, tat-, kim-, idam-, adas-
yaþ, saþ, kaþ, ayam,
enam, asau
mahànt retains long a mahà-

The final element of a compound usually retains its original stem and inflection. But there are a few
exceptions:

ahan, ràjan, ratrã, sakhã > short a -aha, -ràja, -ràtra, -sàkha

Coulson also notes that Sanskrit-speakers were uncomfortable with forms of the nadã type on the end of
exocentric compounds, and so the suffix -ka is sometimes added:

sa_patnã~ka with one's wife [adjective]

In Coulson's shorthand, the tilde (~) signifies that the suffix pertains to the entire compound.

While we are on the subject of world-building, recall that abstract nouns can be created by raising the
grade of the root vowel to vçddhi and adding a neuter termination:

Original Noun Abstract Formation Meaning

paõóitaþ (teacher) pàõóityam learning

Many other abstract nouns are formed simply by adding a suffix, such as tvam (cf. German -tum, English -
dom) and tà (cf. Latin -tas):

Original Noun Abstract Formation Meaning

paõóitaþ (teacher) pàõóitatvam pàõóitatà learning, being a pundit

These suffixes may be added to entire compounds (e.g. niù_paõóita~tvam, the state of being without a
pundit).

Sanskrit resembles modern English in its tolerance for abstract nouns as 'actors' in a sentence. In Classical
Latin, it would be odd to say 'the desire to learn makes me persistent'. Rather, one would say, 'I persist
because I want to learn,' or 'I persist from my zeal for learning' (studio discendi persevero). In other words,
people act on things--not the other way around. But Sanskrit has no problem with a sentence such as this:

prayojana-÷u÷råùà màü mukharayati. Learning-desire causes me to be persistent.

Coulson puts the matter succinctly when he says that the style of Sanskrit is nominal, rather than verbal.
This means that in many cases, translating Sanskrit is a matter of 'denominalizing' it. The following chart
offers a few examples:
tatidànãü ràjàrthatàmàpadyate (tat idànãm That now achieves king-property-hood.
ràja-artha~tàm àpadyate). That now becomes the property of the king.
tasyànekavidhatvaü dar÷ayati bahuvacanena He shows by the plural the severalsortedness
(tasya aneka:vidha~tvam dar÷ayati of it.
bahuvacanena). He shows by the plural that it is of several
sorts.
ramaõãyo bàlànàü kusumàvacayaþ. Pleasant is the children's flower-picking. It is
(ramaõãyaþ bàlànàm kusuma-avacayaþ). pleasant for children to pick flowers.

Since a single noun may stand for an entire phrase or clause, the various cases acquire adverbial meanings,
such as 'because...,' 'in order to....' , etc.

suhçt-saüpàdita~tvàt (ablative) from being brought about by [my] friend

because you, my friend, brought it about
Màlatã-mukha-avalokana-vihasta~tayà by clumsiness through gazing on Malati's
(instrumental) face
because I was clumsy through gazing on
Malati's face
nçpa-dar÷anàya (dative) for seeing the king in
order to see the king
kula-kùaye (locative) upon the destruction of the family when
the family is destroyed
kula-kùaye api despite the destruction of the family

Speaking of functional shifts of the parts of speech, English gives us several examples of pronouns and
adverbs that switch from their usual function to pure exclamation:

Oh! What duplicity! How clever she is!

In Sanskrit, the cognate of oh! is aho. The focus then shifts to the central idea, expressed as a noun in the
nominative case:

aho saüvaranam. (Oh!) What duplicity!

aho vaidagdhyam. Oh! The cleverness! How
clever she is!
aho di÷àm vyabhratà Oh! The cloudlessness of the skies! How
cloudless the skies are!

Finally, a couple of odds and ends. Coulson makes a brief mention of the pronoun enam, which occurs only
in these forms:

Case Masculine Neuter Feminine

Singlular Accusative enam enat enàm

Singular enena enena enayà

Instrumental
Dual Accusative enau ene ene
Dual enayoþ enayoþ enayoþ
Genitive/Locative
Plural Accusative enàn enàni enàþ

This pronoun is enclitic and generally means 'him, her, it', etc.

Finally, we have one of the more unusual Sanskrit idioms. The word gharba (womb) can be used in
exocentric compounds to mean 'containing':

dhana:gharbaü bhàõóaü . Money-wombed is the box. The

box contains money.

Keep in mind that this is an exocentric compound, and there will be no womb for error!

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

enam him, her, it, etc.

nçpaþ king
pauraþ citizen
bhakti f. devotion, loyalty
bahu many
mati f. thought, wit
samàdhi m. concentration, [religious]
meditation
strã woman

cint (X), cintayati reflect, think things over

sàüpratam now, at once

Reading Vocabulary

ati÷aya surpassing
apavàdin decrying
a:pramàdin not negligent, vigilant
abhiyogaþ intentness, preoccupation
avayavaþ portion, article
utsàhaþ enthusiasm
upagrahaþ conciliation
uparodhanam besieging [of]
upàdhyàyaþ teacher
kàrin doing
kùitipati m. king
kùipra:kàrin swift-acting, precipitate
:garbha -wombed, containing
cakravartin m. emperor
chidram hole, chink
tãkùõa:rasaþ sharp liquid, poison
tãkùõa:rasa-dàyin poison-giving, poisoner
dar÷anãya attractive
di÷ [dik] f. cardinal point, region [of
sky]; pl. sky, skies
duþ:÷ãla irritable
dur:àtman vile
Nandanaþ proper name
nir_daya pitiless
païkti f. row, line
pati m. lord [of]
parijanaþ attendant, servant
pipãlikà ant
pratividhànam precaution, countermeasure
against (gen.)

pratyavàyaþ reverse, annoyance

pratyutpanna prompt, ready
pratyutpanna:mati ready-witted
prabhåta numerous
bhaktam food
bhitti f. wall
bhãru fearful
Madayantikà proper name
madhura sweet
mahàrghya valuable
mlecchaþ barbarian
rakùas n. devil
Vasiùñþaþ proper name
viddhà kind, sort
-viddha such as
vivekaþ discrimination
vyagra engrossed, intent
÷ayanam repose, sleeping
÷ayana-gçham bed-chamber
÷arad f. autumn
֌nya empty, devoid of
÷obhà brilliance, beauty
samayaþ occasion, season
saübandhaþ union
saübhçta assembled, prepared;
augmented
sahabhå inherent, natural
sàünidhyam presence

avalok (X), avalokayati see

àkulayati denominative confuse, disturb
utpad caus. utpàdayati cause to arise, cause
khel (I), khelati play
dah caus. dàhayati make burn, cause to be fired

parituù, caus. paritoùayati make satisfied, tip, reward

pratyas (prati + as, IV), cast aside
pratyasyati
prasthà (I), pratiùñhate set forth
bha¤j (VII), bhanakti past break, shatter
participle bhagna
mudrayati denominative stamp, seal
visçj caus. visarjayati release, dismiss

ataþ from this

-tà, -tvam abstract noun suffixes

Exercise 3

3. idaü tatpratyutpanna:mati~tvaü strãnàü (idam tat pratyutpanna:mati~tvam strãnàm). 4. aho

dar÷anãyànyakùaràni (aho dar÷anãyàni akùaràni). 7. anubhavatu ràjàpathyakàritvasya phalam
(anubhavatu ràja-apathya-kàri~tvasya phalam). 12. aho nirdayatà duràtmanàü paurànàü aho Ràmasya
ràj¤aþ kùiprakàrità (aho nir_daya~tà dur:àtmanàm paurànàm--aho Ràmasya ràj¤aþ kùipra:kàri~tà). 15.
bhagnotsàhaþ kçto'smi mçgayàpavàdinà màdhavyena (bhagna:utsàhaþ kçtaþ asmi mçgayà-pavàdinà
Màdhavyena). 20. tatrabhavataþ kulapaterasàmnidhyàdrakùàüsã nastapovighnamutpàdayanti
(tatrabhavataþ kulapateþ asàmnidhyàt rakùàüsã naþ tapaþvighnam utpàdayanti). 21. bhadra anayà
mudrayà mudrayainam (bhadra, anayà mudrayà mudraya enam). 22. ÷atruprayuktànàü ca
tãkùõarasadàyinàü pratividhànaü pratyapramàdinaþ parãkùitabhaktayaþ kùitipatipratyàsannà niyuktàþ
puruùàþ (÷atru prayuktànàü ca tãkùõa:rasadàyinàm pratividhànaü prati apramàdinaþ parãkùita:bhaktayaþ
kùitipati-pratyàsannà niyuktàþ puruùàþ). 23. saüprati madayantikàsaübandhena
nandanopagrahàtpratyasta÷aïkàþ khalu vayam (saüprati Madayantikà-saübandhena Nandana-upagrahàt
pratiyasta:÷aïkàþ khalu vayam). 24. bhàvinamenaü cakravartinamavagacchatu bhavàn (bhàvinam enam
cakra-vartinam avagacchatu bhavàn).

2. What valuable jewels! 6. Being-king has many annoyances. 7. It is from this [that] men-such-asyou are
great. 10. How devoid-of-discrimination is the barbarian! 12. It is preoccupation-withaffairs, dear child,
that is disturbing us, and not [na punar] the irritability towards pupils naturalin-a-teacher. 14. How sweet
is the sight of these [girls]! 16. The gods [do] have this fearfulness-ofthe-meditations-of-others. 18. At
once let our-forces set forth to-beseige-Kusumapara. 20. Priyaüvadikà, we have no interest in snakes. So
tip him and dismiss him. 23. Because [my] mind is engrossed-in-affairs and my agents numerous, [I had]
forgotten. 25. How surpassingly-lovely the skies are, their-wealth-of-beauty-augmented-by-the-autumn-
season. 26. Then, seeing a line of ants emerging from a [eka] hole-in-the-wall carrying [use gçhita]
particles-of-food, [he] graspingthe-fact [gçhit:artha] that [iti] the chamber had-men-in-it, caused that
same bed-chamber to be fired.

Chapter 11

Day 1

Nouns in -è, -Tra; Passive Voice

You may have noticed that English has a number of nouns with the suffix -er, and they usually fall into one
of two types. The larger group consists of agent nouns, designating the performer of an action (tinker,
singer, baker, etc.). But -er is also the characteristic suffix for the names of relatives (father, mother,
brother, sister). Both types come to English from the Indo-European parent language, and we find
analogous forms in Latin (actor, pater), Greek (path/r), and Sanskrit.

An example of the agent-noun type in Sanskrit is kartç (maker). The 'kindred' formation is represented by
pitç (father; cf. pater).

Singular Nominative kartà (m.) pità (m.)

Vocative kartar pitar
Accusative kartàram pitaram
Instrumental kartrà pitrà
Dative kartre pitre
Ablative kartuþ pituþ
Genitive kartuþ pituþ
Locative kartari pitari

Dual Nominative kartàrau pitarau

Vocative kartàrau pitarau
Accusative kartàrau pitarau
Instrumental kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm
Dative kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm
Ablative kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm
Genitive kartroþ pitroþ
Locative kartroþ pitroþ

Plural Nominative kartàraþ pitaraþ

Vocative kartàraþ pitaraþ
Accusative kartén pitén
Instrumental kartçbhiþ pitçbhiþ
Dative kartçbhyaþ pitçbhyaþ
Ablative kartçbhyaþ pitçbhyaþ
Genitive karténàm piténàm
Locative kartçùu pitçùu

The two types of -ç nouns decline analogously, but in the 'strong' form of agent nouns the stem vowel is
bumped up to the vçddhi grade (kartç > kartàram; cf. Latin factor > factºrem), while in 'kindred' nouns the
guõa grade is usually sufficient (pitç > pitaram; cf. patr-> pate/ra). But three of these nouns do show the
vçddhi grade; they are naptç (grandson, cf. nepos), bhartç (husband), and svasç (sister, cf. soror). Thus we
have svasàram (cf. sorºrem).

In general, these paradigms follow the -an type (cf. ràjan), but here and there the influence of other
declensional types can be seen. Note the genitive singular kartuþ/pituþ (kartur/pitur in certain positions,
according to the sandhi rules). The accusative plural kartén/pitén and the genitive plural
karténàm/piténàm were not inherited from Indo-European, but were created by analogy with a÷vàn and
a÷vànàm.

Feminine nouns of the agent-type end in -rã (e.g., netrã, leader), and follow the pattern of nadã.
Feminine nouns for relationships agee with the masculine forms, except for an accusative plural in -éþ
(matéþ , analogous with senàþ).

The suffix -[t]ç indicates agency (who performs an action); the related suffix -tra points to instrumentality
(with what an action is performed). Thus the verb pà (drink) gives rise both to pàtç
(drinker) and pàtram (vessel, cup). Note the analogous Latin forms: arare [to plough], arator [ploughman],
and aratrum [plough].

It may seem strange to say that Sanskrit-speakers had to invent a passive voice, but the same may be said
about English. English passives are all cobbled together from combinations of the verbs to be and to have
with the past participle:

Tense Example
Present Simple He is loved.
Present Progressive He is being loved.
Past Simple He was loved.
Present Perfect He has been loved.

We have seen that Sanskrit also relies heavily on this construction (e.g., tad mayà kçtam, It was done by
me, I did it). But in the present indicative and the imperative we also see another formation, which was
derived from the middle voice of Class IV verbs. In brief, passive forms can be created by adding the suffix
ya to the verbal root and using middle endings:

Person/Number Passive Indicative Passive Imperative

1st Singular nãye (I am led) nãyai (let me be led)
2nd nãyase nãyasva
3rd nãyate nãyatàm
1st Dual nãyàvahe nãyàvahai
2nd nãyethe nãyethàm
3rd nãyete nãyetàm
1st Plural nãyàmahe nãyàmahai
2nd nãyadhve nãyadhvam
3rd nãyante nãyantàm

These forms can be confused with ordinary middle forms (naye, etc.). The difference is that the suffix is
built directly on the verbal root, not on the present stem. Coulson notes a few exceptions, wherein the
verbal root undergoes a change before the suffix:

Root Form Passive

kç (do) kriyate (it is done)
smç (remember) smaryate (it is remembered)
vac (speak) ucyate (it is utttered)

It is not necessarily to memorize these rules, as dictionaries usually list the passive form. (You can also
access them for each form on Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site.) When the passive is built on a derived stem,
the old derivational suffix is dropped. Thus, causative forms change -ayati to -yate.

corayati (he causes to remove, he steals) coryate (it is stolen)

nàyayati (he causes x to lead) nàyyate (he is caused to lead)

The passive indicative is common, especially when the agent is unknown or deliberately not stated. Even
more common is the passive imperative:

÷råyatàm let it be heard

sukhaü sthãyatàm let it be stood pleasantly stand
at your ease

English usage often requires us to translate Sanskrit passive imperatives with 'should' 'must', etc., and to
convert them to the active voice:

tatkimanyadanuùñhãyatàm (tat kim anyat Then what else should be done? What
anuùñhãyatàm?). else do you want done?

