Table of Contents

PREFACE
CHAPTER 1.0
1.1 Cell structure
1.2 Linear calculation of cell magnification
Problems ch1
CHAPTER 2.0
2.1 Binomial nomenclature
2.2 Population size
2.3 Energy flow
2.4 Carbon and nitrogen cycles
Problems ch2
CHAPTER 3.0
3.1 Pollution
3.2 Pesticides
3.3 Greenhouse effect
Problems CH3
CHAPTER 4.0
4.1 Food processing
4.2 Enzyme activity
4.3 Emulsification of fats
Problems CH4
CHAPTER 5.0
5.1 Transport across a cell membrane
5.2 Transpiration in plants
5.3 Transport in plants
Problems CH5
CHAPTER 6.0
6.1 Cellular respiration
6.2 Muscle fatigue
Problems CH6
CHAPTER 7.0
7.1 Nephron and urine formation
7.2 Factors affecting kidney function
7.3 Diseases of excretory system
7.4 Nitrogenous wastes
Problems CH7
CHAPTER 8.0
8.1 Neurons
8.2 Nerve impulse
8.3 Electrical processes in living organisms.xhtml
8.4 Neurohumoral regulation
8.5 Brain-Computer Interfaces
8.6 Homeostasis
8.7 Stimulators of plant growth
Problems CH8
CHAPTER 9.0
9.1 Muscles work
Problems CH9
CHAPTER 10.0
10.1 DNA
Problems CH10
CHAPTER 11.0
11.1 Interphase
11.2 Mitosis
11.3 Meiosis
Problems CH11
CHAPTER 12.0
12.1 The introduction to genetics
12.2 Mendel laws
12.3 Genes interaction
12.4 Sex-linked inheritance
12.5 Blood groups and rhesus factor
12.6 Human genetics
12.7 Modern genetic technologies in agriculture
Problems CH12
CHAPTER 13.0
13.1 Biotechnology
Problems CH13
CHAPTER 14.0
14.1 Human reproductive system
14.2 Structure of male and female gametes
14.3 Secondary sex characteristics
14.4 Types of contraception
14.5 Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Problems CH14
CHAPTER 15.0
15.1 Prenatal development
15.2 Impacts of cigarettes, alcohol and drugs on fetal growth
Problems CH15
CHAPTER 16.0
16.1 The History of Life on Earth
16.2 The Theories of Evolution
16.3 Darwinism
16.4 Speciation
Problems CH16
ANSWERS
Glossary
Reference
PREFACE
Natural science is an exciting and very useful subject. This textbook will show you all the beauty of it
and will help you become true explorers. The main aim of this book is to answer the fundamental
question: “What is science and what is its importance in our life?”

Starting from the first pages, you will realise that this textbook is completely different from any other
usual textbook full of theoretical passages and formulas. Every chapter contains useful information,
curious facts, tasks for individual and group work. You will also learn how to conduct research and
experiments yourselves, search for information, make your own discoveries.

One more valuable feature of this textbook is the language. Every sentence has been carefully chosen
so that it is not difficult for you to understand science in the English language. Each page contains
translations of all the important terms,both in Kazakh and Russian. This textbook will not only help you
improve your English, but it will also make you a part of a big international science community.

Please pay attention to the structure of this textbook. Remember: a textbook is no longer the only source
of information in the modern world. With the help of carefully selected tasks, you are going to learn such
important skills as critical thinking, problem solving, information analysis, creativity, imagination,
teamwork, digital literacy etc.

If you have any questions, suggestions or ideas regarding the contents of this book, please feel free to
contact us:

via email: admin@astanakitap.kz

via telegram app: @astanakitap

Best regards,

team of authors, “Астана-кітап”

CHAPTER 1.0
Cell biology
1.1 Cell structure
You will:
explain the basic functions of organelles in animal and plant cells.

Stimulating question
What makes cell alive?

Key terms
Cell - the smallest unit of organization that can perform all activities
required for life;
Organelle - cellular structures with specialized functions;
Cytoplasm - the contents of the cell bounded by the plasma membrane;
Plasma membrane - the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective
barrier, regulating the cell’s chemical composition.
Nucleus - the organelle of a eukaryotic cell that contains the genetic
material in the form of chromosomes.

Text
Most cells contain three main parts: cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
The plasma membrane is a boundary between the cell and its surroundings. It
is composed of two lipid layers and proteins. Membrane allows certain
molecules in and out of the cell. This property of the cell membrane is called
selective permeability.
Inside, the cell is filled with cytoplasm. It consists of three parts:

1. Cytosol is the liquid part of the cytoplasm that contains salts, ions,
proteins, enzymes, and complex compounds.
 2. Cytoplasmic inclusions are non-living materials like nutrients and
pigments, which are not constantly in the cell.
3. Organelles are cellular structures with specialized forms and functions.

The cell nucleus is a part of all eukaryotic cells. It contains genetic

information and regulates the activity of the cell. The nucleus is surrounded by
a double membrane with pores.
Activity
Think-Pair-Share

Look at the pictures and fill the gaps with suitable letters. Then compare with
your friend. After comparison, share your answers with the whole class and
discuss it.

1. ___ has ___ on the surface.

2. ___, ___ are double membranous organelles.
3. ___ modifies proteins received from ___.
4. ___ made of materials produced by ___.
5. ___ digests old cell parts.
6. Write your own sentences with gaps.

Literacy
1. Active cells or cells which need lots of energy have more mitochondria
in them. Write three human cells with large numbers of mitochondria in
them.
2. A chloroplast is a kind of plastid; some plant cells have chloroplasts,
some do not. Guess which plant cells do not have chloroplast.

Facts
Cells can sacrifice their own life for other cells. When one cell is damaged or
infected, it destroys itself. It bursts own lysosomes, so that enzymes inside the
lysosome digest the cell. Consequently, cell sacrifices itself to save other
cells from infection or damage.

Research time
You know that cell’s genetic material is found inside the nucleus. But have you
ever wondered if other cell parts contain genetic material? Find out
organelles that have their own DNA. Draw their structures. Research why do
they need their own genetic material.

Terminology
inclusion - кірістіру, қосу / включение;
permeability - өткізгіштік / проницаемость;
sacs - қаптар / мешочки;
to burst -жарылу / взрываться;
to damage - жарақаттау / повреждать;
to destroy - жою / уничтожать;
to sacrifice - қию / жертвовать.
1.2 Linear calculation of cell
magnification
You will:
calculate a linear magnification in cells using micrographs.

Stimulating question
What is the real size of our body cells?

Key terms
Linear magnification - the ratio of image length to object length measured
in planes;
Micrograph - a photograph of an image under the microscope.

Text
There are many microscopic structures that we can’t see with naked eye.
Studying these structures lead to discoveries in science. Scientists often need
to do calculations involving the magnification and sizes of images and
specimens. Magnification is how much larger the image is than the actual size.
This formula is used to calculate magnification:

magnification = size of actual image : size of specimen

Linear magnification is the ratio of image length, you see in the microscope, to
the actual specimen length. The International System of Units (SI) is used to
measure the size of structures. SI is the modern metric system of measurement.
It is important to use the same units for measuring the sizes of the image and
the specimen.
For example, let’s assume that the length of an image is 30 mm. It represents a
specimen that has an actual size of 3 μm. To determine the magnification of
the image we first convert 30mm to μm. Then, determine the magnification by
using the formula:

magnification = 30000 μm : 3 μm = 10000, so the specimen is magnified 10000x (times).

Scale bars are sometimes given instead of magnification on micrographs. The

scale consists of a line with the actual size that the line represents. This is
useful in publishing because any change in size during printing will
automatically change both the micrograph and the scale bar equally.

To calculate the linear magnification of micrograph using the scale bar follow
the steps below.

1. Measure the length of the scale by a ruler in mm: 17 mm

2. Convert your measurement into μm: 17000 μm

3. Calculate the magnification:

magnification = (17000) : 10 = 1700x

So the micrograph of pollen magnified 1700 times.

Also, the actual size of structures is calculated using a scale bar:

1. Measure the length of the pollen in mm and convert into µm:

30 mm = 30000 µm

2. Measure the length of the scale bar in mm and convert into µm:

17 mm = 17000 µm

3. By using magnification formula make a proportion as they have same

magnifications:

17000 : 10 = 30000 : (actual size)

And the actual size of pollen is approximately 18 µm.

Activity
Calculate linear magnification of images and answer to following questions.

1. What is the actual size of bacteria?

2. What is the original diameter of erythrocyte?
3. What is the original length of mitochondria?
4. What is the actual size of giardia’s flagella?
5. A student draws a cell diagram 22 mm long. She writes 600x below the
diagram. How large is the actual cell?
6. You are looking at a specimen that measures 5 μm, and the image you see
is 10 mm long. Your friend is looking at a specimen 0.1 mm long using
the same magnification. What size of the image does your friend see?

Facts
Modern light microscopes can magnify images about 1500 times, while
electron microscopes can magnify images about two million times.

Research time
Draw each organism A and B separately to your notebook. Write short
information about these organisms. By using scale bar calculate your
drawings magnification.
Maths in Biology
Convert the following measurements.

a. 9.2 mm = __ μm

b. 5800 μm = __ cm

c. 0.077 mm = __ μm

d. 0.0061 mm= __ nm

Literacy
 1. Why linear magnification is necessary?
2. How many meters is one nanometer equal to?

Terminology
convert - айналдыру / конвертировать;
giardia - лямблия;
magnification - ұлғайту / увеличение;
measurement - өлшеу / измерение;
micrographs - микросурет / микроснимок;
scale bar - масштабты сызғыш / масштабная линейка;
specimen - үлгі / образец;
to represent - көрсету / представлять.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. Which of the following organelles contains digestive enzymes?

A) ribosome

B) nucleus

C) lysosome

D) mitochondria

E) golgi body

2. If the length of an image is 65 mm and an actual size is 13 μm. Determine

the magnification of the image.

A) 500x

B) 5000x

C) 10000x

D) 13000x

E) 65000x

3. Which organelle gives different colors to plant parts?

A) mitochondria

B) vacuole

C) endoplasmic reticulum
D) vacuole

E) plastid

4. Which organelle contains the genetic material?

A) vacuole

B) lysosome

C) nucleus

D) endoplasmic reticulum

E) cell membrane

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1. In which organelles proteins can be synthesized?

A) golgi body

B) cytoplasm

C) ribosome

D) smooth endoplasmic reticulum

E) vacuole

F) mitochondria

G) plastids

H) rough endoplasmic reticulum

2. Which of the following organelles consist of a double membrane?

A) ribosome
B) lysosome

C) chloroplast

D) vacuole

E) golgi body

F) endoplasmic reticulum

H) centrosome

3. What are the main parts of the cell?

A) cell membrane

B) ribosome

C) cytoplasm

D) lysosome

E) golgi body

F) mitochondria

G) nucleus

H) vacuole

Matching
1. Match the following organelles with their functions.

1. Mitochondria

2. Golgi body

3. Lysosome
A) packages materials

B) transport materials

D) produce energy

C) protection

E) breaks down substances

F) protein synthesis

2. Match the following organelles with their structure.

1. Centrosome

2. Endoplasmic reticulum

3. Ribosome

A) consists of two subunits

B) a stack of flattened sacs

C) a network of membranous tubules

D) contains digestive enzymes

E) sacs covered with ribosomes

F) includes two centrioles.

CHAPTER 2.0
Biosphere
2.1 Binomial nomenclature
You will:
use the binary nomenclature in the description of different species;
recognize local plants and animals by distinguishing features.

STQ
How scientists do not confuse organism names in different languages?

Key terms
Binomial nomenclature - a system of nomenclature in which each species
is given a unique name that consists of a generic and a specific term;
Classification - systematic arrangement in groups or categories
according to established criteria;
Species - a group of individuals having some common characteristics or
qualities.

TEXT
Binomial nomenclature.

Every species has its own name. But they are different in different languages.
For example, word “dog” in the Kazakh language is “ит” and in Russian
“собака”. So, people needed names for species that can be understood by any
biologist from any country. This system is known as binomial nomenclature. It
was proposed for the first time by Swedish scientist Carolus Linnaeus in
1753. In binomial nomenclature, every species has its own scientific name
written by two words. This name is always written by Latin letters and in
italic font. The first word is capitalized while the second starts with a small
letter.
For example, dog is named as Canis familiaris, and cat is named as Felis
catus. The human scientific name is Homo sapiens.

Classification of animals and plants.

Animals and plants have their own place in systematics. They are classified in
this order: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
Similar species are included into the genus, similar genera are included into
the family and so on. In the end, all plants and animals are included into
Domain Eukarya.

Facts
Binomial nomenclature is not translated into any language. Below you can see
an article from Wikipedia about dogs in the Korean language.

Lab works
Comparison of different Arthropoda classes.

Pre-lab questions:

1. Why we need to classify living things?

2. What are the differences between animals and plants?

Methods and materials:

taxidermied animals; herbariums of local plants; animal and plant
identification atlas.

Procedures:

1. Divide class into groups, give every group one plant or one animal.
2. Determine systematics of given animals or plants by identification atlas.

Results:

1. Observe plant body structures and fill the table:

2. Observe animal body structures and fill the table:

Post-lab questions:

1. How is plant body structure related to its habitat?

2. How is animal body structure related to the food they eat?

Research time
1. Find Latin names of these animals and decide which animals are
relatives to one another: dog, wolf, coyote, fox, African wild dog.
2. Find 4 relatives of snow leopard. Show their Latin names.
3. Find the specific names of animals below. How can you explain their
specific names?Chemistry in Biology
Terminology
annual - жылдық / годовой;
distribution - тарату / распространение;
feature - ерекшелігі / особенность;
genus - туыс / род;
habitat - тіршілік ету ортасы / местообитание;
perennial - көпжылдық / многолетний;
relative - туыс / родственник;
species - түр / вид;
taxidermied animal - тұлып / чучело;
to propose - ұсыну / предлагать.
2.2 Population size
You will:
analyze charts of exponential and sigmoidal curves of population growth.

STQ
Why human population is increasing so fast?

Key terms
Exponential growth - growth at an increasingly rapid rate;
Carrying capacity- the number of organisms which a region can support
without environmental degradation;
Sigmoid curve - a mathematical graph having “S”-shaped curve.

Facts
The 20th century saw the greatest increase in the human population growth. In
1927 it was 2 billion, in 1974 4 billion and 1999 6 billion. And human
population is still growing. Ecologists predict a population growth up to 10
billion on Earth by the year 2050.

TEXT
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same
area. Population size is the number of individuals in the population; it changes
over time. Several factors cause changes in population size. Birth and
immigrants (the organisms that move into a population) increase the size of the
population. Deaths and emigrants (the organisms which move out of a
population.) decrease the size of the population. Following formula can
calculate the change in the population size:

If the birth rate and the number of immigrants (Y) is more than mortality and
emigrants (Z), the population will increase in size (X will be greater than 0).
This increase in population size is called population growth.

A line graph of a population’s growth over time is called a population growth

curve.

Population growth is examined in two ways: exponential growth curve and

sigmoid growth curve.

If population members all have access to food and free to reproduce,

population size will increase at a constant rate. When this growing population
is marked on the graph over time, it will make exponential growth curve. This
curve is J-shaped.

Exponential growth needs an infinite amount of resources and is

unsustainable. It may happen in case if there are few individuals and many
resources. But when numbers of individuals gets large, supplies start to
decrease, slowing the growth rate. Eventually, the growth rate will stop at
carrying capacity and make an S-shaped curve or sigmoid curve. Carrying
capacity is the maximum population size that environment can support.

Research time
Make research about human population changes in your own city and compare
them with Astana or Almaty. Construct a graph, and explain the reasons of
these changes.

Activity
In 1944 29 reindeer were introduced by to St. Matthew Island to provide an
emergency food source for marine soldiers. For several years people did not
visit the island, and in 1963 population rose up to 6000 reindeer. In the next
two years, population number dropped to 42 reindeer.

1. The carrying capacity of the island was about 1700 reindeer. How do
you think, why did reindeer number rise to 6000?
2. Why reindeer number dropped so sharply in just two years? What factors
affected it?
3. Assume you are a scientist. Write a report about this case and write your
suggestions how you would save reindeer in that island from dying?
4. Construct a curve by given information.

Literacy
1. Why predators are important for an ecosystem?
2. What are disadvantages of an exponential growth?

Terminology
birth rate - тууылым / рождаемость;
curve - қисық / кривая;
infinite - шексіздік / бесконечность;
mortality - өлім / смертность;
rate - жылдамдық / скорость;
reindeer - солтүстік бұғысы / северный олень;
sharply - күрт / резко;
unsustainable - тұрақсыз / неустойчивый.
 2.3 Energy flow
You will:
calculate the efficiency of energy flow;
compare numbers, biomass and energy pyramids.

STQ
How does our organism use the energy of the Sun?

Key terms
Energy - the ability to do work.

Facts
Photosynthesis uses only about 0,023% of the sunlight that reaches
Earth.
No energy is produced or consumed; it only transfers from one state to
another.

Text
Energy flow in living things

Energy is essential for living things. The primary source of energy that powers
natural systems is the sun.

Plants use sunlight energy to make photosynthesis. By photosynthesis, they

produce glucose. So, they convert solar energy into chemical energy. As
plants produce organic compounds, they are known as producers.
Animals get their energy by eating plants or other animals which have eaten
plants. Plant-eating animals are herbivores and known as primary consumers.
Animals eating herbivores are secondary consumers, and they are known as
carnivores.

This relationship between organisms is known as food chain.

When energy passes through the food chain, about 90% of it is lost to the
environment. If to assume that grass is 100% percents energy, 10% of it
passes to the grasshopper, 1% to the mouse, and only 0,1% to the owl.

Ecological pyramids

Values of some ecological factors can be shown in the form of pyramids. They
are called as ecological pyramids. Ecological pyramids can illustrate changes
in the numbers, biomass, or energy content of organisms at each level. Each of
these three kinds of pyramids tells something different about the flow of
energy and materials between one trophic (feeding) level and the next.
The shape of the typical pyramid can vary greatly depending on whether the
trophic relationships are expressed as numbers, biomass or energy.
Number in a forest community

Pyramids of numbers display numbers of an individual organism at each

trophic level. The pyramid above has few producers, but they may be large.
This gives an “inverted pyramids”, although not all pyramids of numbers are
like this.

Biomass in a forest community

Biomass pyramids measure the weight of a biological material at each trophic

level. The water content of organisms varies, so dry weight is often used.

Energy in a forest community

Pyramids of energy often look like biomass pyramids. The energy content at
each trophic level is related to the biomass. Similar amounts of dry biomass
tent to have about the same energy content.

Activity
The information below is from an aquatic ecosystem. Construct ecological
pyramids for numbers, biomass, and energy.
 1. Compare the trophic levels for the numbers pyramid you constructed
with the temperate forest number pyramid given below.
2. Compare the trophic levels of the biomass pyramid you constructed with
the open ocean biomass pyramid given below.

Literacy
1. Where does 90% of the energy go?
2. What happens to the ecosystem biomass as you move up to the biomass
pyramid?
3. Why are energy pyramids never inverted?

Research time
Most fungi and bacteria are not either producers or consumers; they are
decomposers. What is their role in energy pyramid? Draw the energy pyramid
with decomposers.

Terminology
carnivore - ет қоректі / плотоядный;
consumer - тұтынушы / потребитель;
flow - ағын / поток;
efficiency - тиімділік / эффективность;
herbivore - шөпқоректі / травоядный;
inverted - төңкерілген / перевернутый;
producers - өндірушілер / производители;
resistance - тұрақтылық / устойчивость;
to convert - түрлендіру / превращать;
transfer - аударым / перевод.
2.4 Carbon and nitrogen cycles
You will:
draw scheme of carbon and nitrogen cycles in nature.

STQ
Where does a gasoline come from?

Key terms
Biogeochemical cycle - the flow of chemical elements and compounds
between living organisms and the environment;
Carbon - a widely distributed element that forms organic compounds in
combination with hydrogen, oxygen, etc;
Nitrogen - a chemical element that is a gas with no color or taste, forms
most of the earth’s atmosphere and is a part of all living things.

Facts
Another way that makes atmospheric nitrogen usable is lightning.
Lightning forms some nitrate by causing oxygen and nitrogen in the
atmosphere to join.
Some organic matter does not decompose easily. Instead, it builds up in
the earth’s crust. Petroleum and coal were formed from the wood
millions of years ago. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon
quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Rhizobia are bacteria that cause the formation of specialized structures
(nodules) on the roots of the legume plants. Inside these nodules,
rhizobia fixate nitrogen.

Text
Earth is a closed system and matter cannot escape. Materials used by
organisms are not lost, they transform, change and return to organisms. These
processes are cyclic, include biotic and abiotic ecological factors and are
known as biogeochemical cycles. Biogeochemical cycles of water, oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are essential for living things.

Carbon cycle

About 0.04% of Earth’s crust and 0.03% of the atmosphere is carbon. It is the
main element of living things; all organic compounds include carbon.

Carbon is present in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2). Water also

contains CO2 as it can dissolve it. Plants and algae use CO2 to make
photosynthesis and produce various organic compounds. Animals get carbon
by eating plants. By cellular respiration in animals and plants, they return
CO2 to the atmosphere. Decomposers break down dead plants and animals.
This too returns CO2 to the soil or atmosphere.
Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is a component of proteins and nucleic acids which is essential to

life. The Earth’s atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen gas (N2), and this form of
nitrogen is unusable by most organisms. However, some microorganisms can
transfer nitrogen into compounds usable by plants.

Following processes present in the nitrogen cycle:

Fixation: bacteria and cyanobacteria change atmospheric nitrogen into

ammonium (NH4+).
 Nitrification: nitrifying bacteria transforms soil ammonia (NH3) into
nitrates (NO2-). Plants can use nitrogen in this form.
Assimilation: plants absorb nitrates from the soil into their roots and use
it.
Ammonification: the waste products of living organisms decomposed by
fungi and bacteria turning nitrogen in ammonium.
Denitrification: soil nitrates converted to free atmospheric nitrogen by
denitrifying bacteria.

Activity
Fill the gaps in the nitrogen cycle below.
 1. Letters _____ show the processes of fixation, nitrification, and
assimilation.
2. A form of nitrogen represented by H is _____.
3. In a process D nitrate converted to _____.
4. Function of G _____.
5. The cow gets its organic nitrogen from _____.

Literacy
 1. What is the major reservoir for ammonia?
2. What will be the effect on carbon cycling if there were no decomposers?
3. What is the role of animals in carbon and nitrogen cycle?

Research time
Oxygen is the essential chemical of life. It is used to produce energy from
organic substances. Draw oxygen cycle involving the living things. Which
organisms are included in the oxygen cycle?

Terminology
coal - көмір / уголь;
combustion - жану /сгорание;
crust - қыртыс / кора;
decomposer -ыдыратушы / редуцент;
fossil fuel - қазба отын / ископаемое топливо;
legumes - бұршақ тұқымдастар / бобовые;
lightning - найзағай / молния;
petroleum - мұнай / нефть;
root nodules - түйнек /клубеньки ;
to absorb - сіңіру / поглощать;
to dissolve - еріту /растворять;
wood - сүрек / древесина.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. Who proposed the binomial nomenclature?

A) Lamarck

B) Linnaeus

C) Leeuwenhoek

D) Hooke

E) none of the above

2. A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area:

A) community

B) consumers

C) producers

D) population

E) ecosystem

3. All plants are:

A) herbivore

B) consumer

C) carnivore
D) producer

E) omnivore

4. Absorption nitrates from the soil into their roots by plants.

A) fixation

B) nitrification

C) assimilation

D) ammonification

E) denitrification

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1. Which of the following organism is producer?

A) mouse

B) rose

C) cat

D) dog

E) sunflower

F) snake

G) fox

H) grass

2. Which of the following statement is false?

A) carbon is present in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide

B) plants use sunlight energy to make photosynthesis

C) plants are known as consumers

D) tiger and leopard belong to the same genus

E) in binomial nomenclature, every species has its own scientific name

F) the Earth’s atmosphere is about 38% nitrogen gas

G) by cellular respiration animals and plants return carbon dioxide to the

atmosphere.

H) relationship between organisms is known as food chain

3. Which of the following organism is primary consumer?

A) grasshopper

B) crocodile

C) eagle

D) frog

E) rabbit

F) human

G) owl

H) squirell

Matching
1. Match components of food chain with examples.

1. producer
2. consumer

3. decomposer

A) grass, dragonfly

B) tree, grass

C) fox, dragonfly

D) grass, fox

E) fungi, bacteria

F) fungi, tree

2. Match words with their definition.

1. population

2. mortality

3. carrying capacity

A) maximum population size

B) death rate

C) absorption nitrates from the soil

D) a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area

E) birth rate

F) systematic arrangement in groups.

CHAPTER 3.0
Human impact on environment
3.1 Pollution
You will:
explain the impact of petroleum and other mineral extractions on the
environment.

Key terms
Deforestation - the cutting down of trees;
Erosion - the wearing away of soil by different forces (water, wind, ice,
living organism, temperature);
Pollution - contamination of the environment by rubbish, oil spill and so
on.

Text
Petroleum

The environmental impact of petroleum extraction is crucial nowadays. Oil

spills can take place during extraction and transportation of petroleum. Oil
spills cause soil erosion, water, and air pollution. Petroleum contains toxic
materials, which are poisonous for living organisms.

Petroleum makes a thin layer on a water surface. This layer prevents gas
exchange, and fish don’t get enough oxygen. Also, petroleum covers wings of
some birds, so they cannot fly. When the oil is spilled on land, it kills plants
and microorganisms. This destroys the balance in the ecosystem, and
biodiversity decreases.

Other mineral extractions also cause damage to the environment in different

ways.
Erosion

Different agricultural activities damage fertile soil. Most farmers convert

forests and grasslands to farmlands. Some companies cut down trees to
construct new buildings, roads, and railways which reduce natural forests.
And this causes the deforestation.

Deforestation removes plant roots from soil making it loose. Due to this soil
particles fly away with the wind. This is called erosion. Plants cannot grow
on the remaining layer of land.

Continuous soil erosion may lead to loss of water, minerals, and living
organisms. This process is called desertification.

Air pollution

People use coal in many factories and to heat their houses. Some kinds of coal
contain much sulfur. When they burn, they produce a harmful gas called sulfur
dioxide (SO2). Sulfur dioxide dissolves in rainwater and produces acid rain.
Acid rain harms trees, animals, and pollutes the air.

Facts
Many people have no access to clean water. People drink water from
unsafe sources. This can cause diseases like cholera, diarrhea, and
others.
1 liter of oil can contaminate 1 million liters of water.

Activity
Work in groups and fill the table below. Write the effects of petroleum, acid
rains and erosion on the following objects.
Literacy
1. How does human activity affect the environment?
2. What are the sources of water pollution?
3. What are the causes of environmental change?

Research time
Askar’s fishing company is noticing a decrease in fish populations after a
recent oil spill. Explain why.

Terminology
deforestation - ағаштарды кесу / вырубка деревьев;
desertification - шөлге айналу / опустынивание;
pollution - ластану /загрязнение;
petroleum - мұнай / нефть;
fertile - құнарлы / плодородный;
spill - төгілу / разлив;
to notice - байқау / замечать;
to contaminate - ластау / загрязнять;
wearing away - тозу / износ.
3.2 Pesticides
You will:
explain the effects of pesticides on the environment and human health.

STQ
What are disadvantages of using mosquito sprays?

Key terms
Herbicide - chemical used to kill weeds and other unwanted plants;
Insecticide - chemical substance used to kill insects;
Pesticide - chemical substance used against pests.

Facts
The USA poured 72 million tons of herbicide onto Vietnam to open path in
the jungle during the war in 1961 to 1971. After the war, high rates of
stillbirth and premature birth were observed among the Vietnamese due to
chemical “dioxin” in herbicide.

Text
Pesticides are used to kill the pests which attack crops and damage them.
They are used for crop protection. But they have a negative impact on the
environment. Excessive use of pesticides may lead to the destruction of
biodiversity. They can also be used to reduce numbers of cockroaches,
mosquitoes, rats, ticks and other harmful animals at home.
Pesticides are divided into different categories depending on their target. For
example, herbicides used to control numbers of weeds, and insecticides used
to kill insects (bugs, mosquitoes, fleas).

Most pesticides contain toxic chemicals, like arsenic (As), mercury (Hg),
and lead (Pb). Farmers spray them on the crops, but some of these
insecticides fall into the soil and remain there. They enter the plants, and
through the food chain reach humans and animals.

Pesticides enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation or via the skin.
But most people can be affected via the eating of pesticide-contaminated
food. Consequently, people may have a headache, stinging of the eyes and
skin, irritation of the nose and throat, dizziness, and vomiting. Moreover,
pesticides may cause liver cancer, nerve damage, reproductive malfunctions.
Sometimes it leads to the death.
Using pesticides kills some species, which are essential for the ecosystem.
For example, some pollinator insects die. Death of pollinators can lower the
reproduction rate of plants. This breaks the food chain and reduces the
biodiversity.

Activity
A pesticide gains access to our food supply. Work in groups and make
suggestions to minimize the risk they pose. Each group should make a poster.

Literacy
1. What are major benefits of pesticide we use?
2. Which animals can harm crops?

Research time
What is “Bioaccumulation of E or pesticides in the food chain”? How can
we prevent it? Write a 250 words essay.
Terminology
cockroach - тарақан / таракан;
destruction - жою / уничтожение;
dizziness - бас айналу / головокружение;
malfunction - дисфункция;
pest - зиянкес / вредитель;
pollinator - тозаңдандырушы / опылитель;
stillbirth - өлі нəресте / мертвый плод;
to accumulate - жинақталу / скапливаться;
vomiting - құсу / рвота;
weeds - арам шөптер / сорняки.
3.3 Greenhouse effect
You will:
explain the impact of the greenhouse effect on living organisms;
explain the causes and consequences of ozone depletion.

Key terms
Atmosphere - a layer of gases which surrounds the Earth;
Greenhouse effect - warming of the Earth atmosphere;
Greenhouse gas - a gas in the atmosphere which can trap the heat
escaping from Earth.

STQ
What would happen if ozone layer disappeared?

TEXT
The Sun’s radiation is trapped in the atmosphere, and this causes the rise in
temperature of the atmosphere. This is called the greenhouse effect. The
reason is an increase in the amount of some gases (water vapor, carbon
dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NO) and methane (CH4). They keep energy
from the sun. So, they warm our atmosphere, that is why we call them
greenhouse gases.

A warmer Earth may lead to changes in rainfall patterns, a rise in sea level,
and various impact on plants, wildlife, and humans.

Ozone layer
Ozone (O3) is a gas. It forms a layer high up in the atmosphere. The ozone
layer is about 25 kilometers above the ground. The sun emits ultraviolet light.
These ultraviolet rays can cause skin cancer and eye damage in humans. They
can also damage plants. The ozone layer protects organisms on the Earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation. It absorbs ultraviolet rays from the Sun and
reduces the quantity of ultraviolet radiation that reaches the ground. In 1985,
scientists discovered there was less ozone than there should be over the
Antarctic, especially in the Antarctic spring. This is called the ozone hole
(ozone depletion). Each year, the ozone hole has been getting larger. Without
the ozone layer, much more ultraviolet light would enter into the ground. It can
bring to negative consequences.

Global warming

The gradual heating of Earth’s surface, oceans, and atmosphere is caused by

human activity. The main reason for raising the atmospheric temperature and
water level of the world ocean is burning of fuels that produce carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The
temperature change has massive effect on living organisms. For example,
migratory birds can live wherever they want, because they can fly long
distances.
However, some plants and animals will die from high temperature or drought,
as they are not capable of migrating. For example, amphibians can become
extinct, as they need water for reproduction. An increase in temperature can
enhance reproduction and development of insects, which may lead to the
destroying of crop yields.

Facts
The temperature of the Earth has increased over the past 100 years. As a
result icecaps have been melting.

Activity
1. Draw flowcharts to illustrate how global warming changes the Earth’s
climate.
 2. Fill the table below.

Literacy
1. Describe how ultraviolet rays can harm a person.
2. How does the ozone layer protect us?
3. What we can do to slow global warming?

Research time
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) are man-made chemical compounds. They were
invented in the 1920s. They were used in air-conditioners, refrigerators, and
aerosol cans. Explain how CFCs harm the ozone layer.