There is also a passive participle built on this stem with the middle suffix -màna (e.g., nãyamànaþ, being
led).

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary
duhitç f. daughter
prànàþ m. pl. breaths; life
prabhu m. master
bhràtç m. brother

avekù (ava+ãkù), avekùate watch, watch over

dà (III), dadàti give

Reading Vocabulary

adhikàraþ authority, office

abhipràyaþ intention, inclination
abhã÷u rein, bridle
ardhaþ half (portion)
Jànakã proper name
Parate÷varaþ proper name
màtç f. mother
Vasumdharà proper name
Vairodhakaþ proper name
yamaja twin[-born]
÷làghya laudable, virtuous

àhve (I), àhvayati pass. summon, call

àhåyate
às (II), àste sit, stay, remain; joùam às,
remain silent
nivç, caus. nivàrayati ward off, drive off
parirakù (I) parirakùati protect, save, spare
vimuc (VI), vimu¤cati release, loose
vi÷ram (IV), vi÷ràmyati rest, cease, take a rest
vãkù (vi+ãkù, I), vãkùate discern, spy
stu (II), stauti praise

Exercise 1

1. katham iyaü sà kaõvaduhità ÷akuntalà (katham, iyaü sà Kaõva-duhità øakuntalà?) 4. priye màlati iyaü
vãkùyase (priye Màlati, iyam vãkùyase). 5. vi÷ramyatàü parijanena. 8. parirakùyantàmasya prànàþ
(parirakùyantàm asya prànàþ). 9. bho ràjan kimidaü joùamàsyate (bho ràjan, kim idaü joùam àsyate?) 10.
tadanuùñhãyatàmàtmano'bhipràyaþ (tat anuùñhãyatàm àtmanaþ abhipràyaþ). 11. kiü càtisçùñaþ
parvate÷varabhràtre vairodhakàya pårvaprasti÷ruto ràjyàrdhaþ (kim ca àtisçùñaþ Parvate÷varabhràtre
Vairodhakàya pårva:prasti÷rutaþ ràjya-ardhaþ).
18. bhagavati Vasuüdhare, ÷làghyàm duhitaram avekùasva Jànakãm (bhagavati Vasuüdhare, ÷làghyàm
duhitaram avekùasva Jànakãm). 19. kathaü, nivàryamàno'pi sthita eva (kathaü, nivàryamànaþ api sthitaþ
eva?)
1. Give him an answer. 2. We are twin brothers. 3. Masters do not summon [those] holding[vant]-office
without-a-purpose. 4. Stop right there. 6. Loose the reins. 8. Hurry, my good fellows, hurry. 12. Ha, dear
child [f.]! You are thus praising yourself.

Day 2

Locative Absolute; Numerals

We have already encountered the Sanskrit 'absolutive' form (e.g., dç÷tvà, having seen). Sanskrit also has a
construction called the locative absolute, which corresponds to the ablative absolute in Latin and the
nominative absolute in English:

His dictis, ad rem procedamus. That said, let's get to business.

Deo volente, sanscriticum discemus. God willing, we will learn Sanskrit.

In Sanskrit, this construction contains a participle and a substantive [noun or pronoun] or two
substantives. Both elements are in the locative case, which expresses attendant circumstance:

kàle ÷ubhe pràpte an auspicious time having arrived

evaü samatikràmatsu divaseùu the days passing thus
Candragupte ràjani Candragupta [being] king

Impersonal passives also come into this construction:

tathànuùñhite (tathà anuùñhite) [it] having been performed thus this

done

Like the Latin construction, the locative absolute is often used as a substitute for clauses expressing time,
cause, or concession:

tasmin dahyamàne as it was burning

evam ukte because it was said thus because
this was said
evam ukte'pi (evam ukte api) although this was said

The locative absolute is generally NOT used if one its elements can be related grammatically to the rest of
the sentence (hence the term 'absolute', which means 'detached'). Thus, 'having seen his friend, the king
goes to the forest' would normally be rendered with the absolutive (vayasyam dç÷tvà, nçpo vanaü
gacchati), because the one who sees is also the subject of the sentence. But the locative absolute would
naturally occur in a sentence such as this:

Candraguptge ràjanyaparigraha÷chalànàm Candragupta [being] king, there is no

(Candraguptge ràjani aparigrahaþ chalànàm welcome for errors.
The locative absolute occurs less frequently than its Latin counterpart, because one can often say the
same thing using an exocentric compound or an abstract noun:

÷oka-saüvigna:mànasaþ whose-mind-is-overwhelmed-with-grief his

mind overwhelmed with grief
ràkùasasyàgrãtatve (Ràkùasasya agçãtatve) in the not-taking of Ràkùasa Ràkùasa
not having been taken

Sanskrit also has a genitive absolute construction, but it is far less common. It occurs mostly with the
present participle, and it has the added connotation of inneffectuality:

pa÷yatastasya (pa÷yataþ tasya) him looking on

as he looked on (helplessly)

Coulson chooses this moment to introduce numerals. Fortunately, complicated numbers rarely appear in
literary texts, and so we may be content with the list given on page 245 (of the PDF on the course website;
p. 286 of the 1976 hard copy). Here are cardinal numbers, 1-10:

eka one
dvi two
tri three
catur four
pa¤ca five
ùaù six
sapta seven
aùña eight
nava nine
da÷a ten

Many of these forms have obvious cognates in Latin, Greek, and English. In fact, the Proto-IndoEuropean
numbers persisted in all branches of the family, but various sound changes obscure this fact. For example,
the PIE name for the number five was probably penkwe. The consonant kw was retained in Latin, but
changed in Greek to t (pe/nte) and in Sanskrit to c (pa¤ca). Moreover, kw and its variants became
interchangeable with p (probably because both p and w are labials), with the result that Latin doubled the
kw sound (quinque), while Proto-Germanic doubled the p (pompa). The Germanic p, in turn, became
aspirated (ph) and then 'fricated' (f), producing f›nf in German and five in English.

The numbers 11-19 are formed in Sanskrit in pretty much the same way as in Latin:

ekàda÷a 'one-ten', eleven (cf. undecim)

dvàda÷a twelve
trayoda÷a thirteen
caturda÷a fourteen
pa¤cada÷a fifteen
 ùoóa÷a sixteen
saptada÷a seventeen
aùñàda÷a eighteen
navada÷a ånaviü÷ati nineteen
'one from twenty'

Multiples of ten have the suffixes -÷at, iü÷at, and -ti (cf. Latin -inta, English -ty):

viü÷ati twenty
triü÷at thirty
catvàriü÷at forty
pa¤cà÷at fifty
ùaùñi sixty
saptati seventy
a֋ti eighty
navati ninety

In numbers such as forty-two, the multiple of ten goes at the end:

dvà catvàriü÷at two and forty, forty-two

The higher numbers are as follows:

÷atam one hundred

sahasram one thousand
lakùam one hundred thousand
koñi ten million

Multiples of one hundred can be expressed in as in English (dve ÷ate, two hundreds) or with a compound
(dvi:÷atam).

øatam, the Sanskrit word for one hundred, resembles the Persian word satem. Linguists use the terms
'Satem-languages' and 'Centum-languages' to distinguish the two major branches of the Indo-European
family. English, with 'hund-red', belongs to the centum group.

Cardinal numbers are adjectival modifiers, and so they agree with nouns in gender, number, and case. But
the numbers 5-19 are not distinguished for gender, and the numbers 20 and above agree with nouns only
in case:

tisçbhir nadãbhiþ (tisçbhiþ nadãbhiþ) with three rivers

ùoóa÷abhir nadãbhiþ with sixteen rivers
÷atena nadãbhiþ with a hundred rivers

See Coulson, page 247 (287), for more information on the inflection of numbers.
The numbers 20 and above are, in fact, singular collective nouns, and so they may also be construed with a
'partitive' genitive:

÷atena nadãnàm with a hundred of rivers with a

hundred rivers

One may also resort to a nominal compound:

nadã÷atena with a river-century with a

hundred rivers

Finally, it is useful to know the most common ordinal numbers in Sanskrit. These also will remind you of
forms in Latin, Greek, and English:

prathama first
dvitãya second
tçtãya third
caturtha, turãya, turya fourth
pa¤cama fifth
ùaùñha sixth
saptama seventh
aùñama eighth
navama ninth
da÷ama tenth
navada÷a nineteenth
viü÷a, viü÷atitama twentieth
triü÷a, triü÷attama thirtieth
÷atatama hundredth

The ordinals are all inflected like the adjective kànta. They agree with nouns in gender, number, and case.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

garbhaþ womb
dãpikà lamp
prasàdhaþ favor
làbhaþ profit
sahasram a thousand

àrabh (I), àrabhate undertake, begin

upanã (I), upanayati bring

Reading Vocabulary

abhivyakta manifest, visible

arthotsargaþ expenditure (of money)
(arthautsargaþ)
kalatraü (n.!) wife
kalikà bud
Ku÷aþ proper name
candrikà moonlight
cåtaþ mango-tree
tarkaþ conjecture
para pron. adj. other, another
praci (V), pracinoti accumulate (the passive
corresponds to the English
intransitive)
pravçtti f. news
Priyaüvadakaþ proper name
bhaïgaþ breaking, plucking;
dispersal
Vàlmãki m. proper name
vikretç m. vendor
vicitra variegated, various
làbhaþ profit
Lavaþ proper name
-saübhava arising from, offspring of
saüvyvahàraþ transaction
suvarnaþ gold, gold piece

anuiù (I), anveùate look for, search

nisidh (I), niùedhati prohibit, cancel
samç, caus. samarpayati hand over

mçùà vainly

Exercise 2

7. devenaivaü niùiddhe'pi madhåtsave cåtakalikàbhaïgamàrabhase (devena evam niùiddhe api madhu-

utsave, cåta-kalikà-bhaïgam àrabhase?) 14. priyaüvadaka j¤àyatàü kà velà vartata iti (Priyaüvadaka,
j¤àyatàü 'kà velà vartate' iti). 15. àrya vaihãnare dãyatàmàbhyàü vaitàlikàbhyàü suvarõa÷atasahasram(àrya
Vaihãnare, dãyatàm àbhyàm vaitàlikàbhyàm suvarõa÷ata-sahasram).
16. vçùala kimayamasthàna eva mahàn arth-otsargaþ kriyate?(Vçùala kim ayam asthàne eva mahàn artha-
utsargaþ kriyate?) 17. bhoþ ÷reùñhin api pracãyante saüvyavahàrànàü làbhàþ? (bhoþ ÷reùñhin, api
pracãyante saüvyavahàrànàm làbhàþ?) 20. bhagavan vàlmãke upanãyetàmimau sãtàgarbhasaübhavau
ràmabhadrasya ku÷alavau(bhagavan Vàlmãke, upanãyetàm imau Sãtà-garbha-saübhavau Ràma:bhadrasya
Ku÷a:Lavau). 24. atha tasmàdaraõyàtparityajya nivçtte lakùmaõe sãtàyàþ kiü vçttamiti kàcidasti pravçttiþ
(atha tasmàt araõyàt parityajya nivçtte Lakùmaõe Sãtàyàþ kim vçttam? iti kà cit asti pravçttiþ?).

9. The moonlight [being] visible, what point in a redundancy-of-lamps? 10. Làtavya, call Urva÷i. 13. Reward
the vendor and accept it. 15. Have him come in. 16. Why vainly search with conjecture [speculate]? 19.
Hand over Ràkùasa's family--enjoy for a long time [to come] theking's-favor with-its-various-advantages.
20. Protect, at the cost of [instrumental] another's-wife, your own wife and your life.

Day 3

Relative Pronoun, Adverb Formations; Màtra; Iti

In English, relative clauses are frequently employed. They are introduced by pronouns such as who, which,
and that, and their basic function is to modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause. The latter is called
the antecedent of the relative pronoun:

You can trust your car to the man who The clause modifies man (the antecedent of
wears the star. who).

There is a further wrinkle, however: relative clauses can be restrictive, non-restrictive, or afterthoughts:

Sanskrit is the language that haunts my The relative clause restricts the sense of the
dreams. language: it's not the only language, but
the one that haunts my dreams.
Sanskrit, which is the language of the This clause does not restrict the sense of the
Upanishads, haunts my dreams. antecedent, Sanskrit; it merely supplies
additional information.
Sanskrit haunts my dreams--which were The clause is non-restrictive and is added as
strange enough already. an afterthought.

In Sanskrit, relative clauses are less common, because the function of describing nouns and pronouns can
be done by compounds (e.g., dream-haunting). But they do show up in afterthoughts and in sentences
where the restrictive function is emphasized:

kumara ya àryastaü pçccha. (Kumara, Prince, ask the one who is noble.
yaþ àryaþ tam pçccha).

The Sanskrit relative pronoun/adjective is yaþ (neuter yat). It is declined in the same way as saþ
(tat).

There are a few things about Sanskrit relative clauses that seem odd to speakers of English. First, Sanskrit
relatives are usually coordinated with demonstrative pronouns. This is also a feature of archaic and
archaizing Latin:

ya àryastaü pçccha (yaþ àryaþ tam Who is noble, him ask.

pçccha). cf. Latin: Qui nobilis est, eum Ask the one who is noble.
interroga.
The main clause can also be placed first (in which case, eùaþ or ayam is often used instead of saþ):

imaü pçccha ya àryaþ. Him ask, who is noble.

Ask the one who is noble.

Occasionally, the demonstrative is left out. This is particularly likely to happen if the antecedent is negative
or indefinite, or if the relative clause is a kind of afterthought or explanation:

apyasti tavàpatyam, yasmintàü dar÷ayàmi Do you have any offspring, to whom I [may]
(api asti tava apatyam, yasmin tàm show her?
dar÷ayàmi?).
astyatra Karàla nàma Càmuõóà yà kila There is a Goddess there named Karàla-one
jãvopahàrapriyà (asti atra Karàla nàma who is fond of the sacrifice of living
Càmuõóà, yà kila jãva-upahàra:priyà). creatures.

The second suprise is that when the antecedent is expressed, it is often found in the relative clause. The
relative pronoun then functions as an adjective:

yo nara àryastaü pçccha (yaþ naraþ àryaþ Which man is noble, ask him. Ask
tam pçccha). the man who is noble.

Third, the relative clause is never embedded in the main clause, as it frequently is in English (e.g., 'I asked
the upholsterer who came yesterday for his estimate'). Rather, it occurs before or after the main clause:

English Order Sanskrit Order

I have asked the upholsterer who came Which upholsterer came yesterday, him I
yesterday for his estimate. have asked for his estimate.