Terminology
consequence - салдар / последствие;
drought - құрғақшылық / засуха;
environment - қоршаған орта / окружающая среда;
global warming - жаһандық жылыну / глобальное потепление;
gradual - сатылы / постепенный;
greenhouse gases - жылыжайлық газдар / парниковые газы;
icecap - жабынды мұздықтар / ледяная шапка;
ozone layer - озон қабаты / озоновый слой;
ozone layer depletion - озон қабатының жұқаруы / истощение
озоновой оболочки;
pattern - үлгі / шаблон;
to emit - бөліп шығару / выделять;
to trap - сіңіру / поглощать.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. Cutting down of trees which reduces natural forests is called:

A) erosion

B) air polution

C) deforestation

D) wood polution

E) desertification

2. Which rays can cause skin cancer and eye damage in humans:

A) ozone layer

B) ultraviolet rays

C) water vapor

D) methane

E) nitrogen oxide

3. Which chemical substance used to kill insects?

A) lead

B) herbicide

C) pesticide
D) insectcide

E) none of the above

4. Which chemical substance can cause acid rain?

A) sulfur dioxide

B) carbon monoxide

C) nitrogen oxide

D) sulfur pentoxide

E) methane

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1. Which of the following toxic chemicals contain pesticide?

A) arsenic

B) argentum

C) aurum

D) aluminium

E) mercury

F) carbon

G) iron

H) lead

2. Which of the following cause water pollution?

A) plastic
B) smog

C) fires

D) garbage

E) cut down tree

F) petrolium

G) smoke

H) volcanic eruption

3. Which gases cause greenhouse effect?

A) carbon dioxide

B) sulfur dioxide

C) nitrogen oxide

D) hydrogen

E) oxygen

F) sulfure pentoxide

G) methane

H) nitrogen monoxide

Matching
1. Match the words with corresponding type of pollution.

1. deforestation

2. water pollution
 3. desertification

A) fires

B) petrolium

C) acid rain

D) cut down tree

E) soil

F) smoke

2. Match words with their definition.

1. insectcide

2. pesticide

3. herbicide

A) chemical substance used to kill fungi

B) contamination of the environment by rubbish

C) chemical substance used to kill unwanted plants

D) chemical substance used to kill insects

E) chemical substance used to kill bacteria

F) chemical substance used against pests.

CHAPTER 4.0
Digestion
4.1 Food processing
You will:
describe in detail the processes of digestion, assimilation, absorption
and elimination;
study the mechanism of actions of digestive enzymes.

Key terms
Digestion - breaking down food into small particles;
Stomach - saclike organ which stores and digests food.

STQ
Why human intestine is so long?

Facts
You are what you eat! In a particular time, your body cells are replaced with
new cells. The body makes these new cells from the food you eat. What you
eat literally becomes you. You have a choice in what you are made of. So
don’t be fast, cheap, easy or fake!

Text
Digestion is an essential process. It consists of 4 main stages.

1. Ingestion. Ingestion occurs when the food is taken into the mouth.

2. Digestion. There are two types of digestion: mechanical and chemical.

 Mechanical digestion is physical breaking down of food particles by
teeth in the mouth, and a little in the stomach.
Chemical digestion is chemical breaking down of food molecules by
enzymes. This occurs in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine.

3. Absorption is taking digested food molecules by walls of the small

intestine. Water is absorbed in the small and large intestine.

4. Elimination is a removing of undigested food from the organism.

Enzymes

Enzymes are special molecules secreted by different organs. They break down
large food molecules into small molecules. Water, minerals, and vitamins are
not digested.
Some plants also have digestive enzymes. Plants growing in nutrient-poor
soils have specialized organs to capture insects. For example, plant Venus
flytrap secretes enzymes to digest small insects or spiders.

Research time
Imagine that you are a piece of pizza and you are going to travel through the
digestive tract. Write an essay about your trip. Define in details what have you
seen and what happened to you.

Activity
Imagine you are a doctor. All your patients have digestion problems. Find out
what causes their problems. Explain your answer and write a
recommendation.

1. Patient 1 has symptoms like diarrhea, bloating and gas after consuming
dairy products.
2. Patient 2 had cancer in the small intestine.
3. Patient 3 was a big fan of meat, and this caused some digestive
problems.

Activity
By using your knowledge from the text, you will demonstrate the stages of
food processing. Work in pairs. Walk in the classroom and explain your
demonstration at least to 5 students. You need 3-4 crackers and sugar cubes
also a little water and a needle. Use a needle to explain absorption. Put the
food into the zip bag. Here your explanation and demonstration start.

After the demonstration, fill the Venn diagram individually. Compare and
discuss with your partner then show to your teacher.
Literacy
1. Why is absorption more effective in the small intestine than in stomach?
2. There much cellulose in all plant food, but we don’t have enzymes to
digest it. So, how it is digested in our body?

Terminology
absorption - сіңіру / поглощение;
elimination - бөліп шығару / устранение;
ingestion - ас қабылдау /прием пищи;
pancreas - ұйқы безі / поджелудочная железа;
salivary glands - сілекей бездері / слюнные железы;
to break down - ыдырату / расщепить;
undigested - қорытылмаған / непереваренная.
4.2 Enzyme activity
You will:
learn the mechanism of action of enzymes;
investigate the effect of temperature and pH on the activity of the enzyme.

STQ
Why is it dangerous when the body temperature rises over 40C?

Key terms
Enzyme - molecules that speed up the reactions;
Gland - a group of cells, or organ producing a secretion;
pH - used to express the acidity or alkalinity (basic) of a solution;
Temperature - a measure of the warmth or coldness of an object.

Facts
Around 5 to 1.5 liters of saliva produced daily in your mouth which
digests carbohydrates and kills bacteria.
Iodine is used to determine starch in biological materials. It forms a blue
to black complex with starch, but doesn’t change color when reacting
with glucose.
Most body enzymes have optimum activity at a neutral pH equal to 7. But
pH of gastric juice is 2 due to the hydrochloric acid (HCl). And exactly
this acidity provides the best activity of the enzyme found in gastric
juice.

Text
Digestive glands secrete enzymes. They join with large food molecules by
their active site, then divide it into small molecules.

For example, amylase is an enzyme found in saliva. It breaks down starch.

Different factors affect the enzyme activity, like temperature and pH. Each
enzyme has its specific optimum temperature and pH. Enzymes work best at
their optimum pH and temperature. When temperature or pH is higher or
lower than the optimum, enzyme activity will slow down, or stop.
Research time
When acidic food enters the small intestine, the pancreas secretes the
substance that neutralizes an acid. It is crucial for the enzymes because they
cannot work in the acid environment. Which structures are responsible for
controlling food amount? Do a research and fill the table.

Labwork
Pre-lab questions:

1. What is the monomer of starch?

2. What is average human body temperature?

Methods and materials:

Water bath, beakers, test tubes, droppers, white spot plate, ice, hot water,
starch, iodine, fresh amylase.

Procedures:

1. Place 4 mL of 1 % starch solution in each of three clean test tubes. Place

4 mL of amylase solution in 3 separate clean test tubes (total 6 test
tubes).
 2. Place 1 starch tube and 1 amylase tube in the 37°C water bath. Place
another tube of each in an ice-water bath, and last of each tube in a
boiling water bath. Keep the tubes in their baths for 10 minutes.
3. Pour each amylase solution into the separate starch solution tube, slightly
shake it, and put the tubes back into the baths for 10 minutes (you will
have 3 tubes left).
4. After 10 minutes pass, transfer 4 drops of each mixture to a spot plate.
Add 1 drop of iodine solution to each sample. Record the color and
activity level of the enzyme in each case.

Results:

Post-lab questions:

1. Why did the enzyme activity differ at 0°C and 100°C?

2. What was the optimum temperature for amylase?

Terminology
dropper - тамызғыш / пипетка;
gastric juice - асқазан сөлі / желудочный сок;
gland - без / железа;
saliva - сілекей / слюна;
starch - крахмал;
to record - жазып алу / записать;
to shake - шайқау /трясти.
4.3 Emulsification of fats
You will:
investigate the process of emulsification of fats by the action of bile.

Key terms
Emulsification - the breakdown of large fat droplets into smaller
droplets.

Facts
Except for digestion of fats, bile has another function. It excretes substances
from blood which cannot be excreted by the kidneys. Bile transports these
substances into the small intestine. Then they are removed from our body
through elimination.

STQ
Human body consists of about 70% water. Lipids are insoluble in water, how
your body cells take in lipids?

Text
The key issue in the digestion and absorption of fat is solubility. Fats are
hydrophobic, which means they are insoluble in water. They don’t mix well
with a solution in the small intestine and form large spherical fat globules.
The large size of fat droplets prevents the pancreatic lipase to reach the inside
portion. So it only digests the surface.

Bile helps digest the fat droplets. Bile is a green-yellow fluid. It contains salts
that break up large fat droplets into smaller droplets. This process is called
emulsification. Emulsification greatly increases the surface area of the fat on
which the lipase can work on.

Labwork
Pre-lab questions:

1. Give examples of food rich in fats.

2. Which molecules make up fat?
3. Where does the digestion of fats start?

Methods and materials:

2 bottles with caps, 1 glass of water, food coloring (except for yellow color),
cooking oil, washing up liquid (fairy)

Procedures:
 1. Add 4-5 drops of food coloring to the water.
2. Label two bottles 1 and 2.
3. Pour colored water to each of the bottles until they are about ½ full.
4. Pour oil into the bottles. The oil will form a layer on top of the water.
5. Add washing up liquid to the bottles number 1.
6. Put the caps on both bottles and shake them well.
7. Compare two bottles and fill the table.

Results:

Post-lab questions:

1. Why is there a difference in fat droplets size?

2. How does a demonstration relate to what happens in the small intestine?
3. How do we use emulsifiers in daily life?

Research time
Mayonnaise is used for different types of the meal as a condiment. If you look
closely at the ingredients of mayonnaise, you see the liquids that normally
can’t be combined. How are they mixed? What structure holds them? Write an
essay about the usage of emulsifiers in food products.

Terminology
bile - өт / желчь;
condiment - дəмдеуіш / приправа;
droplets - тамшылар / капельки
gallbladder - өт қабы / желчный пузырь;
insoluble - ерімейтін / нерастворимый;
pour - құю / наливать;
solubility - ерігіштік / растворимость.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. What does hydrophobic mean?

A) soluble in water

B) insoluble in lipid

C) insoluble in water

D) consist from water

E) consist from lipid

2. Which enzymes are present in saliva?

A) pepsin

B) amylase

C) lipase

D) protease

E) none of the above

3. Breaking down large fat droplets into smaller droplets:

A) digestion B) elemination

C) emulsification D) arbsoption

E) ingestion
4. Which enzyme breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol in small
intestine?

A) trypsin

B) pancreatic amylase

C) lipase

D) maltase

E) peptidase

Test questions with several (max 3) correct answers

1. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

A) salivary amylase acts in mouth

B) lipase acts in small intestine

C) peptidase acts in small intestine

D) pancreatic amylase acts in mouth

E) pepsin acts in small intestine

F) maltase acts in small intestine

G) trypsin acts in mouth

H) lipase produced by pancreas

2. Which of the following is produced by small intestine?

A) pepsin

B) trypsin
C) pancreatic amylase

D) salivary amylase

E) lipase

F) maltase

G) peptidase

H) cellulase

3. Which of the following statements is correct?

A) pepsin breaks down peptides

B) salivary amylase breaks down lipids

C) peptidase breaks down peptides

D) lipase breaks down starch

E) maltase breaks down starch

F) pancreatic amylase breaks down lipids

G) lipase breaks down lipids

H) trypsin breaks down starch

Matching questions (3 correct answers)

1. Match the word on the left with the term that best fits.

1. fat

2. starch

3. protein
A) pancreatic amylase

B) peptidase

C) salivary amylase

D) maltase

E) lypase

F) pepsin

2. Match words with their definition.

1. temperature

2. emulsification

3. enzyme

A) breaks up fat droplets

B) breaks down starch into maltose

C) molecules that speed up the reactions

D) breaks down maltose into glucose

E) a measure of the warmth or coldness

F) breaks down peptides into amino acids

CHAPTER 5.0
Transport
5.1 Transport across a cell
membrane
You will:
compare passive and active transport of cell.

Key terms
Active transport - transport of large molecules by energy loss;
Passive transport - transport of small molecules without energy loss;
Solute - substance dissolved in a solution;
Solution - homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

STQ
When you use cream on your skin, how it enters your tissues?

Facts
In kidney cells, up to 25 % of the energy produced by the cell is used for
transport.
The 60 -70 % of the energy from electrically active nerve cells’ may be
given to transfer Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell.

Text
The cell membrane is a border between the cell and its environment. It is
selectively permeable. It means some substances can move across the
membrane, and some cannot.
There are two main types of transportation within the cell: passive transport
and active transport.

Passive transport

Passive transport moves molecules from high concentration to low, requires

no energy. Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion are examples of
passive transport.
Diffusion is a movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to
low concentration area until both sides are equal. For example, diffusion of a
tea bag placed in a cup of hot water, cigarette smoke and smell of perfume
diffuses into the air.
Osmosis is a movement of water molecules from a higher concentration to a
lower concentration. There are three different solutions, which are used to
compare concentration of solutes inside the cell with the concentration of
solutes of surrounding:
 1. Isotonic solution - water moves in and out of the cell at the same rate as
the concentration on both sides are equal;
2. Hypertonic solution - water moves out of the cell as the concentration of
solute higher outside than inside of the cell;
3. Hypotonic solution - water moves into the cell, as the concentration of
solute outside of the cell lower than inside.

The main function of passive transport is to keep homeostasis in the cell,

excrete waste out of the cell (like CO2 or H2O).

Active transport

Active transport moves molecules from low concentration to high, using

energy. Endocytosis, exocytosis, sodium potassium transportations are
examples of active transport. Endocytosis is an active transport of large
particles into the cell, while exocytosis transport molecules out of the cell.
Large molecules are secreted into the bloodstream by this process.
There are two types of endocytosis:

1. Phagocytosis - take in solid materials.

2. Pinocytosis - take in liquid materials.
Activity
1. Teacher takes air freshener or perfume and stands on the corner of the
class. Students make a diagonal starting from the teacher’s corner. Then,
teacher spreads air freshener/perfume and students have to count in how many
minutes they start to feel the smell of the air freshener/perfume.

In how many minutes you feel the smell? Is your time is the same or different
with your friends? Explain why.
2. Put a food coloring into a glass of hot water and a glass of cold water.
Observe what happened to the two glasses. Explain why does food color
spread differently?

Literacy
1. Why do cells need active transport?
2. What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?
3. People do not drink seawater. Why?

Research time
What would happen if Zhuldyz placed freshwater organism to the saltwater
for several minutes? Explain your answer.

Terminology
active - активті / активный;
bloodstream - қанайналым / кровоток;
border - шекара / граница;
concentration - концентрация;
passive - пассивті / пассивный;
selectively permable - талғамды өткізгіш / избирательно
проницаемый.
5.2 Transpiration in plants
You will:
explain the process of transpiration in plants;
explore the internal and external factors affecting the process of
transpiration.

STQ
What happens to a plant when it does not have enough water?

Key terms
Stomata - pores on the underside of the leaf which accelerate gas
exchange and transpiration;
Transpiration - the loss of water as vapor.

Facts
An acre of corn gives off about 11,400-15,100 liters of water each day, a
large oak tree can transpire 151,000 liters per year.

TEXT
Daily plants lose about 5 liters of water in the form of water vapor, this
process is known as transpiration. Water moves by osmosis from the xylem to
the leaves. Water evaporating from the spaces within leaves escapes through
small pores called stomata.

Transpiration rate is higher when the stomata are open, and is lower when
they are closed. The 90-95% of water transpires through stomata. Too much
water loss can be lethal to plants; they can wilt and die.
Importance of transpiration:

saves plants from overheating and helps cool the plant;

creates a continuous flow of water from the root to the leaves;
transports soluble minerals and water within the plant.

Different environmental factors can influence transpiration rates. They are

temperature, humidity, sunlight availability, soil type, wind, and water supply

Lab work
Pre-lab questions:

1. Where does transpiration take place?

2. How can different conditions affect the rate of transpiration?

Materials:

Leaves of similar size; leaves with bigger size; hair dryer; weighing-machine,
fan (cold air), thread, marker pen, sticks, flashlight.
Procedures:

1. Take your leaves and mark each;

2. Measure the mass of each leave. Record it in a table;
3. Using a thread, tie each leaf to a stick;
4. Place each leaves in different conditions (hot, cold, light, room
conditions);
5. Tie two leaves of different sizes at two different sticks;
6. Measure the mass of each leaf after 20 minute, and record it to your
table.

Results:

Post-lab questions:

1. Why do leaves lose mass?

2. Which leaf lost the most mass? Explain why.

Research time
1. Suppose you use a rubber band to secure a clear plastic bag around a
few leaves on a live plant. What do you think will happen?
2. Explain why water can be moved to the top of a tall tree while a
mechanical vacuum pump is unable to draw water higher than about 10
meters.