This may seem confusing, but notice that Sanskrit has a distinct advantage. In the English sentence, 'for his
estimate' is a dangling prepositional phrase. We cannot be sure whether it explains why the upholsterer
came yesterday or what I asked him to supply. English often tolerates this kind of ambiguity in order to
keep the antecedent and the relative pronoun close together. Sanskrit, on the other hand, can afford to
separate them, because agreement in the gender and number of the pronouns (yaþ...tam) is sufficient to
show that they relate to each other. Of course, the case may change:

ya àryastaü pçccha (yaþ àryaþ tam pçccha). Who is noble [subject], him ask [object]. Ask
[the man] who is noble.
yà vanaü gacchati, tàm pçccha. Who goes to the forest, ask her.
Ask [the woman] who goes to the forest.

The fourth and final wrinkle is that unlike English, Sanskrit does not insist that relative pronoun occur at
the beginning of a relative clause:

English Order Sanskrit Order

I have asked the upholsterer who came to To look at the sofa which upholsterer came
look at the sofa yesterday for his estimate. yesterday, him I have asked for his estimate.
The freedom of Sanskrit in this respect can lead to ambiguity, but it allows for greater flexibility in
emphasis.

Coulson points out that Sanskrit grammarians used relative clauses to analyze exocentric compounds:

vidità:varttebhyaþ paurebhyaþ =vidità from-learned-newsed citizens =by

varttà yaistebhyaþ paurebyaþ whom the news was learnt, from those
(yaiþ vidità varttà tebhyaþ paurebyaþ) citizens

The addition of ka÷cit (kaþ cit) to the relative has a generalizing force (whoever, whichever):

yaþ ka÷cidàryastaü pçccha (yaþ kaþ cit Whoever is noble, him ask. Ask
àryaþ tam pçccha). anyone who is noble.

Adverbial clauses (where, when, if, etc.) are also typically set up in the style of relative adjective clauses:

yatra nçpastiùñhati, tatra tiùñhàmaþ (yatra Where the king stands, there we stand. We
nçpaþ tiùñhati, tatra tiùñhàmaþ) stand with the king.

On page 149 (176), Coulson places a table showing the correlative relationship between interrogative,
relative, and demonstrative forms. Some of these are pronouns/adjectives, others are adverbs. Here is a
simplified version of his table:

Interrogative Relative Demonstrative

kaþ who? yaþ who saþ he
kva where? yatra where tatra there
kutaþ from where? yataþ from where tataþ from there
kadà when? yadà when tadà then
kãdç÷a of what kind? yàdç÷a of which kind tàdç÷a of that kind
kiyant how much? yàvant as much as tàvant so much
kiyacciram kiyantaü yàvat as long as tàvat so long
kàlaü for how long?

yadi cet tat

if then

yadyapi tathàpi
kàmaü punar
even if, granted that even so, nevertheless

This should be sufficient to demonstrate the pattern in Sanskrit correlatives. Demonstratives, of course,
vary according to the proximity of the referent to the speaker. Thus, one can say atra (here) rather than
tatra (there). See Coulson's chart for other variants.
Modern and Classical Indo-European languages show analogous patterns and many of the same forms:
e.g. Latin quantum (how much, as much) and tantum (so much), Slavonic kogda (when) and togda (then),
and Early Modern English whence (from where) and thence (from there).

The semantic affinity of adverbs to pronouns was sensible to speakers of Sanskrit, and they sometimes
used adverbs where English-speakers would use adjectives or pronouns:

Tatra vane ràmaü pa÷yàmi. There in the forest we see Rama. In

that forest we see Rama.

The overlapping of pronouns and adverbs is evident in kutaþ (from where), swhich shows an ablative
ending. Conversely, the suffix -taþ can be added to nouns and pronouns to create adverbs with various
meanings, not all of which indicate separation:

mattaþ from me
vistarataþ in detail
prasaïgataþ in passing

Okay, now it's Garbage Time. First, Coulson points out that as a general rule, the verb must agree in
number with the subject. But if the subject is a series of coordinated items, the verb may agree with the
last item. This is especially true if the verb comes first:

prabhavati kumàrãnàm janayità daivaü ca [what] governs girls is their father

['begetter'] and their fate

Next, iti can be used to isolate a word as a metalinguistic entity:

a÷va iti tatra pañhyate [the word] 'horse' is mentioned there

Finally, màtra (measure) can be used at the end of a compound to mean '-sized', 'mere...', and 'as soon
as...':

aïguùñha-màtra thumb-sized
jala-màtram mere water, only water
dçùta-màtra as soon as seen

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

catur four
divya celestial
duùkara difficult
dvitãya second
-màtra measure; mere, only
mànuùaþ human being, mortal
yàdç÷a of which kind, such as, just
as
ràjyam kingdom
÷atam a hundred
ֈstram treatise, law-book

krã (IX), krãõàti buy

j¤à (IX), jànàti know, learn, find out

tathà in that way, thus, so

Reading Vocabulary

aïgam limb
antevàsin [resident] disciple
apanodanam driving away
abhidhànam statement, appellation,
name
alaükaraõam ornament
àtmajaþ son
ànuyàtrikaþ escort (to, + gen.)
iùña:janaþ loved one
ucita suitable, appropriate
utsavaþ festival
Candraketu m. proper name
càpa m./n. bow
citta-vçtti f. activity of the mind, thought

trayam triad
dàràþ (m. pl.!) wife
dhårtaþ rogue
dhairyam firmness
nibandhanam bond
paõàyitç m. hawker
pàõi m. hand
paunaruktam redundancy
pracalita in motion
pramàdaþ mishap
pràrthayitç suitor
bhàgaþ division, portion, tithe
madhu m. spring
Mandàrikà proper name
mahànt great, vast, numerous
mahàmàüsam human flesh
màmakãna my
Màlatã proper name
mårkha foolish; m. fool
medhya fit for sacrifice, sacrificial
yàtrà procession
rakùitç m. guard
ratnam jewel
rà÷i m. heap
lajjà-kara (f. -ã) embarrassing
vane-caraþ forest-dweller
vallabhaþ sweetheart
vastu n. thing, matter, subject-
mater

Vàmadevaþ proper name

vi÷eùaõa:padam distinguishing word, epithet

saükulam throng
saüpradàyaþ tradition
sàdhanam army
snigdha affectionate
hastaþ hand

atisçj (VI), atisçjati bestow

anuprahi (V), anuprahiõoti send, dispatch

anumantr (X), anumantrayate consecrate with mantras,

bless
anvi (II), anveti follow, attend
abhinand (I), abhinandati rejoice in, prize, greet with
enthusiasm
avàp (ava+àp, V), avàpnoti obtain, acquire

ãh (I), ãhate long for, desire

upakëp, caus. upakalpayati equip, assign
nirvap (I), nirvapati sprinkle, offer, donate
parityaj (I), parityajati leave, abandon
prati÷ru (V), prati÷çnoti promise
rakù (I), rakùati protect
vighañ (I), vighañate past become separated
participle vighañita
visçj (VI), visçjati discharge, release
vyavahç (vi+ava+hç, I), act, behave towards (loc.)
vyavaharati
saübhå, caus. sambhàvayati conceive, imagine

an:antaram immediately
ayi ha!
ekadà at one time, once
kiü ca moreover
cirasya after a long time
prasaïgataþ in passing
madhyàt from the middle of, from
among
vihàya having left behind, beyond (+
acc.)
sarvathà in every way, altogether,
totally

Exercise 3

2. vatse, yadahamãhe tadastu te (vatse, yat aham ãhe tat astu te). 3. he dhårta lekho nãyate na ca j¤àyate
kasyeti (he dhårta, lekhaþ nãyate, na ca j¤àyate 'kasya' iti?). 6. mandàrike yadatra vastunyeùa te vallabhaþ
kathayati api tathà tat (Mandàrike, yat atra vastuni eùaþ te vallabhaþ kathayati, api tathà tat?). 12. kathaü
÷akuntaletyasya màturàkhyà? (katham, 'øakuntalà' iti asya màtuþ àkhyà?). 13. kaþ sa mahà:puruùo yen
aitanmànuùamàtra-duùkaraü mahat karm ànuùñhitam? (kaþ saþ mahà:puruùaþ yena etat mànuùamàtra-
duùkaram mahat karma anuùñhitam?) 21. yàdç÷o'yam tàdç÷au tàvapi (yàdç÷aþ ayam, tàdç÷au tau api).

5. Give [me] one from among those those three-ornaments which [I] bought. 7. Why speak of
'firmness'? 11. Oh, this is the decoration which I removed from my-own-person and sent to Ràkùasa. 14.
Your Excellency, have [you] anyone who is going to Kusumapura or coming from there? 17. 'Minister' is
now an embarrassing epithet. 18. Alas, I am quite deluded to behave toward this forest-dweller [in a way,
n. sg.] appropriate-to-my-friend-Makaranda.21. This is the son-of-Kàmandakã's-friend, Màdhava, [here] to
hawk human flesh. 22. [As] escort to the disciples by whose hand [he] has sent that book to Bharata's-
hermitage, [he] has sent our-brother bow-inhand [càpa:pàõi] to-drive-away-mishap. 23. And she having
immediately become separated [from me] by the throng of numerous [mahant] townsfolk in-motion-
upon-the-dispersal-of-theprocession, I came [here]. 24. Fool, these ascetics donate a quite different tithe,
one which is prized beyond even heaps-of-jewels. 25. Thus, imagining-[use pp.]-by-his-own inclinations-
thethoughts-of-the-loved-one, the suitor is deceived.

Chapter 12

Day 1

Athematic Verb Conjugations

The Greek verbal system is complicated by the fact that there are two kinds of verbs: 'regular' verbs, such
as lu/w, and 'mi-verbs', such as tiq/ hmi. These two classes of verbs are also called thematic and
athematic.
Thematic verbs use a 'theme' vowel to link the stem with the personal endings. In Greek, this vowel is e or
o (e.g., lu/-e-i, lu/-o-men). Athematic verbs, on the other hand, add the personal endings directly to the
stem (ti/qe-sai, e0/-qe-to). These verbs possess some other unusual features, such as a variation in vowel
grade (ti/qh-mi, tiqe/-meqa) and reduplication of the root in the present stem (qe- becomes tiqe-). These
are all survivals of athematic forms in the ProtoIndo-European language, where they were far more
common than in Greek. Sanskrit also retains a number of athematic conjugations.

The simplest class of athematic verbs in Sanskrit is Class II, in which the stem consists simply of the root.
We have already seen an example of this class in the verb as (to be). Another example is dviù (hate):

Person/Number Present Active Imperative Active

1st Singular dveùmi dveùàõi
2nd dvekùi dvióóhi
3rd dveùñi dveùñu
1st Dual dviùvaþ dveùàva
2nd dviùñhaþ dviùñam
3rd dviùñaþ dviùñàm
1st Plural dviùmaþ dveùàma
2nd dviùñha dviùña
3rd dviùanti dviùantu

Person/Number Present Middle Imperative Middle

1st Singular dviùe dveùai
2nd dvikùe dvikùva
3rd dviùte dviùñàm
1st Dual dviùvahe dveùàvahai
2nd dviùàthe dviùàthàm
3rd dviùàte dviùàtàm
1st Plural dviùmahe dveùàmahai
2nd dvióóhve dvióóhvam
3rd dviùate dviùatàm

For the most part, these forms are easy to recognize as the root (dviù) followed immediately by the usual
personal endings (note, however, the unusual dual middle forms). Occasionally, the 'collision' of the root
with the endings causes a change in the root (e.g., dvekùi, dvióóhve, dvióóhvam). We also see a change in
the vowel grade from the basic grade dviù to the guõa grade, dveù. This occurs, as in Greek, in the singular
forms of the present indicative active (dveùmi, etc.; cf. ti/qhmi), as well as some forms of the imperative.

The other two classes mentioned in Coulson's chapter are formed with suffixes. Class V adds the suffix nu
to the root. This becomes no in the strong grade. Here, for example, is the Present Active of su (press):

1st Singular sunomi

2nd sunoùi
3rd sunoti
1st Dual sunuvaþ, sunvaþ
2nd sunuthaþ
3rd sunutaþ
1st Plural sunumaþ, sunmaþ
2nd sunutha
3rd sunvanti

Notice that nu changes to nv before the third-person plural ending, -anti.

Class VIII verbs insert the suffix u before the personal endings; this becomes o in the guõa grade. Here is
the present active of the common verb, kç (do):

1st Singular karomi

2nd karoùi
3rd karoti
1st Dual kurvaþ
2nd kuruthaþ
3rd kurutaþ
1st Plural kurmaþ
2nd kurutha
3rd kurvanti

Notice that in a couple of forms, the u drops out, leaving only the root and the ending (e.g., kurmaþ).

One further perculiarity of athematic verbs is that the middle participle ends in -àna, not -amàna.

It is not necessary to memorize all the irregular formations mentioned by Coulson. The bottom line is that
some verbs behave 'strangely' in the absence of a thematic vowel, and that certain patterns in this
behavior (such as variation of vowel grade) can be discerned. We will see more craziness in the lessons to
come!

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

dhanam wealth
bhåmi f. ground; fit object
vegaþ haste, speed

brå (II bravãti) say, tell

Reading Vocabulary
Agastyaþ proper name
udghàtin having elevations, bumpy
kiyant how much
tapo-vanam ascetics' grove
parityàgaþ giving up, sacrificing,
liberality
prasàdã~kç bestow (as a free gift)
bharataþ actor, player
ra÷mi m. rein, bridle
vi÷eùaþ distinction
vi÷eùa~taþ in particular
saüyamanam restraint, tightening

àp (V àpnoti) obtain, get

mandi~bhå slacken

Exercise 1

8. kimanyadbravãtu (kim anyat bravãtu?) 12. tatkimityudàsate bharatàþ (tat kim iti udàsate bharatàþ?) 16.
saüpratyagastyà÷ramasya panthànaü bråhi (saüprati Agastya-à÷ramasya panthànam bråhi). 19. udghàtinã
bhåmiriti ra÷misaüyamanàdrathasya mandãbhuto vegaþ (udghàtinã bhåmiþ iti ra÷mi-saüyamanàt
rathasya mandãbhutaþ vegaþ). 20. cakravartinaü putramàpnuhi (cakravartinaü putram àpnuhi). 24.
amàtya ãdç÷asyàbharaõavi÷eùasya vi÷eùataþ kumareõa svagàtràdavatàrya prasàdãkçtasya kimayaü
parityàgabhåmiþ (amàtya, ãdç÷asya àbharaõa-vi÷eùasya vi÷eùataþ kumàreõa sva:gàtràt avatàrya
prasàdãkçtasya kim ayam parityàgabhåmiþ?).

1. What do you say? 4. Let the two of us just [tàvat] listen. 13. Listen to this wonderful thing.

Day 2

The Gerundive

Latin students will recognize this term as referring to verbal adjectives with the infix -nd- (amandus,
monendus, etc.). In Latin, these adjectives perform two, unrelated functions: they can be a substitute for
the gerund (ad milites monendos, for warning the soldiers), or they may indicate obligation (libri legendi,
books to be read, books that must be read). The Sanskrit gerundive performs the latter function. It is
marked by the suffixes ya, anãya, and tavya:

Root Gerundive Meaning

dà deya to be given
nã neya to be led
÷ru ÷ravya/÷ràvya to be heard
kç karaõãya to be done
vid veditavya to be known
Notice that the vowel of the verbal root frequently undergoes an 'upgrade' before these suffixes, but this
is not always the case (e.g., gam, gamya).