Terminology
condition - жағдай/ состояние;
corn - жүгері / кукуруза;
external - сыртқы / внешний;
humidity - ылғалдылық / влажность;
internal - ішкі / внутренний;
oak tree - емен ағашы / дуб;
overheating - қызып кету / перегрев;
thread - жіп / нить;
wilt - солу / вянуть.
5.3 Transport in plants
You will:
study the movement of substances in phloem, depending on external
factors.

Key terms
Photosynthesis - process by which plant convert energy from sunlight
into chemical energy;
Sink - plant organ that store sugar;
Translocation - movement of organic compounds inside of the plant.

Facts
Aphids are used by scientist to discover phloem sap. The saliva of some
aphids is toxic to the plants and causes the leaves to be deformed.

Text
Phloem is an integral part of the plant. It is made up of cells called sieve tube
elements and companion cells. The sieve tube elements transport
carbohydrates (like glucose, fructose), which are produced by photosynthesis,
to various parts of the plant. And, companion cells control the activities of the
sieve tube elements. Sugar moves from source to a sink. This process is
known as translocation.

The organic compounds (sugar, amino acids, hormones) dissolve in water and
form the phloem sap. The movement of water and minerals in xylem is always
in one direction, from roots to shoots. However, phloem saps can travel in
both directions: up and down. Movement of phloem saps can be affected by
several factors:
1. The optimum temperature for translocation is about 200-300C. High
temperature (500C) and low temperature slow, then stop the transport of
phloem sap.
2. Light has a direct effect on a phloem. Without light, there will be no
photosynthesis, which is the response to the production of main phloem
sap compound - sucrose. Also, intense light generates cellulose
accumulation in the sink and cell wall enlargement, for further protection
from insects.
3. The transport of nutrients depends on the humidity of the soil. Water first
goes up from roots by xylem, then it moves in sieve elements and carries
sugars to the sink organs. So, water is essential to the phloem sap.
Activity

Fill the table below using supplementary words which are given above. Label
the directions of movement of given compounds on the picture below.

Research time
Study the structure of phloem and xylem. Why phloem is more suitable to
transport organic materials and why xylem is more suitable for water
transport?

Terminology
companion cells - серіктес-жасушалар / клетки-спутницы;
integral - бөлінбес / ажырамас / неотъемлемый;
sap - шырын / сок;
sieve tubes - сүзгіш түтікшелер / ситовые трубки;
translocation - орын ауыстыру / перемещение;
transposition - орын ауыстыру / перемещение;
upside down - төңкерілген / вверх ногами.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. Transport of food and minerals salts from leaves to all other parts of plant
by phloem is known as?

A) translocation

B) transpiration

C) respiration

D) photosynthesis

E) diffusion

2. In transpiration, water evaporates from the surface of a leaf through

microscopic pores known as:

A) pore

B) stigma

C) stomata

D) cavity

E) grana

3. The movement of oxygen into a cell until equilibrium is reached without

using ATP is an example of

A) active transport

B) diffusion
C) oxidative transport

D) passive transport

E) photosynthesis

4. Pinocytosis involves the transport of

A) large particles out a cell

B) fluids into a cell

C) whole cells into another cell

D) lysosome out of a cell

E) energy

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1. What type of environmental factors can influence transpiration rates?

A) humidity

B) wood

C) temperature

D) wax

E) earth

F) soil

G) light

H) cloud

2. Which of the followings are not examples of active transport?

A) exocytosis

B) diffusion

C) osmosis

D) simple diffusion

E) pinocytosis

F) passive transport

G) facilitated diffusion

H) phagocytosis

3. Which of the following below are types of solution?

A) active transport

B) isotonic

C) hyperonic

D) hypotonic

E) diffusion

F) pinocytosis

G) hypertonic

H) phagocytosis

Matching
1. Match the following types of transports with their functions

1. Phagocytosis
 2. Active Transport

3. Pinocytosis

A) transport of large molecules by energy loss

B) movement of molecules from high concentration to low

C) the ingestion of liquid into a cell

D) transport of small molecules without energy loss

E) the ingestion of solid into a cell

F) the movement of the cytoplasm inside the cell that uses energy

2. Match the following words with their definitions

1. Permeable

2. Transpiration

3. Translocation

A) movement of molecules from low concentration to high

B) substances can move across the membrane

C) molecules are secreted into the bloodstream

D) movement of organic compounds

E) water evaporation

F) the movement of the cytoplasm inside the cell

CHAPTER 6.0
Respiration
6.1 Cellular respiration
You will:
compare the processes of aerobic and anaerobic respiration, using
chemical reactions.

STQ
Oxygen is necessary for cell survival. What happens to the oxygen when it
reaches cells?

Key terms
Aerobic respiration - the process of breaking down organic molecules
using oxygen;
Anaerobic respiration - the process of breaking down organic molecules
without oxygen;
Cellular respiration - the process of breaking down organic molecules
producing energy.

Facts
Alcohol is a waste product of yeast. Grapes are crushed and put into the
barrel. Then yeasts are added, and the barrel is closed. Yeasts break
down glucose in grapes and produce alcohol.
Some bacteria can live with and without oxygen. They are called
facultative anaerobes. Some organisms cannot live with oxygen. They
die if oxygen is present. These organisms are called obligate anaerobes.

Text
Oxygen enters the body through respiratory organs. In lungs, it goes into blood
vessels and transported to tissues and cells. There oxygen is used to break
down organic molecules, like glucose. This process is called cellular
respiration. Cellular respiration produces energy for the cell.

There are two types of cellular respiration: aerobic and anaerobic.

Aerobic respiration is a process of breaking down organic molecules using

oxygen. It occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. Carbon dioxide and
water are products of this reaction. Aerobic respiration produces 18-19 times
more energy than anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration is a process of breakdown of glucose without using

oxygen. It occurs in the cytoplasm. There can be two reactions of anaerobic
respiration:
1. Lactic acid fermentation. It produces lactic acid (C3H6O3) as a product of
reaction:
C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + energy
2. Alcoholic fermentation. It produces ethanol (C2H5OH) as a product of
reaction:
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy

Activity
Any food contains energy. The process of cellular respiration releases this
energy, and the organisms use this energy. To see it you will need crackers,
matches, aluminum foil, standing clamp and a test tube of water. Place water
on standing clamp. Put crackers in foil and place it under the test tube with
water. Burn the crackers. Wait till water starts boiling. Answer the following
questions:

1. Why is water boiling?

2. Which type of reaction is this? What factors affect this reaction?
3. What are similarities between burning and cellular respiration?
4. Which organ systems do you need to take energy from food?

Research time
Yeasts use anaerobic respiration to break down glucose. To see this, you will
need a balloon, a bottle, yeasts, a cup of warm water and two tablespoons of
sugar. Mix sugar, yeast, and water. Then add this mixture into the bottle. Close
the neck of the bottle with the balloon. You can record a video.

Write your observations in the notebook and answer the following questions:

1. Which gas fills the balloon? Explain your answer.

2. Why is sugar needed in this experiment?
3. Which type of anaerobic respiration is used by yeasts? Explain your
answer.
4. Can it be aerobic respiration? Explain your answer.

Literacy
1. What is the main function of cellular respiration?
2. Why most of big animals and plants use aerobic respiration instead of
anaerobic?
3. Where can anaerobic organisms live?

Terminology
aerobic respiration - аэробты тыныс алу / аэробное дыхание;
alcoholic fermentation - спирттік ашу / спиртовое брожение;
anaerobic respiration - анаэробты тыныс алу / анаэробное дыхание;
barrel - бөшке / бочка;
burning - жану / сжигание;
cellular respiration - жасушалық тыныс / клеточное дыхание;
consequently - тиісінше / следовательно;
ethanol - этанол;
facultative anaerobes - факультативті анаэробтар / факультативные
анаэробы;
lactic acid - сүт қышқылы / молочная кислота;
lactic acid fermentation - сүтқышқылды ашу / молочнокислое
брожение;
obligate anaerobes - облигатты анаэробтар / облигатные анаэробы;
to release - шығару / выделять.
6.2 Muscle fatigue
You will:
consider the relationship between muscle fatigue and processes of
aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

STQ
Why do we get tired when we run?

Key terms
Muscle fatigue - decrease in muscle ability to generate force, due to
tiredness.

Facts
The heart never gets tired. Heart never builds up lactic acid, because it
has its own blood vessels, which bring much oxygen for it. It can work
without muscle fatigue over 100 years.
If muscles are not used, they become smaller and weaker. So, organism
uses more energy to do little things. Regular physical training increases
muscle power and decreases muscle fatigue.

Text
Human is an aerobic organism. It uses oxygen to break down organic
molecules. Most energy is consumed by muscle cells. When you do physical
activity, incoming oxygen is not enough for aerobic respiration. So, muscle
cells can do anaerobic respiration, by lactic acid fermentation.
During lactic acid fermentation, lactic acid is formed. Lactic acid accumulates
in muscles. Consequently, it causes tiredness and pain. When you take a rest,
this lactic acid is transported to the liver and converted to usable organic
substances. Incoming oxygen breaks down these substances producing energy.
In the end, all lactic acid is used and muscle comes to the normal state.

Research time
Marathon runners mostly thinner and weaker than sprinters. Do a research and
write a report what is the difference between their muscles?

Activity
Work in pairs. Take the small ball into your non-writing hand and squeeze it
for 100 seconds without stopping. Then count your squeeze numbers loudly.
During this action your partner should write numbers of squeezes every 10
seconds into the table below.

Rest for 5 minutes. Then squeeze the ball for 10 seconds and rest for 10
seconds. Repeat squeezing and resting 10 times. Fill the table below and
answer to the following questions.
 1. What have you noticed about your squeezing over time? Why do you
think you got data like this? Explain your answer.
2. What was the difference in squeezing with resting and without resting?
Why is there a difference? Explain your answer.

Literacy
1. In which type of muscle tissue lactic acid is accumulated? Explain your
answer.
2. Why do we have dyspnea after physical work? Which gas goes out?
Explain your answer.
3. Where are organic molecules for aerobic and anaerobic respiration are
taken from?
4. Does lactic acid start forming immediately? When does it form? How do
you know?
Terminology
dyspnea - ентігу / одышка;
fatigue - шаршау / усталость;
loudly - қатты / громко;
sprinter - қысқа қашықтыққа жүгіруші / бегун на короткие
дистанции;
tired - шаршаған / усталый;
to accumulate - жинақтау / накапливать;
to consider - қарап шығу / рассматривать;
to consume - пайдалану / потреблять;
to convert - айналдыру / превращать;
to rest - демалу / отдыхать;
to squeeze - қысу / сжимать.
Problems
Test questions with one correct answer
1. What is the product of alcoholic fermentation?

A) ethanol

B) water

C) carbon dioxide

D) glucose

E) oxygen

2. Obligate anaerobes it is organisms which:

A) die without oxygen

B) die without carbon dioxide

C) die if oxygen is present

D) die of carbon dioxide is present

E) none of the above

3. What type of respiration use yeast to break down the glucose?

A) lactic acid fermentation

B) aerobic fermentation

C) light dependent reaction

D) alcoholic fermentation

E) none of the above

4. Lactic acid is a production of

A) aerobic respiration

B) yeast fermentation

C) lactic acid fermentation

D) alcoholic fermentation

E) none of the above

Test questions with several (max 3) correct answers

1. Which of the following is product of aerobic respiration?

A) oxygen

B) carbon dioxide

C) hydrogen

D) salt

E) water

F) ethanol

G) lactic acid

H) organic molecule

2. Which of the following statements is true?

A) during alcohol fermentation, lactic acid is formed

B) aerobic respiration use oxygen

C) osmosis is a type of cellular respiration

D) anaerobic respiration gives more energy

E) cellular respiration produces energy for the cell

F) the heart never gets tired

G) human is an anaerobic organism

H) diffusion is a type of cellular respiration

3. Which of the following is product of anaerobic respiration?

A) ethanol

B) oxygen

C) water

D) lactic acid

E) carbon dioxide

F) glucose

G) methanol

H) salt

Matching
1. Match the phrases on the left with the term that best fits.

1. Process requires oxygen

2. C6H12O6
 3. Process does not require oxygen

A) light independent reaction

B) chlorophyll

C) aerobic

D) cytoplasm

E) anaerobic

F) glucose

2. Match the following words with their definitions

1. Ethanol

2. Lactic acid

3. Aerobic respiration

A) gives more energy

B) process requires water

C) movement of organic compounds

D) lactic acid fermentation

E) light independent reaction

F) alcoholic fermentation.
CHAPTER 7.0
Excretion
7.1 Nephron and urine formation
You will:
describe nephron structure and function;
describe filtration and urine formation.

STQ
Why does the analysis for bad habits require urine test?

Key terms
Filtrate - a solution produced from filtration;
Nephron - a unit of filtration in a kidney that regulates water balance and
removes toxins;
Urine - a mixture removed from our body, it consists of water, urea, salts
and other excretory substances.

Text
Each kidney contains approximately one million filtering units called
nephrons. It regulates water balance and substances by filtering blood,
reabsorbs what is needed and excretes rest as urine.

Each nephron consists of a single long tubule with capsule and a ball of
capillaries called glomerulus. Cup-shaped end of tubule surrounds
glomerulus. It is called Bowman’s capsule. Blood comes to nephron by
afferent arteriole, from renal artery to glomerulus, and leaves it within
efferent arteriole.
In nephron, urine is formed in 3 stages. Renal artery transports nutrients and
wastes to kidney and reaches the capillaries of the glomerulus. The capillary
walls are thin while blood pressure is high. This pushes water and small
molecules (glucose, minerals, urea, etc.) through capillary walls to Bowman’s
capsule. Larger molecules (protein) and cells remain in the bloodstream. This
is called filtration.
Filtrate collected in Bowman’s capsule flows in renal tubule that consists of
convoluted tubules, the loop of Henle, and the collecting duct. Each kidney
filters about 180 L of initial filtrate each day. From this filtrate, 99% of water
and useful substances (glucose, salts, vitamins, hormones) returns to
capillaries, which surrounds renal tubule. Consequently, about 1.5 L of urine
is produced. This is called reabsorption. Urine is excess fluid with toxic
substances. It passes to collecting duct. This is called secretion. Then, urine
leaves kidney through ureters to the urinary bladder.

Activity
Use terms in the box and label the diagram. Then explain the process of urine
formation by adding suitable arrows (key box) to the diagram.
Research time
The afferent capillary is the single capillary that has high blood pressure.
What are the results of this high pressure in glomerulus? Discuss and explain
your answer.
Literacy
1. Why are people following high-protein diet advised to drink large
volumes of water?
2. What will happen if there is no tubular reabsorption?
3. What are the ways that the nephrons help keep you healthy? Explain your
answer

Terminology
bloodstream - қанағым / кровоток;
capsule - капсула;
dehydration - сусыздану / обезвоживание;
duct - түтік / канал;
loop - иін / петля;
raise - көтерілу / повышение;
to inhibit - басу / подавлять;
tubule - түтікше / трубочка;
ureter - несепағар / мочеточник;
urinary bladder - қуық / мочевой пузырь.
7.2 Factors affecting kidney
function
You will:
describe factors affecting kidney function.

Key terms
Kidney - either of a pair of bean-shaped organs in the back part of the
abdominal cavity that forms and excrete urine, regulate fluid and act as
endocrine glands.

STQ
Why cold weather makes you urinate more often than in hot weather?

Text
The kidney may be small, but it is the main barrier that keeps essential
nutrients in the bloodstream and allows toxins to pass into the urine.
Sometimes its function can be inhibited or impaired with factors like
nutrition, cold, drugs, and infections. When kidney function is impaired, the
body cannot remove wastes disrupting homeostasis.

Nutrition

Sodium (Na) helps maintain fluid balance. The main source of it is table salt
(NaCl). But excess salt accumulates in tissue and make you thirsty, which
holds water in tissues causing edema and high blood pressure. Also, excess
sodium leads to removal of potassium (K) necessary for cardiovascular and
nervous systems.

Protein digestion produces by-product ammonia (NH3). It is a toxin that your

liver converts into less harmful compounds. A significant amount of protein
overloads kidney function.

Also, chemicals (e.g. color dyes) in beverages, like fizzy drinks, juice, and
alcohol may harm kidney.

Hypothermia

When you feel cold, your body reduces circulation to extremities and skin
surfaces. This minimizes heat loss to the environment, but concentrate greater
volume of blood to body core and increase blood pressure. To reduce this
high pressure, kidney starts to remove water as urine. If the body temperature
keeps falling, kidney does not work properly. This can lead to death.