As in Latin, the gerundive may be used as the complement in a linking sentence:

ahaü bhavadbhirdraùñavyaþ (aham I am to be seen by you. You

bhavadbhiþ draùñavyaþ). must see me.

Note that the instrumental case (rather than the dative, as in Latin) is used to express the agent. Sentences
such as these can serve as substitutes for the imperative, especially if the command is negated:

na draùñavyà. She is not to be looked at. Don't

look at her.

The gerundive may also be used as an attributive adjective:

÷laghyo nçpaþ (÷laghyaþ nçpaþ) a king to be praised a

praiseworthy king

In the latter use, with the suffixes -ya and -anãya, the gerundive may acquire other shades of meaning:

dç÷ya such as to be seen visible

Gerundives with the suffix -tavya, however, are seldom used as attributives and usually retain the sense of
obligation.

The gerundive sometimes occurs in impersonal constructions, which are difficult to translate into literal
English. This is apt to happen with intransitive verbs, which do not normally occur in the passive:

Kàmandakyàpi na khalvataþ It is certainly not to be lived by Kàmandakã

param...jãvitavyam (Kàmandakyà api na any longer.
khalu ataþ param...jãvitavyam). K. should certainly not live longer.

Impersonal constructions also occur in Latin (cf. Horace's famous dictum, nunc est bibendum, 'now it is to
be drunk'). But in Sanskrit, one even finds a gerundive of the verb bhu (to be):

tvayà sàvadhànayà bhavitavyam. It is *to be been by you watchful. You

must be watchful.

Notice that in this construction, adjectives that modify the agent must also be put into the instrumental
case.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary
kùudh f. hunger
lobhaþ greed
veùaþ dress, attire
su:caritam good deed

Reading Vocabulary

àrta oppressed
piõóapàtin m. mendicant
pràrabdham thing undertaken, enterprise

maru m. desert
vinãta disciplined, modest
vçùñi f. rain
sthalã [dry] land

utàs (II udàste) sit idle

samupadi÷ (VI point out, show
samupadi÷ati)
sthirã~kç make firm, sustain

nanu rather

Exercise 2

1. bhadra bhadra na praveùñavyam. 4. amàtya tathàpi pràrabdhamaparityàjyameva (amàtya, tathà

api pràrabdham a:parityàjyam eva). 6. samupadi÷a tamudde÷aü yatràste sa piõóapàt ã
(samupadi÷a tam udde÷am yatra àste saþ piõóapàtã). 11. asti naþ sucarita÷ravanalobhàdanyadapi
praùñavyam (asti naþ sucarita-÷ravaõa-lobhàt anyat api praùñavyam). 14. nanu bhavatãbhyàmeva
øakuntalà sthirãkartavyà (nanu bhavatãbhyàm eva øakuntalà sthirãkartavyà. 17. vinãtveùaprave÷yàni
tapovanàni (vinãta:veùa-prave÷yàni tapaþvanàni). 18. marusthalyàü yathà vçùñiþ kùudhàrte bhojanaü
tathà (maru-sthalyàü yathà vçùñiþ, kùudha-àrte bhojanaü tathà). 21. tat kiyantaü kàlamasmàbhirevaü
saübhçtabalairapi ÷atruvyasanamavekùamànairudàsitavyam (tat kiyantaü kàlam asmàbhiþ evaü
saübhçta:balaiþ api ÷atru-vyasanam avekùamànaiþ udàsitavyam?). 23.
mahàdhanatvàdbahupatnãkenànena bhavittavyam (mahà:dhana~tvàt bahu:patnã~kena anena bhavit-
tavyam).

2. With this letter I must defeat Ràkùasa. 7. His Excellency's instructions are that I should safeguard
Ràkùasa's life. 8. So let it be as it must be. 9. So one should not blame Ràkùasa in this matter.

Day 3

Factitive Constructions; Correlative Adverbs

Next, we will turn next to situations in which a compound can be created by joining a noun or adjective
with a verb. This may sound strange, but it occurs frequently in Latin in words created with the suffix -
ficare (from facio, to make):

laetus happy
laetificare to make happy, 'happify'

English verbs in -fy (mystify, magnify, etc.) are derived from this combination. Essentially, these verbs are
derived from a construction in which the noun or adjective is the secondary object of the verb 'make'
(aliquem laetum facere: to make someone happy). This construction is sometimes called a factitive kernel;
laetum (happy) is styled a predicate accusative.

Sanskrit likewise shows both forms of the factitive construction. The verb kç may govern an object and
predicate accusative:

tvàmakàmaü karomi (tvàm akàmaü karomi). I will make you desire-less.

The factitive construction can also be turned into a compound verb:

tvàmakàmãkaromi (tvàm akàmãkaromi). I will make you desire-less.

The compound is formed by changing a final a, à, i, or in to ã, and final u to å (e.g., laghåkç, make light).

There is also a corresponding passive formation with bhu:

akàmãbhavasi. You will become desire-less.

Like English, Sanskrit combines the verb kç with an 'action noun' as a substitute for simple verbs:

vandanàü karoti. He make salutation. He

salutes.

Kç and bhu also combine with adverbs:

àviùkaroti. He makes openly. He

reveals.
àvirbhavati. It is made openly. It is
revealed.

In the previous chapter, we saw that adverbs as well as pronouns can be used to correlate
clauses. Sometimes, in fact, an adverb takes the place of a pronoun:

tadetadaraõyaü yasmin vasàmi (tat etat This is the forest in which I live. This is
araõyaü yasmin vasàmi). the forest where I live.
tadetadaraõyaü yatra vasàmi (tat etat
araõyaü yatra vasàmi).

Since adverbs are invariable in form, they are less flexible in meaning than pronouns.
On the other hand, more than one demonstrative adverb can answer to the same relative:

yathà vayamasmastatheyamasti (yathà As we are, so she is.

vayam asmaþ tathà iyam asti).
yathà vayamasm'evamiyamasti(yathà
vayam asmaþ evam iyam asti).

Sometimes the choice of the demonstrative indicates a slight change of meaning:

yadà...tadà when...then (same point of time)

yadà...tataþ when...thereupon (sequence)

These distinctions are not always strictly observed, however. Relatives, too, can be somewhat flexible in
meaning. Yàvat, for example, can mean 'while' or 'until', depending on the context.

yàvat pràõimi tavatpratikriyamicchàmi (yàvat While I am [still] breathing, I want a remedy.

pràõimi tàvat pratikriyam icchàmi).

asmàt sthànàdanyatsthànamà÷rayàmi I will go from this place to another place,

yàvadasya vij¤ataü cikãrùitam (asmàt until his intention is discovered.
sthànàt anyat sthànam à÷rayàmi yàvat asya
vij¤atam cikãrùitam).

With the negative particle, na, it also means 'before':

na yàvadàyàti tàvattvaritamapasarpata Before he comes, escape quickly !

(na yàvat àyàti tàvat tvaritam apasarpata).

Yàvat also appears in compounds with the sense 'throughout', and as a preposition meaning
'until':

yàvad_ràjyam throughout the reign

såryodayaü yàvat until sunrise

Finally, a couple of loose ends. First the suffix vat functions much like iva to mean 'like':

bràhmaõavat like a brahmin

Since this is a compound formation, the word preceding vat is not declined. Thus, its role in the sentence
must be inferred from the context:

nçpànpitçvadapa÷yat (nçpàn pitçvat He looked on the kings as his fathers.

apa÷yat).
(cf. nçpàn pitçn iva apa÷yat.)

Another wrinkle is the word vi÷eùaþ, which means 'distinction, difference, particularity'. As the second
part of a dependent or exocentric compound, it can mean 'a particular...':

strã-vi÷eùaþ a woman-distinction a
particular woman
ratna-vi÷eùaþ a special jewel

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

àyus n. life
tapasvin ascetic; poor, wretched
para other, enemy, hostile
stranger
prasàdaþ graciousness, favor, free gift

maïgalam welfare, auspicious omen,

good luck

atikram (I atikràmati) transgress, go against

vah (I vahati, p.p. åóha) carry, take, marry

àvir~bhå become manifest, reveal

oneself
àviù~kç make manifest, reveal
-vat like

Reading Vocabulary

apade÷aþ pretense, pretext

a:parikle÷aþ lack of vexation
apsaras f. nymph (of heaven)
a:vighna unhindered
a÷okaþ a÷oka-tree
àkula confused
àkulã~bhå grow confused
àsanam sitting, seat
kathitaü thing spoken, talk,
conversation
kaùña~tara more grievous
kàla-haraõam delay
kàla-haraõam kç (to) delay
tantram administration
devatà divinity, god
dhyànam meditation, meditating
nayanam eye
patatrin bird
panthan m. road, path, way
parikle÷aþ vexation
parigrahaþ occupation, occupying
pa÷càt:tàpaþ after-pain, remorse
pracchàyam shade
pratyàkhyànam rejection
prayogaþ performance (of play)
pràvãõyam proficiency
manda slow, slacken
manyu m. passion, anger
maraõam death
Mànasam name of a lake
mohaþ delusion
rahas n. solitude
ripu m. enemy
lavaþ fragment
lava÷o lava÷aþ piece by piece
viklava bewildered, distressed
vi÷rambhaþkathà/kathitam confidential, intimate
conversation
vetasaþ cane, reed
vyasanam vice, weakness; misfortune,
misery
÷àlaþ sal-tree
ørãparvataþ name of a mountain
saüj¤à signal
saübandhin m. relative by marriage
sahadharmacàrin m. lawful husband
sahadharmacàriõã f. lawful wife
sàmàjikaþ spectator
sàra m./n. substance, property
su:nayana fair-eyed
sthira firm
sthirã~kç make firm, sustain
sthirã~bhå be[come] firm
svã~kç make one's own,
appropriate

apanã (I apanayati) remove, take away

avagam caus. avagamayati procure
àkarõayati denom. gerundive give ear, listen to
àkarõanãya
àdà (III àdatte) take, take hold of, bring
utpat (I utpatati) fly up
upàlabh (I upàlabhate) reproach, blame
upàs (II upàste) sit by, wait upon, honor
ceùñ (I ceùñati) move, act, behave
(towards), treat (loc.)
taó (X tàóayati, pass. tàóyate) stike, beat
strike, beat
nikçt (VI nikçntati) cut up, shred
paràpat (I paràpatati) approach, arrive
pratyàdi÷ (VI pratyàdi÷ati) reject; put to shame (by
example)
pradru (I pradravati) run (p.p. intrans.)
pràp caus. pràpayati cause to reach, convey
samyam (I saüyacchati) restrain, arrest
samàsad caus. approach, attain, meet
(samàsàdayati)

a:samyak wrongly
itas tataþ hither and thither
tiro~bhå become hidden, vanish
tåùõãm às stay silent
tåùõãm bhå be[come] silent
bahiþ outside
bhavatu right!

Exercise 3

2. bhavatu ÷çõomi tàvadàsàü vi÷rambhakathitàni (bhavatu, ÷çõomi tàvat àsàü vi÷rambhakathitàni). 3.

tåùõãü bhava yàvadàkarõayàmi (tåùõãü bhava, yàvat àkarõayàmi). 5. tadatra ÷àlapracchàye muhårtam
àsanaparigrahaü karotu tàtaþ (tat atra ÷àla-pracchàye muhårtam àsana-parigrahaü karotu tàtaþ). 7.
hçdaya sthirãbhava. 9. iyaü corva÷ã yàvadàyustava sahadharmacàriõã bhavatu (iyam ca Urva÷ã
yàvat_àyuþ tava sahadharmacàriõã bhavatu.) 10. tadyàvacchrãparvatamupanãya lava÷o lava÷a enàü
nikçtya dukþamaraõàü karomi (tat yàvat Chrãparvatam upanãya lava÷o lava÷aþ enàü nikçtya
dukþa:maraõàü karomi). 13. tatra caivamanuùñheyaü yathà vadàmi (tatra ca evam anuùñheyaü yathà
vadàmi). 15. gçhãtagçhasàramenaü sàputrakalatraü saüyamya rakùa tàvadyàvanmayà Vçùalàya kathyate
(gçhãta:gçha-sàram enaü sà_putra:kalatraü saüyamya rakùa tàvat yàvat mayà Vçùalàya kathyate). 22.
yadaivàïgurãyakadar÷anàdanuùmçtaü devena satyamådhapårvà rahasi mayà tatrabhavatã øakuntalà
mohàtpratyàdiùñ' eti tadaiva pa÷càttàpamupagato devaþ (yadà eva àïgurãyaka-dar÷anàt anuùmçtaü
devena 'satyam ådha:pårvà rahasi mayà tatrabhavatã øakuntalà mohàt pratyàdiùñaþ iti, tadà eva
pa÷càttàpam upagataþ devaþ). 25. yàvacca saübandhino na paràpatanti tàvadvatsayà Màlatyà nagara-
devatàgçhamavighnamaïgalàya gantavyam (yàvat ca saübandhinaþ na paràpatanti, tàvat vatsayà Màlatyà
nagara-devatà-gçham avighna:maïgalàya gantavyam).

Chapter 13

Day 1

Reduplicated Verbs

In the last lesson, we saw that some Sanskrit verbs (such as dviù) add the endings directly to the root,
without an intervening 'theme' vowel. One of the unusual features of such verbs is that the vowel of the
root may appear in different grades (e.g., dveùmi, dvimaþ). Some athematic verbs also exhibit another
peculiarity: the initial consonant and vowel of the root are reduplicated in the present stem, producing a
'stuttering' effect:

Original Root Present Stem

yuj yuyuj-
dih didih-
dà dadà-
kru÷ cukru÷-

In Greek, this formation survives in the verbs di'dwmi and tiq/ hmi. Note that long vowels become short
when they are reduplicated, and that the initial consonant may undergo slight changes in reduplication
(e.g., cu-kru÷). The latter changes may be learned on a case-by-case basis, but Coulson does provide some
general rules. For example, velar consonants such as k and h reduplicate with palatal consonants, such as
c and j.

Here are the present indicative and imperative forms of hu (to sacrifice):

Person/Number Present Active Imperative Active

1st Singular juhomi juhavàni
2nd juhoùi juhudhi
3rd juhoti juhotu
1st Dual juhuvaþ juhavàva
2nd juhuthaþ juhutam
3rd juhutaþ juhutàm
1st Plural juhumaþ juhavàma
2nd juhutha juhuta
3rd juhvati juhvatu

Person/Number Present Middle Imperative Middle

1st Singular juhve juhavai
2nd juhuùe juhuùva
3rd juhute juhutàm
1st Dual juhuvahe juhuvàvahai
2nd juhvàthe juhvàthàm
3rd juhvàte juhvàtàm
1st Plural juhumahe juhavàmahai
2nd juhudhve juhudhvam
3rd juhvate juhvatàm

The original root, hu, is reduplicated with the palatal consonant, j. The root vowel is 'upgraded' to o in
singular present active forms and juhotu, and to au (av) in certain imperative forms. It becomes a
semivowel (v) before endings beginning with a vowel (e.g., juhv-atu). Note that the 3rd-person plural
forms lose the n in their endings: thus juhvati, juhvate, juhvatu, juhvatàm. The semivowel v distinguishes
them from the singular forms (e.g, junoti, juhute, etc.). Two other common verbs in this class (Class III) are
dà, dadàti (give, cf. did/ wsi) and dhà, dadhàti (put, cf.
ti/qhsi).

Coulson mentions two other classes of verbs that show reduplication in the present stem. Class VII verbs
show a nasal n after the root vowel, which becomes na in strong forms. Class IX verbs have a suffix -nà-,
which becomes -nã- or -n- in its weaker grade:

Root Strong Grade Weak Grade

yuj (VII), join yunakti yu¤janti
krã (IX), buy krãõàti krãõãmaþ, krãõanti

These and other variations can be learned on a case-by-case basis.

Elsewhere in Chapter 13 we learn that Sanskrit has another demonstrative pronoun, asau (he, that). Here
is a complete paradigm (cf. page 245 of the PDF):

Case Masculine Neuter Feminine

Nominative Singular asau adaþ asau
Accusative amum adaþ amåm
Instrumental amunà amunà amuyà
Dative amuùmai amuùmai amuùyai
Ablative amuùmàt amuùmàt amuùyàþ
Genitive amuùya amuùya amuùyàþ
Locative amuùmin amuùmin amuùyàm

Case Masculine Neuter Feminine

Nominative Dual amå amå amå
Accusative amå amå amå
Instrumental amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm
Dative amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm
Ablative amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm
 Genitive amuyoþ amuyoþ amuyoþ
Locative amuyoþ amuyoþ amuyoþ

Case Masculine Neuter Feminine

Nominative Plural amã amåni amåþ
Accusative amån amåni amåþ
Instrumental amãbhiþ amãbhiþ amåbhiþ
Dative amãbhyaþ amãbhyaþ amåbhyaþ
Ablative amãbhyaþ amãbhyaþ amåbhyaþ
Genitive amãùàm amãùàm amåùàm
Locative amãùu amãùu amåùu

The forms of asau are, for the most part, built on the stem amu- or ami-. Familiar pronoun-endings are
used (cf. saþ).

Asau is less common than saþ (he, that) and ayam (this). It often appears in conjunction with ayam to to
say, 'there is', 'look at that':

ayamasau mahànadyorvyatikaraþ (ayam asau There is the confluence of the two great
mahà:nadyoþ vyatikaraþ) rivers.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kàmaþ wish, desire, love wanting

-tu-kàma to, anxious to

àkhyà (II), àkhyàti declare, tell

ati: too, over-, extremely, very

asau that, he

Reading Vocabulary

anveùin searching, in search of

àj¤à command, order
kàyasthaþ scribe, letter-writer
Lopàmudrà proper name
vyayaþ loss; expense, extravagance
øakañadàsaþ proper name
÷añha cunning
֌la m./n. ֌lam stake
àruh cause to mount the stake,
 impale
sainikaþ soldier

upabhuj (VII), upabhuïkte enjoy, consume, spend

uparudh (VII), uparuõaddhi besiege, invade
parici (V), paricinoti become acquainted with,
recognize
på (IX), punàti, punãte purify
saüdhà (III), saüdhatte bring together, aim (arrow)

Exercise 1

1. dehi me prativacanam. 3. kathaü ÷ånyà iv àmi prade÷àþ (katham, ÷ånyàþ iva àmi prade÷àþ). 4. eùa
tamiùuü saüdadhe (eùaþ tam iùum saüdadhe) 6. ahamapyamuü vçttàntaü bhagavatyai lopàmudràyai
nivedayàmi (aham api amum vçttàntam bhagavatyai Lopàmudràyai nivedayàmi).
7. sa khalu mårkhastaü yuùmàbhiratisçùñaü prabhåtamartharà÷imavàpya mahatà
vyayenopabhoktumàrabdhavàn (saþ khalu mårkhaþ tam yuùmàbhiþ atisçùñam prabhåtam artharà÷im
avàpya, mahatà vyayena upabhoktum àrabdhavàn). 9. kiü cidàkhyàtukàmàsmi (kiü cit àkhyàtu-kàmà
asmi). 10. upàlapsye tàvadenam (upàlapsye tàvat enam). 13. j¤àsyathaþ khalvetat (j¤àsyathaþ khalu etat).
12. ayamasau ràjàj¤ayà ràjàpathyakàrã kàyasthaþ øakañadàsaþ ÷ålamàropayituü nãyate (ayam asau ràja-
àj¤ayà ràja-àpathya-kàrã kàyasthaþ øakañadàsaþ ÷ålam àropayitum [to be impaled] nãyate). 14.
puõyà÷ramadar÷anenàtmànaü punãmahe tàvat (puõi:à÷rama-dar÷anena àtmànam punãmahe tàvat).

1. Vijayà, do you recognize this ornament? 2. That fellow is certainly cunning. 6. What, are soldiers in-
search-of-me invading the ascetic grove?

Day 2

Much earlier in this course, we saw that the Latin supine in -u has its morphological (but not semantic)
equivalent in the the absolutive form (e.g., dç÷tvà, having seen). The Latin supine in um, also known as the
'fourth principal part', is used after verbs of motion to express purpose (e.g., eo cubitum: I go to lie down).
It is descended from an Indo-European verbal noun. This form not only survived in Sanskrit, but it became
the infinitive for all verbs (e.g., netum to lead). It is typically formed by adding the suffix -tum to the guna
grade of the root:

Original Root Infinitive

nã (lead) netum
budh (learn) boddhum

Variant formations are possible; these can be learned as you go along:

Original Root Infinitive

bhå (be) bhavitum
likh (read) likhitum
dç÷ (see) draùñum
Some verbs may show more than one infinitive form:

Original Root Infinitive

nã (lead) netum, nayitum

Causatives generally retain the -ay- infix (e.g., càrayitum, to cause to move).

In Greek, the infinitive is (generally speaking) the only verbal noun-formation. Thus, it can be used in all
the ways that a noun is used, even in the oblique cases (e.g., tou= le/gein). As we have seen, Sanskrit has
other ways of turning a verb into a noun (e.g., ÷rvanam, hearing), and so the infinitive has less work to do.
One of its functions is to complete the sense of certain verbs, such as want, be able, and begin. (In Latin
and Greek, we call this the 'complementary' or 'prolative' infinitive.)

÷rotumicchàmi (÷rotum icchàmi) I want to hear

÷rotuü ÷aknoti he is able to hear
÷rotuü jànàti he knows how to hear
÷rotumarhati (÷rotum arhati) he is worthy to hear, he should hear

The Sanskrit infinitive also corresponds to the Latin supine as an expression of purpose. It usually appears
with verbs of motion:

vçùalastvàü draùñumàgacchati (Vçùalaþ tvàm Vçùala is coming to see you.

draùñum àgacchati).

The infinitive also appears in impersonal expressions, such as yujyate or yuktam (it is proper):

na yuktamanayostatra gantum (na yuktam anayoþ It is not right for the two of them to go there.
tatra gantum).

Note that the subject of the infinitive in such expressions goes into the genitive or instrumental case.

Sanskrit has no passive infinitive. The active infinitive may take on a passive meaning if the main verb is
passive:

hantuü nãyate. He is taken to kill.

He is taken to be killed.
kartum àrabhyate. It is begun to do.
It is beginning to be done.
kartum ÷akyate. Is is *possibled to do. It
can be done.

The infinitive may even appear in a compound:

kartu-kàmaþ kartu-manas desire to do

having a mind to do, intending to do
It may seem odd that we are already in Chapter 13, and we have not seen finite verbs in any other tense
than the present. But in Sanskrit, one can get along quite well with the present tense and the past
participle. We have seen that the present indicative can be used to express intention (gacchàmi, I will go)
as well as exhortation (gacchàmaþ, let's go!). The past participle can be used for any completed action
(gataþ, he has gone, he went). Sanskrit does, however, have other tense forms, which will often remind
you of the Greek system.

The future tense is Sanskrit is formed by inserting sya or iùya between the root (in the guõa grade) and
thematic personal endings. This formation corresponds to the sigmatic future in Greek (e.g., lu/sw):

Verbal Root Future Form

nã neùyati (he will lead)
bhå bhaviùyati (he will be)
kç kariùyati (he will do)
dà dàsyate (he will give [middle])

The future tense in Sanskrit corresponds equally well to shall and will in English. Coulson discusses other
nuances of the tense on page 175 of the PDF.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kanyakà girl

abhivçt (I), abhivartate approach, go towards, make for

kup, caus. kopayati anger

Reading Vocabulary

etàvant this much

kçta-vedin conscious of debt; grateful;
obliged
Gautamã proper name
gauravam high esteem, duty of respect
tuccha trifling
matimant possessing wit, sensible
øatakratu m. name of Indra
secanam (act of) sprinkling, watering

ullaïgh, caus. ullaïghayati transgress, violate

 aticiràt after very long

Exercise 2

2. tvayà saha Gautamã gamiùyati. 16. nàyamavasaro mama øatakratuü draùñum (na ayam avasaraþ mama
øatakratuü draùñum). 18. aye etàstapasvikanyakàþ svapramànànuråpaiþ secanaghatairbàlapàdapebhyaþ
payo dàtumita evàbhivartante (aye, etàþ tapasvi-kanyakàþ sva:pramàna-anuråpaiþ secana-ghataiþ
bàla:pàdapebhyaþ payaþ dàtum itaþ eva abhivartante). 20. matimàm÷càõakyastucche prayojane kimiti
candraguptaü kopayiùyati. na ca kçtavedã candragupta etàvatà gauravamullaïghayiùyati (matimàn
Càõakyaþ tucche prayojane kim iti Candraguptaü kopayiùyati? na ca kçta-vedã Candraguptaþ etàvatà
gauravam ullaïghayiùyati).

4. But where will you (ladies) wait for me? 5. Why, quite without giving an answer, he has started to dance.
8. After not very long the minister will restore [àruh, caus.] us to (our) former state.

Day 3

In the last two chapters, we have seen how clauses may be related with the use of adverbs (e.g.,
yatra...tatra) and pronouns (e.g., yaþ...saþ). Typically, these words relate the subordinate clause to a
particular item of information in the main clause, which is called the antecedent. Sometimes, however, the
subordinate clause refers to the verbal idea of the main clause as a whole:

bakulamàle upakàrinyasi yataþ svàgataü Bakula garland, you are my ally--therefore [as a
bhavatyàþ (bakula-màle, upakàrinã asi, yataþ result of which], welcome to you.
svàgatam bhavatyàþ).

Here are relative words that perform this function, along with the equivalent English
phrasing:

yataþ therefore; for; because

yat that, the fact that
yathà how, that

Yathà can be correlated with tathà to set up a clause of result (cf. Latin ita...ut, Greek ou(/tw...w(ste):

bhostathàhamutpatità yathà sakala eùa Oh, I have flown up so (high) that this whole
vyatikara÷cakùuùà parikùipyate (bhoþ tathà aham expanse is encompassed by my eye.
utpatità yathà sakalaþ eùa vyatikaraþ cakùuùà
parikùipyate).

Yathà is also sometimes used as an alternative marker for indirect statements:

idaü tàvatprasiddhameva yathà Now it is entirely established how [=that] Bhurivasu

bhårivasurnçpamuktavàn (idam tàvat prasiddham told the king....
eva yathà Bhårivasuþ nçpam uktavàn)....
Conditional sentences in Sanskrit are marked by yadi and cet (if). The latter conjunction never appears first
in its clause. Various correlatives are used in the main clause (iha, tataþ, tadà, tarhi):

àrye yadi nepathyavidhànamadhyavasitaü Lady, if arrangements backstage are completed,

tadihàgamyatàm (àrye, yadi nepathyavidhànam come here.
adhyavasitam, tat iha àgamyatàm).
na cedanyakàryatipàtaþ pravi÷yàtra (na cet If (it means) no neglect of other duties, enter here.
anya:kàri-atipàtaþ pravi÷ya atra).

Yadi api and kàmam mean 'although'; they can be correlated with tathà api, punar, or tu.

âdi and other words meaning 'beginning' can be placed at the end of exocentric compounds to mean
'beginning with...', 'such as', 'et cetera':

indràdayaþ suràþ (Indra:àdayaþ suràþ) the gods Indra, etc. Indra

and the other gods

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

àdi m. beginning
amçtam nectar, ambrosia
kriyà doing; rite
kùatriyaþ warrior
priyam benefit, service
vàc f. speech, words
vedin knowing, conscious of,
appreciative of

arh (I), arhati be worthy; should

kam, caus. kàmayate desire, be in love with

kàmam admittedly, granted that, though

cet (enclitic) if

Reading Vocabulary

atithi m. guest
anucaraþ companion
anutàpaþ remorse
antaram interval
apatyam offspring
aparàddha past participle offending, guilty
aparàdhin
abhiyogaþ attack
àpta trustworthy
iùu m. arrow
upapanna equipped with, possessed of

upasaügrahaþ embracing; collecting; looking

after
kàraõam reason
kàvyam literature
kumàrakaþ young man, son
koùaþ treasury, resources, wealth
guhya secret
ghataþ pot
cakùus n. eye
jàta past participle jàta-karman born birth-ceremony
n.
j¤àtç knower, person to know
tãkùõa:rasa-daþ poisoner
dàsã slave girl; servant girl
Devaràtaþ proper name
dauhitraþ daughter's son, grandson
dhurà pole, yoke, burden
Nandaþ proper name
nçpati m. king
payas n. water
para far, ultimate, supreme
parigrahaþ acquisition, possession
paritoùaþ satisfaction
puõya auspicious, holy
puràtana (f. -ã) former
pçthvã, pçthivã earth
pracchàdanam concealment
pratikåla contrary, hostile
pramàõam measure, size
pràkçta (f. -à, -ã) of the people, vulgar,
common
bàdhà molestation, damage
brahmacàrin m. sa:bhramacàrin student fellow
student
bhàrika burdensome
bhåùaõam ornament
bhraü÷aþ sthàna-bhraü÷aþ fall, decline fall
from position,
madhya-stha neutral
manorathaþ desire
mantrin m. minister
yukta proper, right
rahasya secret
ràja-kàryam, ràjya-kàryam state affairs, state
administration
ràmaõãyakam loveliness, delightful aspect
lakùaõam charecteristic, (auspicious) mark