Medication

Every drug put into body passes through kidneys. Overuse of medications
damage the kidneys. For example, painkillers. When you have pain, it’s easy
to take some pills. But, all pharmaceutical drugs come with side effects and
cause damage to the kidneys.

Infections

Sometimes poor oral hygiene can cause diseases, like tooth decay. Through
pulp cavity, that has nerves and blood vessel, bacteria of tooth decay reaches
the kidney and damages its layers.
Long-termed tonsillitis may result in bacterial infections of kidneys too.
Kidneys also can be damaged by other diseases present in the body. Diabetes
and high blood pressure are the two most common reasons for reduced
kidney function and kidney failure.

Activity
Inactive, sedentary lifestyle contributes to the accumulation of fat in the
lumbar region. This leads to stagnation in the kidney and liver regions,
violation of blood circulation in these organs. Also, physical inactivity is one
of the reasons for the development of stones in the gallbladder and kidneys.

So let’s make an activity preventing kidney disease. Do exercise like shown

in the picture.
Research time
You already know how low temperature affects your kidneys. What about
high temperature? Do a research and write a report.

Facts
Sometimes kidney also needs to be cleaned. Watermelon and pumpkin are the
natural brush that cleans kidney.

Literacy
1. Why could it be dangerous to drink a huge amount of water in a short
period?
2. Why should we eat less salty food?

Terminology
canned - консервіленген / консервированный;
edema - ісік / отек;
impaired - əлсіреген / ослабленный;
lumbar - белдік / поясничный;
pulp - пульпа;
sedentary - отырықшы / сидячий;
stagnation - тоқтап қалу /застой;
to accumulate - жинақтау / накапливать;
to disrupt - бұзу / разрушать;
tonsillitis - ангина;
tooth decay - тісжегі /кариес.
violation - бұзу / нарушение.
7.3 Diseases of excretory system
You will:
describe preventions of excretory system disease.

Key terms
Cystitis - inflammation of urinary bladder or urethra by infection of
bacteria;
Enuresis - frequent inability to control urination known as bedwetting;
Kidney stones - formation of stones that block urine flow caused mostly
by unhealthy diet;
Pyelonephritis - inflammatory swelling in kidney caused by bacteria.

STQ
If you get cold why do you have a back pain?

Research time
Do a research and make your own list of Golden Rules for kidney health.
Write seven items.

Text
Pyelonephritis

Inflammation and painful swelling of kidney tissue is called pyelonephritisю

It can lead to inflammation of the whole kidney.
It is caused by bacterial infection that passes through the urethra and urinary
bladder into the kidney. It results in painful, frequent urination, cloudy and
smelly urine with blood and protein, pain in back and fever. If it is untreated,
it may cause kidney failure.

Cystitis

Cystitis is an infection caused by bacteria in the urethra and urinary bladder.

The condition usually begins with the sensation of the full bladder which
needs to urinate. When you try to go, it burns, or nothing seems to come out.
Also, this condition is accompanied with a general feeling of being unwell
and pain in the back.

Enuresis

Enuresis is a condition commonly known as bedwetting when a person

cannot control urination often during sleep. Involuntary urination results from
the small urinary bladder, urinary tract infections, deep sleep and severe
stress.

Kidney stones

Excess usage of minerals and salt can be highly concentrated in urine and
form crystals. Building up of those crystals become stones in kidney. If those
stones are small, they will result in painful urination while large ones can
block the flow of urine and even cause blood in it.

Kidneys diseases prevention

To prevent kidney diseases, you must follow hygiene procedures. Bacteria

enter to your kidneys through the urethra, that’s why you must keep it clean.
For that, you should use water to wash urethra after each urination.

Activity
Which of the following are practical steps for urinary tract disease?

You are given some practical steps for treatment or relief of urinary tract
disease. Read carefully and predict in which cases can you use those
practices.

1. Use fewer drinks with much sugary, caffeinated, or sports drinks and eat
less a diet high in salt.
2. Decrease consumption of fluid for 2-3 hours before you go to sleep.
3. Consume two glasses of water every 20 minutes for the first three hours.
This will help flush your system out, removing the bacteria.

Facts
The most common type of kidney stone contains calcium. Excess
calcium accumulates in kidney forming crystals. Then those crystals join
to other waste products and form stones. So, drink more water, like 12
full glasses a day. It helps flush away the substances which form stones
in the kidneys.
10% of the population worldwide is affected by chronic kidney disease
(CKD), and millions die each year because they do not have access to
affordable treatment.

Literacy
1. What is the difference between Pyelonephritis and Cystitis?
2. Why wearing tight jeans or trousers can bring to kidney diseases?

Terminology
accompany - қоса жүру / сопровождать;
affordable - қол жетімді / доступный;
bedwetting - зəрдің тоқтамауы / ночное недержание мочи;
involuntary - еріксіз / непроизвольный;
predict - болжау / прогнозировать;
renal calyces - бүйрек тостағаншалары / почечные чашечки;
stone - тас / камень;
surgically - хирургиялық жолмен / хирургическим путем;
swelling - ісік / опухоль;
to flush - жуып-шаю / промывать.
7.4 Nitrogenous wastes
You will:
establish a relationship between the habitat and the end products of
metabolism in various organisms.

Key terms
Ammonia - a strongly basic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen soluble
in water and formed in nature by-product of protein metabolism;
Urea - a water-soluble organic compound, synthesized from ammonia
and carbon, formed by the metabolism of proteins and excreted in the
urine;
Uric acid - an almost insoluble compound a breakdown product of
nitrogenous metabolism.

STQ
Do birds urinate?

Research time
Do research about osmoregulation. What is it? How does it work? And make
a connection with excretion of animals. Write a report.

Text
Organisms produce various metabolic by-products. Some are used by the
organism, and others are not. Rather they are harmful if retained by the body.

Some of the most significant waste products are the nitrogenous wastes
produced by the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogenous wastes
are toxic and need to be excreted as soon as they are formed or they should be
converted to a less toxic form. According to animal habitat nitrogen is
excreted in different forms. The exact nature of the excretory product is
determined mainly by the availability of water to the organism and how
organism controls the water loss.

Freshwater animals excrete ammonia. They can excrete ammonia continuously

without storing it due to their access to the large volumes of water. Due to
hypotonic freshwater, they gain large volume of water by osmosis and lose
salts by diffusion. Freshwater animals have to excrete large volumes of dilute
urine.
Marine animals excrete urea. Urea is less toxic than ammonia. So, it is easier
to store it. These animals live in the salty environment which means water
leaves body fluid by osmosis. To conserve water, body releases small
amounts of concentrated urine.
Some terrestrial organisms excrete urea. Animals living in drier conditions
excrete water-insoluble, dry, crystalline paste - uric acid. This helps them to
keep water. Also, it is a safe form of nitrogenous waste during development in
the egg, as solid uric acid is not harmful.

Activity

Above given animal list. Fill the table according to the example given below.
Facts
About 500 ml water is needed to excrete 1 gram of ammonia while 50 ml
of water is needed for 1 gram of urea. Elimination of 1 gram of uric acid
requires only 1 ml of water.

Some animals perform two modes of excretion. For example,

earthworms excrete ammonia when sufficient water is available while
they excrete urea instead of ammonia in drier surroundings.

Literacy
1. Tadpoles excrete ammonia. Explain why.
2. What are the nitrogenous wastes of penguins?

Terminology
ammonia - аммиак;
dry - құрғақ / сухой;
freshwater animal - тұщы су жануары / пресноводное животное;
marine animal - теңіз жануары / морское животное;
to excrete - бөліп шығару / выделять;
to conserve - сақтау / сохранить;
to gain - алу / получать;
to retain - ұстап тұру / удерживать;
toxic - улы / токсичный;
urea - несепнəр / мочевина;
uric acid - зəр қышқылы / мочевая кислота.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. Filtering units of a kidney are called:

A) sarcomeres

B) renal pelvis

C) neurons

D) alveoli

E) nephrons

2. Which one of the following molecules is the most toxic?

A) uric acid

B) urea

C) ammonia

D) CO2

E) nucleotide

3. Which one of the following animals excrete urea as a waste product?

A) reptiles

B) insects

C) birds
D) freshwater fish

E) frogs

4. Which one of the following substances can NOT be found in urine?

A) protein

B) white blood cell

C) urea

D) uric acid

E) water

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1. Show nitrogenous waste products

A) uric acid

B) nucleotide

C) aminoacid

D) pyruvate

E) urea

F) ammonia

G) CO2

H) H2O

2. Factor(s) that does NOT affect kidney function

A) warm climate conditions

B) low sugar level

C) excess use of protein

D) high blood pressure

E) excess salts

F) hormone

G) tooth decay

H) tonsilitis

3. Which of the following(s) are part(s) of a nephron?

A) renal artery

B) loop of Henle

C) renal vein

D) glomerulus

E) ureter

F) Bowman’s capsule

G) urethra

H) cortex

Matching
1. Match the following processes and their characteristics

1. Filtration

2. Secretion
 3. Reabsorption

A) urine with toxins passes to collecting duct

B) substances return to capillaries surrounding renal tubule

C) urine passes from collecting duct to pelvis

D) molecules pass from glomerulus to Bowman’s capsule

E) production of white blood cells

F) protein molecules pass from glomerulus to collecting duct

2. Match the following diseases with their appropriate characteristics

1. Pyelonephritis

2. Cystitis

3. Enuresis

A) buildup of minerals in a kidney

B) uncontrollable urination during sleep

C) infection in urethra and urinary bladder

D) inflammation and painful swelling of a kidney

E) increased sugar level in a blood

F) blockage of blood vessels leading to brain

 CHAPTER 8.0
Coordination and regulation
8.1 Neurons
You will:
establish the relationship between nerve cell structure and function;
analyze functions of the nervous tissue and its structural components.

STQ
How does your brain work?

Key terms
Glial cells - cell that feeds and protects the nerve cell;
Neuron - a nerve cell;
Synapse - the connection between nerve cells.

Facts
Here are about 100 billion (1000000000) neurons in the brain. It is more
than stars in the Milky Way.
Information travels through neurons at the speed of 274 km/h

Text
Nervous system controls and regulates the body. It mostly consists of nervous
tissue. Nervous tissue contains two types of cells: neurons and glia. Neurons
accept and conduct signals.

Glia cells feed and protect neurons. There are more glial cells than neurons.

Neuron consists of three parts:

 1. Body of the neuron contains most of cell organelles and nucleus.
2. Dendrite is a short projection of a neuron. It receives the nerve signal
and transfers it to the body. One neuron usually has many dendrites.
3. Axon is long projection of a neuron. It sends information away from the
body. A neuron usually has only one axon.

Functionally neurons can be divided into three groups:

1. Sensory neurons receive signals from sensory organs (eyes, ears, skin,
tongue) and carry it to the nervous system.
2. Interneurons are located in the brain and spinal cord. They receive
signals from sensory neurons and give them to motor neurons.
3. Motor neurons take signals from interneurons and send them to effector
cells (mostly muscle cells).

There are two types of axons:

1. Myelinated axons are covered by myelin protein. They conduct

information faster.
 2. Unmyelinated axons are not covered by myelin protein. They conduct
information slowly.

Axon of one neuron can connect to the body or dendrites of another neuron.
This connection between two neurons is called synapse. Information passes
from one neuron to another through special molecules, called
neurotransmitters. Axon produces neurotransmitters and sends it to the gap
between neurons. Then neurotransmitters connect to the second neuron.

Research time
Construct the nervous tissue model using different materials. Explain all the
parts and their functions.

Activity
Silent activity.

Teacher prepares cards with hidden questions and puts them on teacher’s
table

Students divide into groups of three. Each student in a group is one type of
neuron: sensory neuron, interneuron, or motor neuron.

“Sensory neuron” take cards from teacher’s table and carries it to the
“interneuron”, without reading the question. Interneuron opens the card, reads
the question, answers it. Then he folds the card and gives it to the “motor
neuron”. Motor neuron gives the card to the teacher.

Teacher counts the correct answers. The group with highest points wins.

Now answer the following questions.

1. What are functions of three types of neurons?

2. What happens if any of them does not work properly?

Literacy
 1. What is connected to dendrites of sensory neurons?
2. Where do glial cells take food and oxygen for neurons?

Terminology
covered - жабылған / покрытый;
gap - аралық / промежуток;
glial cell - глия жасушасы / клетки глии;
neuron - нейрон;
projection - өсінді / вырост;
properly - дұрыс / правильно;
spinal cord - жұлын / спинной мозг;
to carry - тасу / нести;
to conduct - өткізу / проводить;
to feed - қоректендіру / питать;
to fold - бүгу / сгибать;
to receive - қабылдау / принимать.
8.2 Nerve impulse
You will:
study the chemical composition, macro- and microscopic structure of the
bone.

Key terms
Action potential - the change in charges inside and outside of the cell;
Membrane potential - the difference between charge outside and inside
of the cell;
Resting potential - the resting state of a cell, when outside is positive,
inside is negative.

STQ
When you touch hot kettle, you immediately understand it is hot. How this
information reaches your brain?

Text
Information is transferred as electricity through the neuron. This electricity is
produced due to the difference in ion concentrations inside and outside of the
cell.

At normal state, the inside of the cell has more negative ions, or anions, and
less positive ions, and therefore is negatively charged. Outside of the cell has
more positive ions, or cations, and consequently is positively charged. This
difference in charges between inside and outside of the cell is called
membrane potential. The normal state of the cell, when it does not transmit the
signal is called resting potential.
When a signal passes through the neuron, cations pass through the membrane
of neuron and membrane potential changes. Outside of the membrane becomes
negative, inside becomes more positive. This state is called action potential.
An action potentials in myelinated and unmyelinated axons differ. Action
potential in unmyelinated axon goes slower than in myelinated axon.
Myelinated axon has parts without myelin. They are called nodes of Ranvier.
Cations pass through the axon membrane only in these nods. So, an action
potential occurs only in nodes of Ranvier. Impulse jumps from one node to
another. This makes signal transmission much faster than in unmyelinated
axons.
Research time
There is a sodium-potassium pump inside the neuron. Do a research and find
out what is its function.

Activity
Construct a model of a neuron. Use one long rope as an axon. Put the axon
through the full toilet paper. Connect the axon to a plastic bottle from one side.
Attach more short ropes to this plastic bottle. Another end of the rope attaches
to the half of the bottle. Put some ping-pong balls inside it. Now, slide the
toilet paper from one side to the side with balls.

1. Name all parts of the neuron. What is the toilet paper and the ping-pong
balls?
2. In which direction does action potential go?
3. What happens when an action potential reaches the end of the axon?
Facts
You have over 150,000 km of axons in your brain. It is enough to wrap around
Earth 4 times.

Literacy
1. What triggers the action potential of a neuron?
2. Where does the action potential stop?
3. What will be if the organism cannot generate action potential?

Terminology
action potential - əрекет потенциалы / потенциал действия;
nodes of Ranvier - Ранвье үзілімдері / перехваты Ранвье;
pump - насос;
resting potential - тыныштық потенциалы / потенциал покоя;
signal transmission - сигналдың берілуі / передача сигнала;
to generate - жарату / генерировать;
to trigger - іске қосу / запускать.
8.3 Electrical processes in living
organisms
You will:
study electrical processes in living organisms.

STQ
How organisms use electricity?

Key terms
Electrocytes – a modified muscle or nerve cell that generates electricity;
Electroreceptors – cells capable of detecting electric fields;
Electroreception – the biological ability to perceive natural electrical
stimuli.

Facts
A platypus’ beak is covered in nearly 40,000 electroreceptors, which helps
them localize prey.

Text
Information in the living body is transmitted through electrical nerve impulses.
It passes from the receptors to the brain neurons and from the brain neurons to
the muscles. Electricity is produced in any living organism. It is formed on the
surface of the membrane of specialized cells called electrocytes.
The most common electrical current in our bodies is the heart rhythm. The
heart contains a group of cells known as a sinoatrial node. Membranes of
these cells allow sodium to enter the cell and potassium to leave. Less
potassium leaves the cell than sodium enters it. The result is a continually
growing positive charge inside the cell. When the charge reaches a certain
point, calcium channels in the cell membrane open up and allow calcium to
enter. This makes the interior of the cell extremely positive compared to the
outside of the cell. This process is known as an action potential. Once that
potential reaches a certain point, it travels to the whole heart muscle. This
electricity causes the muscles to contract and your heart to beat.

Electroreceptors and electric organs.

Electroreceptors are cells that react to electrical fields in the environment.

The main function of the electroreceptors is the detection of other living
things. A fish uses electroreceptors to sense the electric signals of a nearby
fish. Also, Guiana dolphins and Lemon shark can detect fish by using
electroreceptors.
Bees can detect electric fields around flowers. By this, they sense if the
flower was visited nearly by other bees. The flower visited by other bees has
less nectar. So, bees choose flowers, which were not visited by other bees.
The organs that generate electrical discharges have a different origin. Some of
them are modified muscles, and others are nerve endings. In some cases, the
electric discharge is strong and is used for protection from predators; in other
cases it is weak, and it is used for navigation and communication. Some
animals use electricity to catch their preys. For example, electric rays and the
electric eel.
Activity
Label the diagram below. Show which molecules pass through the transport
molecule. How do these molecules act in production of eleсtricity?
Literacy
1. Can human produce electricity? Explain your answer.
2. What is the difference between electricity in wires and in organisms?

Research time

Look at this electrocardiogram (ECG). The activity of which organ does this
ECG show? What do these lines mean?
Terminology
ability – қабілет / способность;
charge – заряд;
discharge - разряд;
eel – жыланбалық / угорь;
electrocyte – электроцит;
electroreceptor – электрорецептор;
electroreception – электрорецепция;
field – өріс / поле;
interior – ішкі жағы / внутренняя часть;
modified – түрленген / видоизмененный;
origin – шығу тегі / происхождение;
platypus – үйректұмсық / утконос;
ray – тұтасқанат / скат;
rhythm – ырғақ / ритм;
sinoatrial node – сино-атриальды түйін / синоатриальный узел;
to detect – табу / обнаружить.
8.4 Neurohumoral regulation
You will:
explain the mechanism of neurohumoral regulation.

STQ
Nervous and endocrine systems both control our body. How do they
coordinate with each other?

Key terms
Humoral regulation - regulation by the endocrine system;
Neural regulation - regulation by nervous system.

Facts
During fight-or-flight response activity of the digestive system is inhibited, so
it consumes less energy. Due to digestive system activity inhibition, muscles
in arms, legs, and heart can use more energy to be ready for the stressful
situation.

Text
Our body is controlled by two types of regulation: neural and humoral.

Neural regulation

Regulation by nervous system is called neural regulation. For example, brain

control movement of intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
During normal breathing, impulses from the brain go to the intercostal muscles
and diaphragm, causing their contraction. It leads to an increase in the volume
of the chest and air entering the lungs, causing inhalation. The increase in lung
volume stimulates the stretch receptors located in the walls of the lungs.
Impulses from them along the nerves enter the brain. Consequently, the
intercostal muscles relax, the volume of the lungs decreases, and exhalation
takes place.

Humoral regulation

Humoral regulation controls organism through body fluids: blood, lymph, and
tissue fluid. For example, the specific factor determining the intensity of
respiratory movements is the concentration of CO2 in the blood. Increasing
the level of CO2 increases the excitability of the certain regions in the brain.
Consequently, the breathing rate increases and becomes more frequent. Also,
humoral regulation may be conducted via hormones, which are transported
through the bloodstream. For example, adrenalin can increase the breathrate.
Adaptations of the organism to stress

During stressful situations, both neural and humoral regulation work together.
One of the examples is fight-or-flight response by the sympathetic nervous
system and epinephrine hormone. As the body prepares to fight or run, the
heart rate speeds up, blood vessels of muscles of the arms, legs, and heart
dilate. Also, the liver starts to produce glucose. All these processes help the
body to get energy faster.
Research time
Abylai is scared of snakes. Imagine he meets a snake. Explain what happens
to his body? Which types of regulation control his organism? Draw a
schematic illustration of changes in Abylai’s body during this stressful
situation.

Activity
Find if neural or humoral regulation controls the following actions and
explain your choice.
Literacy
1. What is the difference between neural and humoral regulation?
2. Why breathing becomes faster during stressful situations?

Terminology
contraction - жиырылу / сокращение;
diaphragm - көкет / диафрагма;
excitability - қозғыштық / возбудимость;
humoral regulation - гуморалдық реттеу / гуморальная регуляция;
intercostal - қабырғааралық / межреберный;
neural regulation - жүйкелік реттелу / нервная регуляция;
shivering - дірілдеу / дрожь;
to determine - анықтау / определить;
to exhale - дем шығару / выдыхать;
to inhale - демалу / вдыхать;
to inhibit - тежеу / подавлять.
8.5 Brain-Computer Interfaces
You will:
study the features of the technology “brain-computer interface”.

Key terms
Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI) – a system for exchanging information
between the brain and an electronic device;
Neuroprosthetic – any biomedical engineered device designed to be
linked to the peripheral or central nervous system and enhance the
cognitive, motor, or sensory abilities of an organism.

STQ
Can we in the future control external devices only by mental efforts?

Text
Considering the development of computer technologies, robotics
applications, neurophysiological methods for recording brain activity and
mathematical methods for decoding neural information, the technology of
Brain-Computer Interfaces has become possible. Brain-Computer Interfaces
is a technology that allows you to process electrical signals from the brain,
amplify and transfer them to the computer.

The brain computer interface (BCI) is one of the most perspective

technologies in the field of treating neurological diseases and injuries. BCI
technology allows a person without help of peripheral nerves and muscles to
learn how to communicate with the external environment only on the basis of
mental efforts.
There are two types of interfaces: unidirectional and bidirectional. In
unidirectional interfaces, external devices can either receive signals from the
brain or send signals to it. For example, imitation of the eye by an electronic
implant. Bidirectional interfaces allow the brain and external devices to
exchange information in both directions.

The main difference between BCI and neuroprosthetics lies in the

characteristics of their application: neuroprosthetics connect the nervous
system to the implanted device, while the BCI usually connects the brain (or
nervous system) to the computer system.

BCI system consists of 4 sequential components:

1. Signal acquisition - the signals are amplified to levels suitable for

electronic processing. The signals are then digitized and transmitted to a
computer.
2. Feature extraction - the process of analyzing the digital signals to
distinguish suitable signal characteristics and representing them in a
compact form suitable for translation into output commands.
3. Feature translation - resulting signal features are then passed to the
feature translation algorithm, which converts the features into the
appropriate commands for the output device
4. Device output - the commands from the feature translation algorithm
operate the external device, providing functions such as letter selection,
cursor control, robotic arm operation. The device operation provides
feedback to the user, thus closing the control loop.

Activity
Divide into two groups. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
Brain-Computer interface.

Facts
 There are also neuroprosthetics for restoring vision. This device is
implanted into an eye instead of retina, and receive signals from
cameras, converts them into nerve impulses and send them to the brain
via optic nerve. For example, Argus II is a new bionic eye used by only
few blind people, but scientist try to make these technologies cheaper.
Neuroprosthetics is an area of neurology that deals with the creation and
implantation of artificial devices.

Research time
How will the world change if the neurocomputer interface will success in the
future? Write an essay.

Literacy
1. How people recorded electrical brain activity?
2. How can the neurocomputer interface predict neurological diseases?

Terminology
bidirectional – екі бағыттағы / двунаправленный;
bionic – бионика;
cerebral cortex – бас ми қабығы / кора головного мозга;
cognitive – когнитивтік / когнитивный;
current – тоқ / ток;
interface – интерфейс;
mental effort – ақыл-ойдың күші / умственное усилие;
neuroprosthetic – нейропротездеу / нейропротезирование;
peculiarity – белгі / признак;
to amplify – күшейту / усилить;
to enhance – күшейту / усилить;
unidirectional – бір бағытты / однонаправленный.
8.6 Homeostasis
You will:
explain the mechanism of maintaining the stability of the internal
environment of the body.

Key terms
Homeostasis - maintaining a relatively constant environment within the
body;
Thermoregulation - the control of body temperature.

STQ
How our body keeps the same temperature in cold and hot weather?

Text
To work our body properly should control its own conditions and internal
environment. This process is called homeostasis. The organism senses the
change in conditions of the body and the surroundings by sensory cells or
organs, and adapts to these changes. Examples of such regulated conditions
are the temperature of the body and glucose (sugar) concentration in the
blood.

Temperature regulation

Normal body temperature of the human varies between 35.80C and 37.70C. It
is dangerous if body temperature falls below 340C or increases over 400C.
That’s why the body needs to maintain the constant temperature of the body.
This process is called thermoregulation.
When the temperature outside is high, blood vessels expand and blood flow
near skin increases. It helps more heat leave the body. Another way to
decrease the temperature of the body is sweating. When sweat evaporates, it
takes heat from the body and cools it down.

Alternatively, when temperature of the environment is low, blood vessels

become narrower. So, heat loss is reduced. Also, sweating stops and body
starts to shiver. Shivering is uncontrollable small shaking of muscles, which
creates warmth.
Glucose concentration regulation

Glucose is the primary source of energy in the organism. The average

concentration of glucose in the blood is 70-110 mg/100 mL. Two hormones
with opposing effects play significant role in glucose balance in the blood:
insulin and glucagon. The pancreas secretes both of these hormones.

When the concentration of glucose in the blood is above average range,

insulin hormone is secreted. This hormone induces the uptake of glucose by
body cells and decreases glucose concentration in the blood. Also, an excess
of glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver.

If the concentration of glucose in the blood is below the average range,

glucagon is synthesized. It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver to
glucose. Then this glucose is released into the blood increasing the
concentration of glucose.
Facts
If the body temperature rises over 40C, proteins of the body lose their shape.
After this, they cannot carry out their function and cells start to die.

Research time
Find one more example of physiological factors, which should be controlled
by homeostasis. Explain the mechanism of maintaining the balance of this
factor and prepare a poster.

Activity
Shokan Valikhanov was famous Kazakh scientist-ethnographer. He traveled to
different places to study different nations and their culture. He traveled to
Kashgar through Tian Shan mountains. This travel was dangerous because it
was cold on the top of the mountains.

1. Explain what changes happened in the Shokan Valikhanov body on the

top of Tian Shan mountains and how he could survive cold weather?
2. Imagine if he traveled to the south, where it is hot. How his organism
would adapt to this climate? What changes would occur in his body?

Literacy
1. Why our skin becomes red when it is hot?
2. When can glucose level in blood increase?

Terminology
to maintain - ұстап тұру / поддерживать;
homeostasis - гомеостаз;
condition - жағдай / состояние;
surrounding - қоршаған / окружающий;
to adapt - бейімделу / адаптироваться;
thermoregulation - жылуды реттеу / терморегуляция;
sweat - тер / пот;
to evaporate - булану / испаряться;
to reduce - азайту / уменьшить;
to shiver - дірілдеу / дрожать;
opposing - қарама-қарсы / противоположный.
8.7 Stimulators of plant growth
You will:
analyze the influence of growth hormones on plants.

STQ
How do plants grow upwards?

Key terms
Auxin - plant hormone that regulates growth and other processes of
plants;
Plant hormones - substances that control plant development and growth;
Positive geotropism - growth of plants towards the gravity;
Positive phototropism - growth of plants towards the light.

Facts
Auxin is a chemical molecule. Its chemical structure is indole-3-acetic acid.

Text
Growth of plants depends on the amount of available light, water and
minerals. If there is no enough light, water and minerals, growth can be
stopped. This is controlled by special substances, called plant hormones.
Plant hormones are secreted in the parts of the plants, which have actively
dividing cells, like tips of shoots and roots.

One example of plant hormone is auxin. It is produced in the tips of roots and
shoots, and moves to the regions of extension. There auxin makes cell larger
and these regions start to grow.
By the sense of light and gravity, plants control the growth of their organs in
the right direction. Shoots sense the light and grow towards the light. It is
called positive phototropism. Alternatively, roots grow towards the gravity.
This is called positive geotropism.
During positive phototropism in shoots, auxin activates elongation of cells on
the shaded side of the plant.
In the case of positive geotropism in roots, more auxin is concentrated on the
bottom side and inhibits elongation of cells. Cells on the top side continue
elongation and roots bend downwards.

Lab work
Pre-lab questions:
 1. How does auxin affect growth of plants?
2. Which environmental factors control the direction of growth?

Methods and materials:

Plant A - plant growing near the lamp;

Plant B - plant with tip cut growing near the lamp;

Plant C - plant with tip closed with black cap growing near the lamp;

Plant D - plant with tip closed with transparent cap growing near the lamp.

(all plants should have been grown for a week before the experiment)

Procedures:

1. Observe given plants.

2. Compare their shapes.
3. Fill the table below.

Results:

Post-lab questions:

1. Explain the results of the experiments. Why some plants did bend and
some did not?
 2. How can plant hormones be used in human life?

Research time
If you get lost in the forest, you can find direction by looking at trees. One side
of the tree often has more branches. On which side of the tree, north or south,
there will be more branches? Explain your answer using information from this
lesson.

Terminology
available - қолжетімді / доступный;
substance - зат / вещество;
secrete - шығару / выделять;
shoot - өркен / побег;
tip - ұшы / кончик;
auxin - ауксин;
extension - кеңейту / расширение;
phototropism - фототропизм;
geotropism - геотропизм;
elongation - ұзару / удлинение;
illuminated - жарықтандырылған / освещенный;
shaded - көлеңкелі / затененный;
transparent - мөлдір / прозрачный.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. Growing of roots towards the gravity is called:

A) positive phototropism

B) geotropism

C) phototropism

D) nastic movement

E) thigmotropism

2. Gaps in the myelin sheath are calle:

A) myelinoids

B) axonal interstices

C) the synapse

D) nodes of Ranvier

E) Schwann cells

3. Which one of the followings reacts to electrical fields of the environment?

A) mechanoreceptors

B) electroreceptors

C) photoreceptors
D) volumoreceptors

E) thermoreceptors

4. Which one of the following hormones is released when you see poisonous
snake?

A) growth hormone

B) insulin

C) epinephrine

D) prolactin

E) estrogen

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1. Show the part(s) of a neuron.

A) dendrite

B) Z disc

C) parietal lobe

D) many nuclei

E) cell body

F) flagellum

G) axon

H) acrosome

2. Factor(s) that affect homeostasis in a human body:

A) growth

B) blood sugar level

C) temperature

D) blood pressure

E) protection

F) vision

G) muscles

H) reproduction

3. Which of the following(s) are regulated by humoral regulation?

A) playing a game

B) reading a book

C) excretion

D) growth

E) dancing

F) respiration

G) movement

H) reception

Matching
1. Match the following types of neurons and their functions.

1. Sensory neuron
 2. Interneuron

3. Motor neuron

A) sends signals to myelin sheath

B) sends signals to motor neuron

C) receive signals to receptors

D) receive signals from sensory organs

E) receive signals from effector cells

F) sends signals to effector cells

2. Match the following hormones with their appropriate functions.

1. Insulin

2. Glucagon

3. Auxin

A) decreases blood sugar level

B) stimulates growth in an animal

C) regulates growth of a plant

D) decreases the activity of a plant

E) increases metabolism of fats

F) increases blood sugar level

CHAPTER 9.0
Movement
9.1 Muscles work
You will:
study the maximum muscular strength of the muscles in your arm;
study the dependence of work on the frequency of muscle contractions.

Key terms
Antagonistic pair of muscles - a pair of muscles which have opposite
functions;
Dynamic work of muscles - muscle contract and relax to move different
parts of your body;
Muscle contractions - a process in which muscles become short, moving
our body;
Static work of muscles - muscles stay contracted to hold your body in
certain position.

STQ
How strong are your muscles?

Facts
Muscles can only pull the bones; they cannot push.

Text
Muscles provide movement. Skeletal muscles are mostly attached to our
bones. We can control them. They consist of muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber
can contract only when it gets nerve impulse from motor neurons. One motor
neuron can cause a contraction in many muscle fibers.
Some muscles work opposite to each other. They are called agonist and
antagonist muscles (or antagonistic pair). For example, when biceps muscle
contracts, it pulls forearm to the upper arm. Oppositely, when triceps muscle
contract, it pulls forearm back (straighten the arm). In this example, biceps is
agonist muscle and triceps is an antagonist muscle.

When muscles actively move, they do dynamic work. But when they stay
contracted for a long time they do static work. For example, when you are
running, the muscles in your legs make dynamic work. And when you are
standing, the muscles in your back make static work.

Lab works
Eyesight

Pre-lab questions:
 1. What is the difference between static and dynamic works of muscles?
2. What type of muscles works when you move your forearm?

Methods and materials:

stopwatch, a load of 3 kilograms (can be used a bag with books).

Procedures:

1. Stand near the board and raise your arm with the load horizontally.
2. Mark the level of the arm on the board.
3. Hold the load and until complete fatigue.
4. Record the time.
5. Fill the table below.