-vacanàt in the name of

varàka (f. -ã) wretched, poor
varõaþ color, appearance
vàdin speaking, talking
vàsin living in, dwelling
vij¤àpanà request
vidhi m. vidhi injunction according
vat to ritual
vivakùita past participle wished to be said, meant
vihàraþ (Buddhist) monastery, convent

vyapade÷aþ designation, name

vyàghraþ tiger
øakuntaleya born of øakuntalà
ֈsanam command
÷uddhàntaþ women's apartments,
household
÷çgàlaþ jackal
÷rotç m. listener, someone to listen
÷rauta derived from scripture,
scriptural
÷vapàkaþ outcast
saücayaþ collection, quantity
satkàraþ hospitality
samartha capable, able
sàcivyam being minister, post of minister

Siddhàrthakaþ proper name

Somaràtaþ proper name

ati÷i (II), ati÷ete surpass, triumph over

anuj¤à (IX), anujànàti allow, give someone leave to (w.
dative of verbal noun)
 abhidruh (IV), abhidruhyati do violence to
avaj¤à (IX), avajànàti despise
àdç (IV), àdriyate heed, respect, defer to, refer to

àruh, caus. àropayati cause to mount, raise onto

udghuù (I), udghoùati cry out
ut + hà (III), ujjihãte start over, depart
duù, caus. dåùayati spoil, defile
pãó (X), pãóayati squeeze
pé, caus. pårayati, pårõa fill, fulfill
prakhyà caus. prakhyàpayati publish, proclaim
pratinand (I), pratinandati receive gladly, welcome
pratividhà (III), pratividadhàti prepare against, take
precautions
prabhà (II), prabhàti shine forth, dawn
prayat (I), prayatate strive, exert oneself
prayuj (VII), prayuïkte employ; perform
man, caus. mànayati esteem, honor
mçù, caus. marùayati overlook, excuse
vyàpé, caus. vyàpàrayati set to work, employ
÷ak (V), ÷aknoti be able, can
÷am, caus. ÷amayati quieten, appease
÷raddhà (III), ÷raddhatte trust, believe
satkç (VIII), satkaroti receive with hospitality,
entertain
samàsa¤j (I), samàsajati attach something to (+ loc.),
impose upon
spç÷ (VI), spç÷ati touch

anyatra elsewhere
itaretara (stem form) mutual, of/to (etc.) each other

kaccit? I hope that...?

ciràt at long last
prabhçti (+ abl.) starting with..., from..., onward,
ever, since
pràdurbhå become manifest, arise
yat satyam what is true, truth to tell, in
truth
yadi evam in that case

Exercise 3
5. yadi rahaùyaü tadà tiùthatuyadi na rahasyaü tarhi kathyatàm (yadi rahaùyam, tadà tiùñhatu-yadi na
rahasyam tarhi kathyatàm). 8. diùñyà suprabhàtamadya yadayaü devo dçùñaþ (diùñyà su:prabhàtam adya,
yat ayam devaþ dçùñaþ). 11. bhadra siddhàrthaka kàmamaparyàptamidamasya priyasya, tathàpi gçhyatàm
(bhadra Siddhàrthaka, kàmam a:paryàptam idam asya priyasya, tathà api gçhyatàm). 15. bhadre na
tatparihàryaü yato vivakùitamanuktamanutàpaü janayati (bhadre, na tat parihàryaü, yataþ vivakùitam
an:uktam anutàpam janayati). 17. sakhe na tàvadenàü pa÷yasi yena tvamevaü:vàdã (sakhe, na tàvat enàm
pa÷yasi yena tvam evaü:vàdã). 19. na cenmunikumàrako'yam, tatko'sya vyapade÷aþ (na ced muni-
kumàrakaþ ayam, tat kaþ asya vyapade÷aþ?). 21. tena hi vij¤àpyatàü madvacanàdupàdhyàyaþ
Somaràto'munà÷ramavàsinaþ ÷rautena vidhinà satkçtya svayameva prave÷ayitumarhasãti (tena hi
vij¤àpyatàm mad-vacanàt upàdhyàyaþ Somaràtaþ--'amun à÷ramavàsinaþ ÷rautena vidhinà satkçtya
svayam eva prave÷ayitum arhasi' iti). 22. (smartavyaü tu sausvayamasya nçpateryad
aparàhinorapyanaparàddhayoriva nau kçtaprasàdaü ceùñitavàn. (smartavyam tu sausvayam asya nçpateþ,
yat aparàhinoþ api an:aparàddhayoþ iva nau kçta:prasàdam ceùñitavàn). 23. he vyasanasabrahmacàrin
yadi na guhyaü nàtibhàrikaü và tataþ ÷rotumicchàmi te pràõaparityagakàranam (he vyasana--
sabrahmacàrin, yadi na guhyam na àtibhàrikam và, tataþ ÷rotum icchàmi te pràõa-parityaga-kàranam). 24.
àrya Vaihãnare adya prabhçtyanàdçtya cànakyaü candraguptaþ svayameva ràjakàryàni kariùyatãti
gçhãtàrthaþ kriyantàü prakçtayaþ (àrya Vaihãnare, 'adya prabhçti anàdçtya Cànakyam Candraguptaþ
svayam eva ràja-kàryàni kariùyati iti gçhãt-àrthaþ kriyantàm prakçtayaþ). 25.
vayamapyà÷ramabhàdhà yathà na bhavati tathà pryatiùyàmahe (vayam api à÷rama-bhàdhà yathà na
bhavati, tathà pryatiùyàmahe). 26. kimidànãü candraguptaþ svaràjyakàryadhuràmanyatra mantriõyàtmani
và samàsajya svayaü pratividhàtumasamarthaþ (kim idànãm Candraguptaþ sva:ràjya-kàrya:dhuràm
anyatra mantriõi àtmani và samàsajya svayam pratividhàtum a:samarthaþ?). 27. yatsatyaü
kàvyavi÷eùavedinyàü pariùadi prayu¤jànasya mamàpi sumahànparitoùaþ pràdurbhavati.(yat satyam,
kàvya-vi÷eùa-vedinyàm pariùadi prayu¤jànasya mama api su:mahàn paritoùaþ pràdur~bhavati). 28.
candragupta÷arãramabidrogdhumanena vyàpàrità Dàruvarmàdaya iti nagare prakhyàpya øakañadàsaþ
÷ålamàropitaþ ('Candragupta÷arãram abidrogdhum anena vyàpàrità Dàruvarm:àdaya' iti nagare
prakhyàpya øakañadàsaþ ÷ålam àropitaþ). 29. sa khalu kasmiü÷cidapi jãvati nandànvayàvayave Vçùalasya
sàcivyaü gràhayituü na ÷akyate (sa khalu kasmiü÷ cit api jãvati Nand-ànvay-àvayave Vçùalasya sàcivyam
gràhayitum na ÷akyate). 30. idamatra ràmaõãyakaü yadamàtyabhurivasudevaràtyo÷ciràt pårno
yamitaretaràpatyasambandhàmçtamanorathaþ. (idam atra ràmaõãyakaü, yad
amàtya:Bhurivasu:Devaràtyoþ ciràt pårnaþ yam itaretar-àpatya-sambandh:àmçta-manorathaþ).

3. Lavangika has managed-well, since Madhava's-attendant Kalahamsaka is in love with that servant-girl-
of-the-convent, Mandarika. 7. Granted that this is to be prized, yet we are neutral about it [atra]. 9. It is
not right to despise even a common man. 10. King Candragupta, it is already known to you that we lived
for a certain interval-of-time with [loc.] Malayetu. 11. Oh Viùõugupta, you should not touch me (who am)
defiled-by-the-touch-of-an-outcaste. 12. My dear child, I hope you have greeted [abhinand] the son born
of øakuntala whose-birth-ceremony-andother-rites-were-performed by us according to ritual? 13. Then
give me leave to go. 14. We are not able to triumph with words over Your Excellency's words. 15. If your
Excellency thus sees the time-for-attack, why delay? 16. Come in, my dear fellow: you will get someone to
listen and to understand. 17. 'Just now [he] has directed his daughter to (show) hospitality-to-guests and
gone to Soma-tãrtha to appease a fate hostile to her'--'In that case she is the one I will see.' 18. Why do
you ask, friend, un-believingly? 19. Is the earth without-warriors, that (you) cry out in this way? 20. I
should like to employ you, my dear fellow, on a certain task that-must-be-performed-by-atrustworthy-
person. 21. If the grandson-of-the-sage proves to be [bhu] possessed-of-those-marks, you will welcome
her and introduce her into your household. 22. Do you then not pity the poor (girl) whose-life-is-
departing? 23. Loss-of-place will not oppress one-without-possessions. 24. [We] have established
øaktadàsa with a great quantity-of-wealth to-look-after the prisoners-andso-forth employed-by-us to do
violence to Candragupta-s person, and to-instigate-[his]-subjectsto-rebellion. 25. Màdhavya my friend, you
have-not-obtained-the-reward-of-your-eyes, since you have not seen the ultimate of things to see
[draùñavya]. 26. Oh merchant Candanadàsa, a king so severe-in-punishment towards traitors will not
overlook your concealment-of-Ràkùasa's wife. 27. Since those tigers and others, deceived-by-mere-
appearance, without-knowing (him to be) a jackal regard that one (as) king--see [pl.] to it that he is
recognized. 28. Your Majesty, who else anxious-to-live would have violated Your Majesty's command? 29.
Though (your) master'smerits cannot be forgotten, Your Excellency should honor my-request.

Chapter 14

Day 1

In the last chapter you met the future tense, which can be distinguished from the present tense by a
change in the root vowel and the addition of a special infix (-sya, -iùya) before the personal endings.
Sanskrit also has two common past-tense formations, which may occur in place of the familiar past
participle. The first of these is the imperfect tense, so called because in some IndoEuropean languages it
signifies past actions viewed as ongoing or habitual, and thus never really 'perfected' (e.g., he was leading,
he used to lead). In Sanskrit, however, the imperfect serves as an all-purpose past tense, like the simple
past in English (he led). The imperfect is common in some styles of Sanskrit, such as prose romances; it is
rare in others.

The forms of the Sanskrit imperfect resemble those of the equivalent tense in Greek. The imperfect is
marked as a past tense by two things: an augment before the verbal root (a- in Sanskrit, like e- in Greek),
and a special set of endings used only for past-tense forms. Note that Coulson and other grammarians use
the term 'secondary' to refer the past tenses; the 'primary tenses' are the present and future. Here are the
imperfect forms of nã (lead):

Person/Number Imperfect Active Imperfect Middle

1st Singular anayam anaye
2nd anayaþ anayathàþ
3rd anayat anayata
1st Dual anayàva anayàvahi
2nd anayatam anayethàm
3rd anayatàm anayetàm
1st Plural anayàma anayàmahi
2nd anayata anayadhvam
3rd anayan anayanta

In many cases, the secondary endings appear to be 'shorter' versions of the primary endings (-mi, -si, -ti,
etc.). As such, they often overlap with imperative endings that you have already learned. There is no
danger of confusion, however, because the imperfect always carries the augment. Comparison with the
Greek imperfect may also be helpful (-am/-an = -on; -ata = -eto, etc.). In Latin, primary and secondary
endings were generally merged, except in the first-person singular (thus -o never occurs in a past tense).

Athematic verbs are similarly conjugated in the imperfect tense. Verbs that show the third-person plural
ending -ati in the present tense have -uþ (not -an) in the imperfect. Singular active forms show the strong
grade of the root, as in Greek. Verbs that begin with a vowel are 'upgraded' to vçddhi by the augment;
thus icchati becomes aicchat.
The imperfect of the verb as (be) is somewhat irregular:

Person/Number Imperfect Active

1st Singular àsam
2nd àsãþ
3rd àsãt
1st Dual àsva
2nd àstam
3rd àstàm
1st Plural àsma
2nd àsta
3rd àsan

The imperfect of as is sometimes used in periphrastic forms to create a kind of past perfect tense:

atha taralikà mayà saha gatà snatumàsãt (atha Now Taralika had gone to bathe with me.
Taralikà mayà saha gatà snatum àsãt).

Another feature that Sanskrit shares with Greek is the use of optative forms. The term 'optative' signifies
wishing, but in Sanskrit it most often appears with a potential force (he may lead, he might lead). In legal
texts, the optative also has a perscriptive force (he shall lead). Here are the optative forms of nã:

Person/Number Optative Active Optative Middle

1st Singular nayeyam nayeya
2nd nayeþ nayethàþ
3rd nayet nayeta
1st Dual nayeva nayevahi
2nd nayetam nayeyàthàm
3rd nayetàm nayeyàtàm
1st Plural nayema nayemahi
2nd nayeta nayedhvam
3rd nayeyuþ nayeran

The optative is built on the weak grade of the root. Secondary endings are added to the infix -ã, which
becomes e when added to the stem vowel of thematic verbs (a + i = e). Some forms show an expanded
version of the infix (yà). All this will remind you of the optative in Greek, where secondary endings are
added to the optative signs i and ih.

In addition to the potential and prescriptive uses mentioned above, the optative may be construed with
api nàma to express wishes:

api nàmàhaü nçpo bhaveyam (api nàma If only I could become king!
aham nçpaþ bhaveyam).
As a marker for potential action, the optative can be used in remote conditionals. In English, conditional
clauses are introduced by the conjunction if. They become remote if there is some doubt about the
fulfillment of the condition:

Present Remote Conditional Future Remote Conditional

If I were leading the army, the king would be If I should lead the army, the king would come.
coming.

English marks such sentences with helping verbs, such as might and would. Both the condition and the
main clause are treated as hypothetical.

Sanskrit uses the optative to mark both present and future unreal conditionals:

yadi senàü nayeyaü nçpo gacchet (yadi senàm If I should lead the army, the king would come.
nayeyam, nçpaþ gacchet ). If I were leading the army, the king would be
coming.

The verb in both clauses takes the optative. Sanskrit is less precise than Greek and English in distinguishing
the time of the condition, but the context usually supplies this information.

Past unreal conditionals (if I had led the army, the king would have come) may be construed with the
optative or with the so-called conditional tense. This is formed by putting an augment and secondary
endings on the future stem (e.g., a-kariùya-t, he was going to do, he would have done). The conditional
tense appears in both clauses:

yadi senàmanayeùyaü nçpo'gamsyat (yadi If I had led the army, the king would have
senàm anayeùyam, nçpaþ agamsyat ). come.

Vocabulary

a:÷eùa without remainder, complete,

whole, all

àpanna:sattva pregnant
khedaþ exhaustion
guõaþ merit, strand, spring
jarañha old, decrepit
jàlapàdaþ goose
dvandam dvandvasaüprahàraþ pair
single combat, duel
padam step
bisam lotus fibre
laghu light, brief
svapnaþ dream
 nigaóayati denom. fetter, bind
pratidç÷ (I), pratipa÷yati see
bhid (VII), bhinatti split, separate

api nàma if only

nu khalu I wonder...?