Results:

Procedures:

1. Raise and lower your arm with the load as much as you can.

2. Record the time of fatigue.

Results:

Post-lab questions:

1. Why is it important to change your arms when you carry school bag?
2. Which muscles do static work and which muscles do dynamic work
while walking?
3. Explain why people cannot sit for a long on the chair without back.

Research time
Move different muscles in your body. Find out antagonistic pairs. Study how
antagonistic pairs of muscles work during dynamic and static work.

Terminology
attached - бекітілген / прикреплённый;
back - арқа / спина;
fatigue - шаршау / утомление;
forearm - білек / предплечье;
muscle fiber - бұлшықет талшығы / мышечное волокно;
strength - күш / сила;
to contract - жиырылу / сокращаться;
to jerk - жұлқу / дёргать;
to pull - тарту / тянуть;
to push - итеру / толкать;
to straighten - жазу / выпрямить;
to tremor - дірілдеу / дрожать.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. What is muscle contraction?

A) a process when muscle cells reproduce

B) a process when muscle fibers tear

C) a process when muscle fibers shorten

D) a junction between muscle fibers and motor neuron

E) a group of muscle fibers

2. What type of muscles are mostly attached to bones?

A) smooth muscles

B) cardiac muscles

C) comprehend muscles

D) skeletal muscles

E) attached muscles

3. Which muscle of your body moves forearm toward the upper arm?

A) biceps

B) triceps

C) deltoid
D) trapezius

E) forearm

4. What is the function of triceps muscle?

A) to moves forearm toward the upper arm

B) to maintain your posture

C) to straighten the arm

D) to move father finger

E) to write

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1. Find out example of static work of muscles.

A) muscles in your arms when you open the door

B) muscles in your legs when you play football

C) muscles in your legs when you go to school and carry bag

D) muscles in your arm when you go to school and carry bag

E) muscles in your back when you pose for a photo

F) muscles in mother’s arms when she holds her baby

G) muscles in your fingers when you play a piano

H) your bicep muscle when you move your forearm toward upper arm

2. True about muscles:

A) they are made up of muscle fibers

B) they produce blood cells

C) they provide the movement of our body

D) some of them protect our body from microbes

E) some of them send nerve impulses to our nervous system

F) their main function is digestion

G) they release hormones to our blood

H) mostly they contract because of nerve impulse

3. Which organs are made up of muscles?

A) brain

B) bones

C) urinary bladder

D) heart

E) kidneys

F) lungs

G) stomach

H) liver

Matching
1.Find correct examples for these terms.

1. antagonistic muscles

2. dynamic work
 3. static work

A) forearm and upper arm

B) holding a box

C) biceps and triceps

D) legs and arms

E) dancing

F) eyes and nose

2. Match muscles with their functions.

1.biceps

2.triceps

3.heart muscle

A) strengthen your arm

B) play piano

С) move the food

D) jumping

E) pump the blood

F) move forearm
CHAPTER 10.0
Molecular biology
10.1 DNA
You will:
describe double helix structure of DNA molecule;
construct a model of DNA molecule based on the principles of its
structure.

STQ
Every organism’s characteristics are information that exists in the form of a
code. How does that code look like?

Key terms
Double helix - structure formed by two strands of DNA;
DNA - a molecule that stores and transmits genetic information;
Nucleotide - monomer of DNA that consists of sugar, phosphate group,
and nitrogenous base.

Text
DNA is a macromolecule that encodes hereditary information, stores it in a
cell and transmits from one generation to next generation.
It has two strands in opposite directions that form a double helix. Each of
those strands has many repeating monomers called nucleotides. Nucleotides
have three parts: a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base, and sugar.

Nucleotides join to each other and form a chain or strand. Each DNA
molecule has two strands, which are called polynucleotides.

There are four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
They pair with each other: adenine always pairs with thymine (A - T), while
cytosine only with guanine (C - G). It is called complementary base pairing.
Pairings of two strands hold DNA together and form a ladder-like structure.
Both sides of DNA ladder are the sugar-phosphate backbone, and “rungs” are
base pairs.

DNA is a long chain, the base pairs can arrange themselves in millions of
different sequences. The order in which the base pairs line up with one
another is like a code. Each section of DNA codes for a different trait—
whether it’s your eye color, the size of your ears, or whether you’ll develop a
particular disease.
Activity
The picture above shows four types of nucleotides. Find its components and
label them (phosphate group - P, sugar - S, adenine - A, guanine - G, thymine -
T, cytosine - C). You need 10 copies of each those cards.

1. Construct one strand that has following nucleotide bases:

AGGCTCGTTAATAGCG.
2. Make a complementary strand to the first strand.
3. Now you have a complete structure of DNA molecule. Count the number
of A, T, G, and C.

Questions:

1. Why is the number of A equal to the number of T?

2. Why are bonds between A and T, G and C are important?

Research time
As you know DNA has two strands which pair with each other. Find
explanation why DNA is not a single-stranded and why DNA needs
complementary base pairing.

Facts
If you put all the DNA in your body end to end, it would reach to the sun and
back over 600 times!

Literacy
1. DNA stores information about what?
2. Why is the picture of sugar pentagon shaped?

Terminology
backbone - негіз / остов;
complementary - комплементарлы / комплементарный;
complete - толық / полный;
double helix - қос спиральды / двойная спираль;
ladder - баспалдақ / лестница;
pairing - жұптасу / спаривание;
pentagon - бесбұрыш / пятиугольник;
rung - саты / ступенька;
strand - тізбек / нить;
to arrange - орналастыру / располагать;
to encode - кодтау / кодировать;
to transmit - жеткізу / передавать.
Problems
Test questions with one correct answer
1.DNA is made up of nitrogenous base pairs. How do nitrogenous bases
bond?

A) adenine – thymine; cytosine – guanine

B) adenine – cytosine; guanine – thymine

C) adenine – guanine; cytine – thymine

D) adenine – guanine; cytosine – turine

E) adenine - guanine; cytosine - uracil

2. Which of the following is not a nitrogenous base found in DNA?

A) adenine

B) cytosine

C) guanine

D) uracil

E) thymine

3. DNA looks like a “twisted ladder”. If the “rungs” of the ladder are made
up of nitrogenous bases, what are the backbone of the ladder made up of?

A) sugars and proteins

B) phosphates and salts

C) sugars and phosphates

D) salts and sugars

E) sugars and sulphates

4. Where most of DNA is located?

A) mitochondrion

B) nucleus

C) lysosome

D) cytoplasm

E) plastids

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1.DNA codes are?

A) AUCG

B) ATGC

C) ACUG

D) GCAT

E) AUGC

F) TAGC

G) TUGC

H) GUCA

2. DNA molecules are made of:

A) sugar

B) salt

C) acid

D) phosphate

E) starch

F) chlorine

G) nitrogen base

H) sulfuric base

3. The main function of DNA?

A) heredity

B) transport of lipids

C) transport of oxygen

D) store genetic information

E) prevention from diseases

F) transmit genetic information

G) increase immune response

H) digestion

Matching
1.Match the following terms with their definitions

1. double helix
 2. DNA

3. nucleotide

A) a molecule that store and transmit genetic information;

B) a molecule that store nutrients

C) single stranded structure

D) structure formed by two strands of DNA

E) monomer of DNA

F) polymer of DNA

2. What does these letters mean?

1. A

2. G

3. C

A) glucose

B) guanine

C) adenine

D) acetyl

E) cytosine

F) cellulose
CHAPTER 11.0
Cell cycle
11.1 Interphase
You will:
explain the processes that occur in the interphase of the cell cycle.

Key terms
Cell cycle - it a period of cell life from one cell division to the next cell
division;
Interphase - a part of a cell cycle, when cell is not dividing;
Replication - is a process of DNA copying.

STQ
How do cells get older?

Research time
The cell has its own checking mechanism for the division. They use
information about internal and external conditions, to decide to continue or
stop the process. Do research about checkpoints in interphase and fill the
table.
Text
The cell cycle is the life of a cell from the time it is first formed during the
division of a parent cell until its own division into two daughter cells. It
consists of two phases: interphase and mitotic phase. A cell spends about
90% of their lifespan in the interphase. It is a growth period of the cell, and it
prepares the cell for division. Interphase is divided into three subphases.
They are the G1 phase, the S phase, and the G2 phase.

G1 phase (first gap). The G1 phase occurs right after the cell has divided.
During G1, the cell grows larger and many proteins are synthesized for later
usage. The synthesis of organelles also occurs at this stage.

S phase (synthesis). To produce two identical daughter cells, first DNA must
be replicated. During the S phase, DNA copies itself so that each
chromosome contains two identical copies. This is the longest stage.

G2 phase (second gap). During the G2, the cell continues to grow in size and
produce proteins necessary for cell division. It also makes centrioles which
starts to form spindle fibers for separating the chromosome copies.
Activity
Divide the class into 3 or 6 groups. Teacher gives to each group a poster with
the names of stages. Groups with different stages are combined and work
together.

1. Each group draws the picture of a given stage;

 2. Groups exchange posters (not with the same stage);
3. Then groups write explanation to the stage;
4. Groups exchange posters again (not with the same stage);
5. At the end, each group checks and evaluates poster.

During this activity, each group should draw a picture of one stage, writes an
explanation for another stage, and checks third stage.

Facts
If the cell doesn’t receive the signal of continuation, it enters the resting
period called G0 phase. Most of our body cells are in G0 phase. For example,
muscle and nerve cells never divide, while other cells like liver cells can be
called back for the division.

Literacy
1. What is the structure and function of centrioles?
2. Why is S phase is the longest stage of interphase?
3. Some embryonic cells do not have G1 and G2 stages. How it affects on
their size?

Terminology
cell cycle - жасушаның циклі / клеточный цикл;
cell division - жасушаның бөлінуі / клеточное деление;
daughter cells - еншілес жасушалар / дочерние клетки;
lifespan - тіршілік ұзақтығы / продолжительность жизни;
parent cell - бастапқы бөлінетін жасуша / материнская клетка;
size - мөлшер / размер;
spindlefiber - бөліну ұршық жіпшелері \ нити веретена деления.
11.2 Mitosis
You will:
describe the process and stages of mitosis.

Key terms
Cytokinesis - cell process which divides cytoplasm into two;
Mitosis - a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells;
Sister chromatids - two identical copies of a single duplicated
chromosome.

STQ
Where do cells come from?

Research time
Cancer diseases account for 7.4 million deaths worldwide. There are more
than 100 types of cancers that can affect any part of the body. Write an essay
about how a cell can be transformed into a cancer cell and the unusual
features of cancer cells.

Text
After interphase cell begins mitotic (M) phase. M phase is focused on the
division of the cell into two similar daughter cells. It involves two processes:
mitosis and cytokinesis.

Mitosis is the nuclear division of the cell. It occurs in five stages. In mitosis,
replicated DNA condenses into visible chromosomes. Each chromosome is
itself composed of a pair of chromatids that are genetically identical. These
two chromatids are called sister chromatids. They are joined to each other in
centromere. This structure is also a place, where spindle fibers attach to the
chromosomes. Spindle fibers separate sister chromatids during mitosis.

The second phase of M phase and the last stage of the cell cycle is
cytokinesis. It is the division of the cytoplasm, resulting in two new cells.
Cytokinesis takes place differently in animal and plant cells.
Lab work
Pre-lab questions:

1. Why do organisms need mitosis?

2. Why is DNA replicated in S phase of interphase?
3. What is the result of mitosis?

Methods and Materials:

microscope, prepared slides of onion root tips, poster of mitosis stages

Safety precautions:
 1. Hold microscope with two hands
2. Be careful with microscope slides.

Procedures:

1. Get one microscope for your group.

2. Place the slide of an onion root tip on the microscope stage.
3. Use the low-power objective to find a root tip and focus it with large
adjust until it is clearly visible.
4. Center the image to the root cap and switch to high power.
5. Observe the cells that are arranged in rows. Select the one cell whose
chromosomes are clearly visible and draw it in the box on the right.

6. Look around at the cells again. Select four other cells whose internal
appearances are different from each other and the first one that you drew.
Draw them.
7. How do you think which one is in interphase?
8. Identify what stage each cell is in by use the mitosis poster as a guide
and fill the table.

Results:

Post-lab questions:
 1. During which stage is the nuclear membrane broken into fragments?
2. During which stage do splitting of chromosomes occur?
3. In what stages most of the cells in your slide? Relate this to the amount of
time any cell spends in each stage. Which stage do most cells spend most
of their time in?

Facts
Plant cells have a rigid cell wall. They form a structure called cell plate
in the middle of the cell, which divides the cytoplasm.
Animal cell forms a ring under its cell membrane. This ring pulls the
equator of the cell inward, forming a narrow groove called cleavage
furrow. The furrow grows and finally cleaves the membrane.

Terminology
cell plate - жасушалық пластинка / клеточная пластинка;
cleavage - ажырау / расщепление, расхождение;
division - бөліну / деление;
identical - бірдей / идентичный;
inward - ішке / внутрь;
to condense - топталу, жинақталып қалу / сгущаться;
to replicate - көшіріп алу / копировать;
to transform - жаңадан жасау, түрлендіру / преобразовать.
11.3 Meiosis
You will:
describe the processes and stages of meiosis;
compare the processes of mitosis and meiosis.

Key terms
Homologous chromosome - two chromosomes, one of paternal origin,
the other of maternal origin that are identical in appearance;
Meiosis - a process of cell division, in which one mother cell divides
into four new daughter cells;
Meiosis I - the first division of meiosis in which homologous
chromosomes are separated;
Meiosis II - the second division of meiosis in which separates sister
chromatids.

STQ
Sex cells are produced by meiosis. Why not by mitosis?

Research time
Crossing over occurs during prophase I. Try to explain to what consequences
does crossing over bring?

Text
Meiosis is a process of producing four haploid cells from one diploid cell.
Diploid cells contain two complete sets (2n) of chromosome while haploid
cells contain one complete set (n). The purpose of meiosis is to produce
gametes (egg and sperm) for reproduction.

Meiosis also consists of stages similar to mitosis. However, in Meiosis, a

single cell divides twice. The first round of division is called Meiosis I,
where homologous chromosomes are separated from each other. Homologous
chromosomes is a pair of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. They
are similar in length, in the position of genes and centromere location. The
second round of division is called Meiosis II, where sister chromatids are
divided.
Prophase I: Centrosome moves and spindle forms. Nuclear envelope
disappears. DNA condenses to form a chromosome. Homologous
chromosomes are paired up and exchange their sections. This exchange of
genes is called a crossing over.
Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell.
Spindle fibers are attached to centromeres.
Anaphase I: Spindle fibers pull the homologous pair away from each other.
Telophase I: Chromosomes arrive at opposite pole of the cells. In some
organisms, nuclear envelope reappears and chromosomes decondense.
Cytokinesis occurs simultaneously, forming two haploid cells.
Prophase II: Centrosomes move apart and spindle fibers form.
Metaphase II: Chromosomes align individually along the equator of the cell.
The centromere of sister chromatids attached to spindle fibers.
Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate at the centromere. They move
towards opposite poles as an individual chromosome.
Telophase II: Individual chromosomes decondense and enclose in nuclear
membrane. Cytokinesis divide cytoplasm of two cells, forming four haploid
cells.
Activity
You will play a puzzle game with your class. Take one or two cards from the
teacher. Try to find other puzzle pieces according to their content. Three
pieces of puzzle explain one stage of mitosis or meiosis. But you have to
complete the puzzle with your group by adding content (example: cleavage
furrow). After this, combine with other groups to explain the complete mitosis
or meiosis process. Show the processes by making a dance.

Facts
In some cases during meiosis, chromosomes do not separate. Consequently,
some gametes may contain an extra chromosome (n+1) and others that are
missing a chromosome (n-1). This is the main cause of genetic syndromes like
Down syndrome with 47 chromosomes.

Literacy
1. What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis?
2. What are similarities between mitosis and meiosis?
3. After meiosis I, two haploid cells are formed. What is the importance of
meiosis II?

Terminology
complete set - жиынтық / комплект;
homologous chromosome - гомологты хромосомалар / гомологичные
хромосомы;
nuclear envelope - жасуша қабықшасы / ядерная оболочка;
opposite pole - қарама-қарсы полюс / противоположный полюс;
paired up - жұптасқан / в паре;
purpose - мақсат / цель;
to enclose - қоршап алу / окружить;
inherited - тұқым қуалау / унаследованный.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1. In which stage DNA is copied?

A) mitosis

B) meiosis

C) G1

D) S

E) G2

2. In which stage of mitosis chromosomes are lined up in the middle of the

cell?