Exercise 1

2. kva nu khalu gatà syàt? 3. àsãt tàdç÷o munir asminn à÷rame (àsãt tàdç÷aþ muniþ asmin à÷rame).
10. api nàma duràtmana÷càõakyàccandragupto bhidyeta (api nàma dur:àtmanaþ Càõakyàt Candraguptaþ
bhidyeta). 12. suratakhedaprasuptayostu tayoþ svapne bisaguõanigaóitapàdo jarathaþ ka÷cijjàlapàdaþ
pratyadç÷yata. pratyabudhyetàü cobhau (surata-kheda-prasuptayoþ tu tayoþ svapne bisa-guõa-
nigaóita:pàdaþ jarathaþ kaþ cit jàlapàdaþ pratyadç÷yata. pratyabudhyetàü ca ubhau.). 13. tadaniviùyatàü
yadi kà cidàpannasattvà tasya bhàryà syàt (tat aniviùyatàm yadi kà cit àpanna:sattvà tasya bhàryà syàt). 14.
àrya-putra nàyaü vi÷rambhakathàyà avasarastado laghutaramevàbhidhãyase (àrya-putra, na ayaü
vi÷rambhakathàyà avasaraþ, tadaþ laghutaraü eva abhidhãyase). 15. kathamãdç÷ena saha vatsasya
candraketordvandva-saüprahàramanujànãyàm (katham ãdç÷ena saha vatsasya Candraketoþ
dvandvasaüprahàram anujànãyàm?) 19. anayaiva ca kathayà tayà saha tasminneva pràsàde tathaiva
pratiùiddhà÷eùaparijanaprave÷a divasamatyavàhayam (anaya eva ca kathayà tayà saha tasmin eva
pràsàde tathà eva pratiùiddha a÷eùa:parijana-prave÷a divasam atyavàhayam). 20. tadupàya÷cintyatàü
yathà saphalapràrthano bhaveyam (tat upàyaþ cintyatàm yathà saphala:pràrthanaþ bhaveyam). 23. yadi
punariyaü kiüvadanti mahàràjaü prati syandeta tatkaùñaü syàt (yadi punaþ iyam kiüvadantã mahàràjam
prati syandeta, tat kaùñam syàt).

3. And I observed in that hermitage in the shade of a young-mango-tree an ascetic of-

melancholyappearance. 4. The writing might be spoiled, friend, by the sweat-from-(my)-fingers. 6. And so
saying she drew it (pattrikà, the letter) from the betel-box and showed (to me). 9. He may even, perhaps,
ashamed-of-his-lapse-from-self-control, do something dreadful [aõiùña]. 10. Now [yàvat] I heard that it
was Màlatã who was the cause-of-his pangs-of-love.

Day 2

Let's take a break from verbs and talk about adjectives. So far, we have encountered adjectives in their
basic or positive form (e.g., mçdu, soft), which is inflected to agree with nouns or pronouns in gender,
number, and case. But adjectives have two other degrees: the comparative (softer) and the superlative
(softest). Like English, Sanskrit uses suffixes to mark these degrees:

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree

mçdu mçdutara mçdutama
soft softer softest
rather soft very soft

The comparative suffix -tara is comparable to Greek -teroj; the superlative -tama is cognate with Latin -
[t]imus (e.g., ultimus). Note the alternative English translations of the higher degrees.
Students of Greek will recall that a few common adjectives show comparative and superlative forms in -
iwn and -istoj. There are analogous forms in Sanskrit, with the suffix [ã]yàüs in the comparative degree
and -iùñha in the superlative. A few examples from Coulson's list are given here:

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree

guru heavy garãyàüs gariùñha
priya dear preyàüs preùñha
mahànt great mahãyàüs (cf. meiz/ wn ) mahiùñha (cf. me/gistoj)

Some of these words show both regular and irregular suffixes (e.g., priyatara or preyàüs, dearer).

In a comparison, the second element is usually expressed (as in Latin) by the ablative case:

svàrthàtsatàü gurutarà praõayikriyaiva (svaarthàt More important than their own self-interest is the
satàü gurutarà praõayi-kriyà eva). carrying out the petitioner's request.

An alternative construction uses the nominative after na ca (and not). This construction is common with
the word varam (the preferable thing):

varaü vandhyà bhàryà na càvidvànputraþ (varam A barren wife is the preferable thing and not an
vandhyà bhàryà na ca avidvàn putraþ). ignorant son.
A barren wife is better than an ignorant son.

After the superlative, both the genitive and instrumental cases may be used:

sodaryànàü jyeùñhaþ eldest of the brothers supreme

buddhimatsu ÷reùñhaþ among sentient beings

We have already seen the considerable versatility of the particle iti, the original meaning of which is thus,
in this way. But in Classical Sanskrit, this word is used mainly as a marker of speech that stands outside of
the narrative. It can represent both direct and indirect statements in English:

candraguptàdaparaktànpuruùànjànàmãtyupa 'I know men disloyal to Candragupta,' he hinted.

kùitamanena ('Candraguptàt aparaktàn puruùàn He hinted that he knew men disloyal to
jànàmi' iti upakùitam anena) . Candragupta.

Occasionally, the fact that a speech is being quoted by someone else causes a shift in person:

bhartçdàrike tvamavastha÷arãreti Mistress, the queen has arrived, after hearing

parijanàdupalabhya mahàdevã pràptà from her retinue that you are well.
(bhartçdàrike, 'tvam avastha:÷arãrà' iti parijanàt
upalabhya mahàdevã pràptà).

What the queen actually heard was 'The princess is well.'

Iti typically stands at the end of a quotation, but it may appear at the beginning of a new sentence or
paragraph and refer in general to what has been said previously:

iti ÷rutvà devaþ pramànaü. Having heard [what I have told you], your Majesty
is the judge.

It is even possible to omit the verb of telling, hearing, etc., and to let iti alone stand for a statement that
prompts some other action:

ityasmayata (iti asmayata). So [saying], she smiled.

Since iti can represent not only what has been said, but also what has been known, understood, imagined,
etc., it can become the equivalent of because and [the fact] that in causal and nominal clauses:

rakùaõãyaþ suhçdasava iti kathyàmi(rakùaõãyaþ Because a friend's life must be saved, I speak out.
suhçd-asavaþ iti kathyàmi).

satyaü janàmãti kathametat (satyam janàmi iti How is it that I know the truth?
katham etat?).

Iti will also sometimes mark the equivalent of a purpose clause, since it reflects what is in the mind of the
subject:

mà bhådà÷ramapãóeti parimeyapuraþsarau('mà (The two of them travelled) with a limited

bhåd à÷rama-pãóà' iti parimeya:puraþsarau). entourage (with the thought), 'Let there not be
affliction-of-the-hermitage.'
(The two of them travelled) with a limited
entourage lest they trouble the hermitage.

Iti can, of course, be used to report commands and questions as well as statements. Since questions have
their own markers, iti is sometimes omitted:

pa÷yasi kà vàrttà. You see what the news is.

In indirect questions, a relative pronoun may also sometimes take the place of an interrogative:

bråhi yadupalabdham (bråhi yat upalabdham). Tell me that which has been discovered. Tell
me what you have discovered.

Finally, note about the uses of repetition in Sanskrit style. Often it indicates emphasis:

sàdhu sàdhu. Bravo! Bravo!

punaþ punaþ. again and again

It may also have a distributive sense:

 svàn svàn bàlàn ànayanti. tat They bring their various children. producing this
tat kàraõam utpàdya and that reason, producing various reasons.

Vocabulary

adhyavasàyaþ resolution
an:adhyavasàyaþ irresolution, hesitation
anilaþ wind, breeze
an:iùñaþ undesired, unpleasant
anuràgaþ passion, love
antaþ end
antaþpuram women's quarters (of palace),
harem
antarita concealed
apade÷aþ pretext
apara other, different
apasarpaõam getting away, escape
abhilàùin desirous, anxious
arthin having an object, wanting,
petitioning
a:÷obhana unpleasant, awful
ahamahamikà rivalry
àdaraþ àdaraü care, trouble take
kç care [to]
àdhoraõaþ elephant-driver
àrti f. affliction, distress
àrdra moist, tender
àrya-putraþ nobleman
indriyam sense
uttama uppermost, supreme, top
unmàthaþ manmathonmàthaþ shaking, disturbance pangs of
love
upakàraþ help, service
upanyàsaþ mention, allusion
upasthànam religious attendance
ekàkin alone
Aikùvàka descended from King Iksvaku

kàtara timid, nervous

kànanam forest
kàrmurkam bow
kiüvadantã rumor
kusum:àyudhaþ flower-weaponed; the god of
love
kålam bank, shore
kçpàlu compassionate
kolàhalaþ clamor

gaõikà courtesan
gandhaþ smell, scent
garãyàüs important, considerable;
worthy/worthier of respect
gahanam dense place
gir f. speech, voice, tone
ghràõam smelling, (sense of) smell
candana m./n. sandal, sandal-wood tree
cåtaþ mango-tree
jyàyàüs older, elder
taru m. taru-gahaõam tree
thicket of trees, wood
tàmbålam betel
dakùiõa right, on the right hand
dur:nimittam ill omen
dçùñi f. gaze
drohaþ injury, hostility
dvàr f. door
dharma-vit learned in the sacred law
nava:yauvanam [fresh] youth
nikhila entire
nipuõa clever, sharp
nirbhara excessive, full
nivedaka announcing, indicating
pa¤ca five
pañu pañãyàüs sharp shaper

pati m. lord, husband

parava÷a in another's power, helpless
parimalaþ perfume
pàñhaþ recitation, reading; part (in play)

pàtram vessel, receptacle; worthy

recipient; actor
pàtra-vargaþ cast (of play)
potakaþ cåta-potakaþ young animal/plant young
mango-tree
pratikriyà remedy, remedying
pradhàna principal, important
prastàvaþ prelude
pràsàdaþ mansion; terrace; (upstairs)
room
bàõaþ arrow
Bharataþ pr. nom.
bhàjanam receptacle, box
bhàryà wife
bhåyàüs more, further
matta in rut, rutting
madaþ intoxication
madhukaraþ, madhukarã bee, honey-bee
mårchà madana-murchà faint, swoon amorous
swoon
målam root, basis, foundation
mçgatçùõikà mirage
raühas n. speed
råpam form; beauty
locanam eye
vargaþ group
vigrahaþ separation; body
viñapa m./n. branch, bush, thicket
vitarkaþ conjecture, doubt
vipinam forest
vilakùa disconcerted, ashamed
vihvala tottering, unsteady
vãthikà row, grove
÷astram knife, sword
saüskàraþ preparation, adornment
sa-phala fulfilled
saüprahàraþ fighting, combat
saümåóha confused
saras n. lake
sàrathi m. driver of a chariot
su:ratam love-making
surabhi fragrant
su:labha easily got, natural
skhalanam failure, lapse
svàminã mistress
svedaþ sweat
Hari m. pr. n.
harùaþ joy, delight
hastin m. elephant
hita beneficial; well-disposed, good
 (friend)

ativah caus. (ativàhayati) spend (time)

adhiruh (I), adhirohati ascend, mount
anubandh (IX), anubadhnàti pursue, importune
anulip (VI), anulimpati anoint
anuvçt (I), anuvartate go after, attend upon
apayà (II), apayàti go away, depart
abhighrà (I), abhijighrati smell
abhibhå (I), abhibhavati overpower
abhisyand (I), abhiùyandate flow
avagam (I), avagacchati acquire
avadhç, caus. avadhàrayati determine, resolve
avalamb (I), avalambate cling to, hold on to
àgam caus. àgamayati acquire
àgrhà (I), àjighrati smell
àcar (I), àcarati conduct oneself, act, do
à÷vas caus. à÷vàsayati cause to breathe freely, comfort

uccal (I), uccalati move away, rise

utsthà (I) uttiùñhtati stand up, get up
utas (IV), udasyati throw up, throw out, push out

upakç (VIII), upakaroti furnish, provide

upakùip (VI), upakùipati hint at
upajan (IV), upajàyate past come into being, be roused
part. upajàta
upasthà caus. upasthàpayati cause to be near, fetch, bring up

upa+i (II), upaiti approach, come to

këp (I), kalpate be suitable, conduce to, turn to
(dat.)
tçp caus. tarpayati satisfy
ni÷am caus. ni÷àmayati perceive, observe
paritrai (II) paritràti rescue, protect
pratinivçt (I), pratinivartate return
pratipad (IV), pratipadyate assent, admit
prabudh caus. prabodhayati inform, admonish
prasvap (II), prasvapiti fall asleep
prahi (V), prahiõoti despatch, send
vikas (I), vikasati burst, blossom, bloom
vicar (I), vicarati move about, roam
 vicar caus. vicàrayati deliberate, ponder
vilok caus. vilokayati look at, watch
visçp (I), visarpati be diffused, spread
samjan (IV), saüjàyate past come into being, be aroused
part. saüjàta
samàcar (I), samàcarati conduct onself, act, do
spand (I), spandate quiver
syand (I), syandate flow, move rapidly

agrataþ in front of (gen.)

ati: extremely
kadàcit perhaps
jhañiti suddenly
sakà÷am to [the presence of]
yathà yathà...tathà tathà in proportion as, the more that

Exercise 2

1. priyaüvadaka j¤àyatàü ko'smaddar÷anàrthã dvàri tiùñhati (Priyaüvadaka, j¤àyatàü kaþ asmad-dar÷an-

àrthã dvàri tiùñhati). 4. àyuùman ÷råyatàü yadarthamasmi harinà tvatsakà÷aü preùitaþ (àyuùman,
÷råyatàü yat artham asmi Harinà tvat-sakà÷am preùitaþ). 5.
evamukto'pyahamenaü pràbodhayaü punaþ punaþ (evam uktaþ api aham enam pràbodhayam punaþ
punaþ). 6. ciràt prabhçtyàryaþ parityaktocitasarãrasaüskàra iti pãdyate me hçdayam (ciràt prabhçti àryaþ
parityakta-ucita;÷arãra-saüskàraþ iti pãdyate me hçdayam). 7. vismayaharùamåla÷ca kolàholo lokasya
odajihãta (vismaya;-harùa:målaþ ca kolàholaþ lokasya udajihãta). 8. taducyatàü pàtravargaþ sveùu sveùu
pàñheùvasaümådhairbhavitavyamiti (tat ucyatàü pàtravargaþ 'sveùu sveùu pàñheùu asaümådhaiþ
bhavitavyam' iti.). 9. sakhe cintaya tàvatkenàpade÷ena punarà÷ramapadaü gacchàmaþ (sakhe, cintaya
tàvat kena apade÷ena punaþ à÷rama-padaü gacchàmaþ ) 11. ayam asau mama jyàyànàryaþ ku÷o nàma
bharatà÷ramàtpratinivçttaþ (ayam asau mama jyàyàn àryaþ Ku÷aþ nàma Bharat-à÷ramàt pratinivçttaþ.)
16. ityavadhàryàpasarpaõàbhilàsiõyahamabhavam (iti avadhàri apasarpaõaabhilàsiõi aham abhavam). 17.
kasminprayojane mamàyaü praõidhiþ prahita iti prabhåtatvatprayojanànàü na khalvavadhàrayàmi (kasmin
prayojane mama ayam praõidhiþ prahitaþ iti prabhåta~tvat prayojanànàm na khalu avadhàrayàmi). 18.
yadi ka÷cidastyupàyaþ patidrohapratikriyàyai dar÷ayàmuü matiþ hi te pañãyasi (yadi kaþ cit asti upàyaþ
pati-drohapratikriyàyai, dar÷aya amum -- matiþ hi te pañãyasi). 21. ÷rutvà caitattameva
mattahastinamudastàdhoraõo ràjaputro dhiruhya raühasottamena ràjabhavanamabhyavartata (÷rutvà ca
etat tam eva matta:hastinam udasta:adhoraõaþ ràja-putraþ adhiruhya raühasa uttamena ràjabhavanam
abhyavartata). 22. upalabdhavànasmi praõidhibhyo yathà tasya mleccharàjabalasya
madhyàtpradhànatamàþ pa¤ca ràjànaþ parayà suhçttayà Ràkùasam anuvartanta iti (upalabdhavàn asmi
praõidhibhyaþ yathà tasya mleccha-ràja-balasya madhyàt pradhànatamàþ pa¤ca ràjànaþ parayà
suhçt~tayà Ràkùasam anuvartante iti) 24. ityavadhàryànveùtumàdaramakavaram. anveùamàõa÷ca yathà
yathà nàpa÷yaü taü tathà tathà suhçtsnehakàtareõa manasà tattada÷obhanamà÷aïkamànastarugahanàni
candanavithikà latàmaõóapànsaraþkålàni ca vãkùamàõo nipuõamitastato dattadçùñiþ suciraü vyacaram
(iti avadhàrã anveùtum àdaram akavaram. anveùamàõaþ ca yathà yathà na apa÷yaü taü, tathà tathà
suhçtsneha-kàtareõa manasà tat tat a÷obhanam à÷aïkamànaþ taru-gahanàni candana-vithikà latà-
maõóapàn saraþ-kålàni ca vãkùamàõaþ nipuõam itaþ tataþ datta:dçùñiþ su:ciraü vyacaram.)
25. ekasmiü÷ca prade÷e jhañiti vanànilenopanãtaü nirbharavikasite'pi kànane
bhibhåtànyakusumaparimalaü visarpantamatisurabhitayà nulimpantamiva tarpyantamiva pårayantamiva
ghràõendriyamahamahamikayà madhukarakulairanubadhyamànamanàghràtapårvamamànuùalokocitaü
kusumagandham abhyajighram (ekasmiüs ca prade÷e jhañiti vana-anilena upanãtam nirbhara:vikasite api
kànane bhibhåta:anya:kusuma:parimalaü visarpantam ati:surabhi~tayà anulimpantam iva tarpyantam iva
pårayantam iva ghràõa-indriyam, ahamahamikayà madhukara-kulaiþ anubadhyamànam
an:àghràta:pårvam a:mànuùa-loka-ucitam kusuma-gandham abhya-jighram).

1. Latavya, do you know whose arrow this is? 2. Ah you fool! Are you more-learned-in-thesacred-law than
our preceptor? 5. What then is this great hesitation at every step? 7. The allusion to (such) considerable
love-and-service is indeed opportune (avasare). 8. Raivataka, tell our-driver to bring up the chariot
complete-with [sa-]-bow-and-arrows. 11. And she became mistress-of-hisentire-harem. 12. Tell (me) what
further benefit I can provide for you. 13. After speaking thus he fell silent, his-gaze-fixed-on-my-face (to
see) what I [f.] would say.

Chapter 15

In Sanskrit, past action may also be expressed by the perfect tense. This is formed, as in Greek, by
reduplication of the root and a special set of endings. Here are the perfect forms of dç÷ (see):

Person/Number Perfect Active Perfect Middle

1st Singular dadar÷a dadç÷e
2nd dadar÷itha dadç÷iùe
3rd dadar÷a dadç÷e
1st Dual dadç÷iva dadç÷ivahe
2nd dadç÷athuþ dadç÷àthe
3rd dadç÷atuþ dadç÷àte
1st Plural dadç÷ima dadç÷imahe
2nd dadç÷a dadç÷idhve
3rd dadç÷uþ dadç÷ire

Note that the singular active forms appear in the strong grade of the root (dadar÷-), while all other forms
show the weak grade (dadç÷-). The strong grade is usually guõa, but in many verbs the vriddhi grade is
used instead (kç > cakàra). This is optional in the first person, so that it becomes possible to distinguish it
from the third person (cakara, I did; cakàra, I/he did). In the weak grade, the vowel a may disappear
altogether (gam > jagàma, jagmuþ). As in Greek, the perfect of the root vid (know) is not reduplicated and
retains a present sense: veda (I know; cf. oi]da).

Vowel-initial verbs reduplicate by lengthening the vowel (as > àsa); in strong forms, the vowel i
reduplicates as iye- (iù, want > iyeùa). Reduplication with a semi-vowel (samprasàraõa) shows up in the
strong form of other roots, as well: thus vac (say) becomes uvàca.

The perfect tense has an active participle with the ending -vàüs. The middle participle ends in -àna, and
declines like a÷va.
Causative and other derivative verbs do not have a perfect form, but one can be created by combining the
perfect of kç with an abstract noun:

dar÷ayàü cakàra. He did a showing. He

showed.

There is a corresponding middle construction with the verb as or bhu:

dar÷ayàm àsa. He showed.

Although the Sanskrit perfect resembles its Greek equivalent, it does not have a 'perfective' sense (cf.
le/luke, he has freed). It is used instead as an historical tense (cakàra, he did). Sanskrit grammarians
stipulated that it should not be used for actions in the personal experience of the writer. For this reason, it
is rare in drama and common in narrative poetry.

Nor is that the end of past tenses in Sanskrit. There is also an aorist formation. Like the imperfect, this is
marked by an augment and secondary endings. The aorist stem, however, is formed in various ways that
distinguish it from the present stem. Some of these will remind you of the aorist in Greek and the perfect
tense in Latin. The following table summarizes Coulson's presentation:

Type of Aorist Stem Example Analogous Formation

Root Aorist abhåt (he was) e)/fu (he was)
(athematic endings, active only)

A-aorist apatat (he fell) el)/ abe (he took)

(thematic endings, week grade
of root)
Reduplicated Aorist (thematic adãdç÷at (he showed) cucurrit (he ran)
endings; sense normally
causative)
Sigmatic Aorists anaiùãt (he led) e)/luse (he freed)
(suffixes -s, iù, siù, sa, with
thematic or athematic endings

Aorist Passive akàri (it was done) e0bla/bh (he was harmed)
(Occurs only in the third person,
singular)

The aorist tense in Sanskrit does not differ in meaning from the imperfect. It was replaced in ordinary
writing by participial constructions. Its frequent use is characteristic of a 'learned' style.

To summarize, we have seen three past tenses in Sanskrit: the imperfect, perfect, and aorist. They can all
be rendered with the simple past in English. Sanskrit grammarians distinguished them with the following
formula: the aorist refers to an action 'of today', the imperfect to an action 'not of today', and the perfect
to an action in the 'remote' past.
In Greek and Latin, the secondary tenses are sometimes used to express hypothetical action. In Sanskrit,
two verbal formations are based on the imperfect and or aorist stem. One of these is called the injunctive.
It consists of the imperfect or (more commonly) the aorist form without an augment. Once common in
Vedic Sanskrit, its use in Classical Sanskrit is confined to negative commands after mà (cf. Greek mh/):

mà bhaiùta. Do not fear.

mà bhåt. Let it not be.

The other formation is called the precative. Coulson describes it as 'a kind of aorist optative', which is used
to express wishes and prayers. It is formed by adding the suffix -yà[s] to the unstrengthened root:

avirahitau dampatã bhåyàstàm. May husband and wife be un-separated.

kriyàdaghànà maghavà vighàtam (kriyàd May Indra cause elimination of evils.
aghànàm maghavà vighàtam).

Finally, a word about Sanskrit metre. Like Latin and Greek, Sanskrit possessed a quantitative rhythm, in
which the difference between 'light' and 'heavy' syllables was audible in ordinary speech. In general, a
'heavy' syllable is one that contains a long vowel or diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more
consonants. Other syllables are 'light'. Visarga (þ) and anusvara (ü) are treated as consonants in
versification. In metrical notation, heavy syllables are marked with a macron (-) and light syllables with x or
u.

The most common verse-form is the anuùñubh metre, which is the functional equivalent of dactylic
hexameter in Latin and Greek. This metre consists of stanzas, which are divisible into quarters called
pàdas ('feet'). Each pàda may be divided in turn into two half-verses of four syllables each. The first half-
verse is always indeterminate: each of the four syllables may be light or heavy (o). The second half-verse,
on the other hand, normally consists of a double iambus (x-x-) in the second and fourth pàdas. The first
and third pàdas end with a different metre: x- -x. Thus, an entire stanza follows this pattern:

oooo x- -x/oooo x-x- oooo x-

-x/oooo x-x-

In practice, the final syllable of a pada may be heavy or light by nature. Thus, the anuùñubh metre is a mix
of freedom and restriction, which gives considerable scope for poetic creativity.

To illustrate the anuùñubh metre, here are the first two stanzas of the Atmabodha (Self-Knowledge), a
versified treatise attributed to the philosopher Shankara ():

o o o o x - - - o o o ox-x-
tabobhiþ kùãnapàpànàü ÷àntànàü vãtaràginàm
o o o o x- - x o o o o x -x -
mumukùunàm apekùyo'yam àtmabodho'vidãyate.

o o o o x - - x o o o o x - x x bodho'nya sàdhanebhyo hi
sàkùàn mokùaikasàdhanam
o o o o x - - x o o o o x - x x
pàkasya vanhivajj¤ànaü vinà mokùo na sãdhyati.
Exercise

In place of the readings given in Coulson's chapter, you may read the first ten stanzas of the Atmabodha.
This work describes the quest for enlightenment with a series of analogies drawn from nature. For
Shankara, 'knowledge of the self' means the realization that one's true Self (atman) is identical with the
Absolute (brahman).

tapobhiþ kùãnapàpànàü ÷àntànàü vãtaràginàm mumukùunàmapekùyo'yamàtmabodho'vidhãyate.

tapas austerity
kùãna-pàpàna pure (feeble criminal, one who is purified after
suffering the consequences of sin)
÷àntàna calm
mumukùuþ desirous of liberation
apekùyaþ for the sake of (comparative < apekùa)
ayam this
àtmabodhaþ self-knowledge
vidhãyate is offered, dedicated

bodho'nya sàdhanebhyo hi sàkùànmokùaikasàshanam pàkasya

vanhivajj¤ànaü vinà mokùo na sidhyati.

bodhaþ knowledge
anya-sàdhanam other-discipline
hi indeed
sakùàt directly, really, obviously
sàdhanam means
pàkaþ cooking
vanhi-vat fire-like (vanhi, f. fire)
j¤ànam knowledge
vinà without (+ acc.)
mokùaþ liberation
na not
sidhyati is possible (< sidh, succeed)

avirodhãtayà karma nàvidyàü vinivartayet vidyàvidyaü

nihantyeva tejastimirasaïghavat.

virodhãtà opposition (with negating prefix, a-)

karman, n. action
na not
vinivartayet destroys (causative opative < vi-ni-vçt
vidyà knowledge
 avidyà ignorance
nihanti destroys (< ni-han)
eva only
tejas, n. light
timira-saõgha-vat as deep darkness (darkness-multitude-like)

paricchinna ivàj¤ànàttannà÷e sati kevalaþ; svayaü

prakà÷ate hyàtma meghàpàye'm÷umàniva.

paricchinna limited
iva as though
aj¤ànam ignorance
tan-nà÷e sati on the destruction of that (loc. abs.)
kevala unique, alone, one
svayam [by] itself
prakà÷ate shines
hi indeed
àtman self
meghaþ cloud
apàyaþ passing away
aü÷umàn sun
iva like

aj¤ànakaluùaü jãvaü j¤abhyàsàtvinirmalaü kçtvà

j¤ànaü svayaü na÷yejjalaü katakareõuvat.

aj¤àna-kaluùa sullied by ignorance

jãvam individual
j¤àna-bhàsa practice of knowledge
vinirmala pure
kçtvà having made
j¤ànam knowledge
na÷yet removes (optative)
jalam water
kataka-reõu kataka-nut-powder

saüsàraþ svapnatulyo hi ràgadveùàdisaükulaþ svakàle

satyavadbhàti prabhode satyasatbhavet.

samsàraþ world
svapna-tulyo like a dream
 hi indeed
ràga-dveùa adi likes-dislikes-et cetera
saükulaþ full of
sva-kàlam its time
satya-vat truth-like, as real
bhàti appears
prabhode sati on waking up
asat-bhavet it is falsified

tàvat satyaü jadadbhàti ÷uktikàrajataü yathà yàvanna

j¤àyate brahma sarvàdhiùñhànamadavyaü.

tàvat so long
satya true
jagat world
bhàti appears
÷uktikà on the pearl
rajatam silver
yathà as
yàvat as long
na not
j¤àyate is known (passive)
brahman the Absolute
sarva-dhiùñhànam support of all
advayam non dual

upàdàne'khilàdhàre jaganti parame÷vare

sargasthitilayànyànti budbudànãva vàriõi

upàdàna material cause

akhila everything
àdhara support
jaganti worlds
parame÷vara highest god
sarga-stithi-layàni rise-exist-melting
anti pass away
budbudàni bubbles
iva like
vàriõi in the waters
saccidàtmanyanusyåte nityeviùnau prakalpitàþ. vyaktayo
vividhàssarvà hàtake kañakàdivat.

sat-cit-atma existence-consciousness-selfed; whose nature is

existence and consciousness
anysyåta all-pervading
nitya eternal
viùnau on Vishnu
prakalpita projected
vyaktaya manifested
vividha manifold
sarva all
hàtaka gold
hàtaka-adi-vat bracelet-etc.-like, just as bracelets, etc.

yathàkà÷o hçùãke÷o nànopàdhigato vibhuþ tadbhedàdbhinnavatbhàti

tannà÷e kevalo bhavet.

yathà just as
àkà÷aþ space
hçùãke÷aþ truth
nàna different
upàdhigata available in enclosures
vibhuþ all pervading
tad-bhedàt due to differences in these (enclosures)
bhinna-vat as though diverse
bhàti appears
tan-nà÷e on the destruction of these (enclosures)
kevala one, non dual
bhavet becomes (optative)