A) prophase

B) metaphase

C) telopphase

D) anaphase

E) prometaphase

3. In which stage of meiosis homologous chromosomes pair?

A) prophase I

B) prophase II

C) anaphase I
D) metaphase II

E) metaphase I

4. Which cells are produced by meiosis?

A) brains cells

B) bone cells

C) gametes

D) blood cells

E) skin cells

Test questions with several (max 3) right answers

1. What are the stages of interphase?

A) prophase

B) prometaphase

C) G1

D) telophase

E) S

F) anaphase

G) cytokinesis

H) G2

2. What happens during prophase I of meiosis?

A) Nucleus envelope disappears

B) Pair of homologous chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell

C) Chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell

D) Spindle fibers appear

E) Crossing over

F) Cytoplasm is divided into two

G) Sister chromatids separate and move to the different poles of the cell

H) Nucleus is formed

3. What is the purpose of mitosis?

A) To produce gametes

B) Sexual reproduction

C) Growth of body

D) Digestion of food

E) Transport of materials in the body

F) Repairing body

G) Producing new cells

H) Movement of body

Matching
1.Match the stages of mitosis with actions.

1.Metaphase

2.Anaphase
 3.Telophase

A) nuclear envelope disappears

B) spindle fibers are produced

C) crossing over

D) chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell

E) two nuclei are formed

F) sister chromatids separate

2. Match these processes with their definitions.

1.Interphase

2.Cytokinesis

3.Cell cycle

A) The production of haploid cells

B) The periods of cell’s life between cell divisions

C) The division of the cytoplasm of the cell

D) The periods of cell’s life from one cell division to the next

E) Division of the cell into two new cells

F) Cell death
 CHAPTER 12.0
Laws of heredity and variation
12.1 The introduction to genetics
You will:
evoluate the importance of Mendelian researches in development of
genetics.

STQ
Why people mostly have the same characteristics as their parents?

Key terms
Variation - variety of traits in species;
Heredity - is the passing of traits from parents to offspring;
Trait - characteristic of an organism;
Gene - is a segment of DNA which codes a particular protein;
Allele - versions of gene for one trait;

Facts
Letter P symbolizes a parental generation, and their first offspring is
called F1. We use F2 for the second generation. When we make a cross
between organisms, we use symbol “x”.
Gene is a segment of DNA that codes a particular protein. Genes are
found on chromosomes in cells. It is the basic unit of heredity.

Text
The child may look like both of his/her parents because he/she inherited some
characteristic from them. And children are not copies of their parents or their
sibling due to variation. Heredity, or inheritance, is the passing of traits from
parents to their offspring. The trait is a characteristic of an organism including
height, eye color or type of hair. Traits can pass from parents to their children
by genes.

Branch of biology which studies heredity and variation is called genetics. The
“Father of genetics” is Austrian monk Gregor Mendel (1822-1884). By
breeding experiments with the pea plant, he made certain conclusions about
the mechanisms of heredity.

Mendel studied inheritance with seven traits of pea plant: seed shape, seed
color, coat color, flower position, stem length, pod shape, and color.

He crossed yellow-seeded pea plant with green-seeded one and got all
yellow-seeded plants. Then Mendel crossed these offspring with each other
and got 6022 of yellow-seeded peas and 2001 of green-seeded peas.

A dominant gene is a stronger gene symbolized by a capital letter (A, B, C). A

recessive gene is weaker gene and symbolized by a small letter (a, b, c).
There are two versions of genes, for one trait and they are called alleles. One
gene comes from the mother while other from the father.

An organism which has identical alleles of a gene for a trait is called

homozygous (AA, BB, aa, bb). An organism which has different alleles of a
gene is called heterozygous (Aa, Bb).

The phenotype is physical or visible characteristics of an organism.

Environment and genotype determine them. Genotype is a complete set of
genes in an organism. For example, heterozygous and homozygous pea plants
both have same seed color, but they have different alleles.
Activity
“Hot seat” game
Students are divided into two groups.

1. One student from each group sit on a chair in front of the class, facing
back to the board;
2. Teacher writes genetics term to the board (student cannot see it);
3. Teams read the term and explain it to their teammate, who is sitting on a
chair;
4. Sitting students try to say the term. The first one, who says it wins one
point to its team;
5. Students return to their teams, and next students continue the game.

Literacy
1. List the important characteristics of pea plant for genetic research.
2. Why are we not identical to our parents?

Research time
Look at the pictures below. These are Kazakh khans Zhanibek, his son
Kassym, and his grandson Khaqnazar. Compare their external characteristics.
Write a report using genetic terms.

Terminology
breeding - шағылыстыру / разведение;
cross - будандастыру /скрещивание;
dominant - басыңқы / доминантный;
inheritance - тұқым қуалаушылық / наследственность;
monk - сопы / монах;
offspring - ұрпақ / потомок;
pea - бұршақ / горох;
pod - қауыз / шелуха;
recessive - басылыңқы / рецессивный;
segment - аймақ / участок;
self-fertilized - өздігінен тозаңдану / самоопыляющийся;
sibling - туған бауыр / родной брат;
symbolized - бейнелеу / символизировать;
trait - белгі / признак;
variety -əртүрлілік / разнообразие.
12.2 Mendel’s laws
You will:
explain cytological bases of monohybrid cross and solve problems;
explain cytological bases of dyhybrid cross and solve problems.

STQ
Why people have some traits not from their parents, but from their
grandparents?

Key terms
Segregation - separation from each other;
Monohybrid cross - cross between two organisms in which only one trait
is being observed;
Dihybrid cross - cross between two organisms in which two different
traits are being observed.

Facts
The Punnett square used for determining next generation probability. It
was established by Reginald Punnett.
Mendel’s works ahead of his time. His discovery was not interesting for
scientists. Only 25 years later, scientists will understand the importance
of his discovery and call him “father of Genetics”, but he died before
this.

Text
Mendel by his works with pea plant discovered important principles of
inheritance. They are called Mendel’s principles of inheritance:

1. The principle of Dominance. When cross occurs between two different

parents (P) that are homozygous for definite trait, dominant form of the
trait will appear in the phenotype of next F1 generation (heterozygous).
2. The principle of Segregation. In F2 generation some offspring have the
trait, which was lost in F1 generation.
3. The principle of Independent Assortment. Alleles for different traits are
inherited independently from other trait alleles.

Monohybrid Cross

A monohybrid cross is a cross between two individuals in which only one

trait is being observed.
For example, let’s make a cross between homozygous dominant, yellow-
seeded pea plant and homozygous recessive, green-seeded pea plant; and let’s
try to find the F1 and F2 offspring.
Pay attention to the example, phenotypic ratio 3:1, genotypic ratio 1:2:1.
Dihybrid cross
A cross between two organisms in which two different traits are observed. In
a dihybrid cross, the phenotype ratio at F2 is 9:3:3:1.
For example, a cross between homozygous dominant yellow, round seeded
pea plants and homozygous recessive green, wrinkled seeded pea plant gives
these offspring:
9/16 - yellow, round seeded;
3/16 - yellow, wrinkled seeded;
3/16 - green, round seeded;
1/16 - green, wrinkled seeded.

Activity
Solve next problems by using Punnett square.

1. P: Aa x aa

F1: ??

2. In humans, brown eyes (B) are dominant over blue (b). A brown-eyed man
marries a blue-eyed woman, and they have three children, two of whom are
brown-eyed and one of whom is blue-eyed. What is the man’s genotype? What
are the genotypes of the children?
3. P: AAbb x aaBB

F1: ?

4. In pea plant purple flower (P) is dominant over white (p) and tall stems (T)
are dominant over dwarf (t). Pure breeding purple-flowered tall pea is
crossed with white-flowered dwarf pea plant. Find F1 and F2 phenotype
ratio.

Literacy
1. Why are alleles inherited independently?
2. Find gametes for an organism with this genotype: Aabb.
3. Cross these organisms: AaBbCc x AaBbCc, and find the genotype and
phenotype ratio in the next generation.

Facts
Maize cobs uncovered by archaeologists show the evolution of modern maize
over thousands of years of selective breeding.

Selective breeding generated the broad diversity of corn varieties that are
still grown around the world today.

Research time
Solve the problem.

The pea plant with wrinkled and yellow seeds is crossed with a pea plant
with round and green seeds. In F1 generation you have plants with yellow
round seeds and plants with yellow wrinkled seeds in ratio 1 : 1. What are the
genotypes of P and F1 generations?

Terminology
definite - анық, нақты / ясный, точный;
dwarf - ергежей / карликовый;
fur - жүн, түк / шерсть;
generation - ұрпақ / поколение;
independent - тəуелсіз / независимый;
inheritance - тұқым қуалау / наследственность;
probable - мүмкін / предполагаемый;
pure breeding - асыл тұқымды / чистое разведение;
ratio - ара-қатынас / соотношение;
round - тегіс / гладкий;
segregation - бөліну / разделение;
wrinkle - кедір-бұдыр / морщинистый.
12.3 Genes interaction
You will:
compare complete and incomplete dominance;
understand the importance of testcross.

STQ
Imagine you have yellow pea plants. How can you determine if it is
homozygous or heterozygous?

Key terms
Testcross - cross made to determine dominant trait genotype in organism
by using recessive gene;
Incomplete dominance - when both alleles for the trait have the same
level of effect, resulting in the intermediate trait.

Facts
Voice pitch is decided by incompletely dominant alleles. If one parent’s voice
is high and the other’s low, a child’s voice will somewhere in between.

Text
Testcross

To learn whether an individual with a dominant trait is homozygous or

heterozygous, it is crossed with a homozygous recessive individual. This is
called testcross. It is usually not possible to determine an organism’s genotype
by looking at its’ phenotype for some trait. For example, it is impossible to
know whether the genotype responsible for the yellow seeded pea plant is YY
or Yy just by observing its phenotype. The principle of segregation and
testcross are used to improve breeds of plants and animals.

Incomplete dominance

Incomplete dominance is when the dominant allele does not completely mask
a recessive allele. The heterozygous individuals display an intermediate trait.
The terms dominant and recessive cannot be used in incomplete dominance.
Activity
Solve problems by using Punnett square.
 1. Coat color in mice is incompletely dominant. Yellow and white-colored
mice are homozygous, while cream-colored mice are heterozygous. If
two cream-colored mice mate, what phenotypic ratio can we expect of
their offspring?
2. If the gene for tall (T) plants was incompletely dominant over the gene
for short (t) plants, what would be the result of crossing two Tt plants?
3. Hearing (D) in dogs is dominant. Deafness (d) in puppies is caused by a
recessive gene. Deaf puppies have the genotype dd. You do the testcross
with deaf dog and hearing dog, and you get 50% hearing and 50% deaf
puppies, what was the genotype of parent dogs?

Literacy
1. Can we do testcross for incomplete dominant cross? Explain your
answer.
2. Why are alleles in incomplete dominance not recessive or dominant?
3. Why can we not use dominant homozygous to determine the genotype of
an organism in a testcross?

Research time
Florists are people who grow and sell flowers. They can use genetics in their
work. How can incomplete dominance crosses be used in floristics? Write a
report about your research.

Terminology
camellia - шайшөп / камеллия;
cattle - ірі қара мал / крупный рогатый скот;
cold resistant - суыққа төзімді / холодостойкий;
deafness - кереңдік / глухота;
foal - құлын / жеребенок;
incomplete - толымсыз / неполный;
interaction - өзара əрекет / взаимодействие;
mate - шағылысу / спариватся;
reddish - қызғылт / красноватый;
snapdragon - есінекгүл / львиный зев;
testcross - талдаушы будандастыру / анализирующее скрещивание.
puppy - күшік / щенок.
12.4 Sex-linked inheritance
You will:
describe sex determination theory;
make a diagram describing the role of chromosomes in sex
determination.

Key terms
Autosomes - chromosomes that carry genes for the body traits;
Sex chromosomes - chromosomes that carry genes which have a role in
sex determination.

STQ
Why there are nearly 50% of men and 50% of women in the world?

Text
Most species have female and male individuals. Environmental factors and
genotype play a role in the sex determination.

Genotypic sex determination is controlled by the genetic structure of an

organism. The chromosomes that determine the sex are called sex
chromosomes (XX, XY chromosomes). All other chromosomes are called
autosomes.

Chromosomal systems of sex determination

XX-XY mechanism: in organisms with this mechanism, individuals with XX

chromosomes are females, XY chromosomes are males. Examples, human and
drosophila.
ZZ-ZW mechanism: this is observed in butterflies, reptiles, some fish, and
birds. In these animals, individuals carrying ZZ chromosomes are males,
individuals carrying ZW chromosomes are females.

XX-X0 mechanism: this mechanism is observed in insects, females carry XX,

while males carry X chromosome. For example, in grasshoppers, the male has
21 (20 autosomes + X) chromosomes, and the female has 22 (20 autosomes +
XX) chromosomes.

Haploid-Diploid mechanism: in some social insects like the honeybee and

wasp, sex determination is related to a number of sets of chromosomes,
haploid (n) or diploid (2n). While the honeybees with haploid chromosomes
(16) are male, the honeybees with diploid chromosomes (32) are worker bees
or queen bees.

Sex-linked inheritance in human

In humans, some genes are carried on X chromosome. They are called X-

linked genes. For example, hemophilia is a disease of defective blood
clotting, and color blindness is an inability to distinguish some colors. They
can appear just in individuals with recessive alleles. Males are affected more
often than females because they need just one copy of recessive allele to be
caused.
Activity
Solve problems using Punnett square.

1. In the family where mother and father are not hemophilic was born a boy
who is hemophilic. Explain how it can be possible?
2. A colorblind man marries a normal woman. They have two daughters,
one of them is color blind. They are waiting for a son. What is the
probability that their son will have color blindness?
3. A phenotypically normal woman whose father was hemophiliac and
color blind married to a man who has normal color vision, but
hemophiliac. What is the probability of that they will not have color
blind and hemophiliac son and daughter?

Research time
Write a report about how can environmental factors affect the sex of the
individuals by using the diagram below.

Facts
British Queen Victoria (1819-1901) was hemophiliac carrier. Her
granddaughter Alexandra was hemophiliac carrier. She married Nikolay II,
the last emperor of Russia. They had four daughters and one son. Their son
Alexey was hemophilic.

Literacy
1. What does it mean for a person to be a carrier for a disorder?
2. Who would be affected, if the trait is passed by Y-linked gene?
3. Why some diseases which are seen in fathers can be seen in daughters
but can’t be seen in sons?

Terminology
carrier - тасымалдаушы / носитель;
color blindness - дальтонизм;
determination - анықтау / определение
grasshopper - шегіртке / кузнечик;
hemophilia - гемофилия;
honeybee - бал арасы / пчела;
linkage - тіркесу / сцепление;
to hatch - жарып шығу / вылупляться;
wasp - apa / оса.
12.5 Blood groups and rhesus factor
You will:
explain the mechanism of determination human blood group heredity.

Key terms
Multiple alleles - there are more than two alleles found for single trait;
Blood type - classification of blood according to presence or absence of
antigens and antibodies;
Rhesus factor - another important blood grouping system used for
determination of blood;
Codominance - heterozygous organisms have two different alleles, and
they are both dominant.

STQ
Why there are nearly 50% of men and 50% of women in the world?

Text
Blood types

In Mendel’s works with peas, there were two types of alleles for each trait.
But in nature, there are many traits that determined by more than two alleles.
These alleles are called as multiple alleles. For example, human blood types
are determined by three alleles: IA, IB, and i.

A and B letters used for antigens which are found on the surface of the
erythrocytes. They make four types of human blood. If human blood cells have
antigen A, blood type will be A; if B - type B; if both of them - type AB; if
none of them - type O. IA and IB are codominant to each other while i is
recessive for both IA and IB. That is why A and B blood types can be
heterozygous.
Rhesus factor

There is another important blood group system known as Rhesus factor. The
gene that determines Rh factor in humans is represented with symbol Rh. That
is, if there is Rh antigen in a person’s blood, he/she is Rh+ (positive). If it is
absent, he/she is Rh– (negative). About 85% of humans carry the Rh antigen
(dominant), while 15 % of humans do not (recessive). If a human has positive
Rh, he/she can be homozygous or heterozygous dominant. If a human has
negative Rh, he/she is homozygous recessive.

Each parent can transmit one allele for their child. You can see possible
genotype of the child in the table below.

Activity
Solve problems using Punnett square.
 1. The mother have heterozygous A blood group and father homozygous B.
What type of blood type their children may have?
2. A married couple has four children with four different blood types. Find
possible genotype of parents and children.
3. A man with A blood type married to a woman with AB blood type. They
have a daughter with blood type B. What blood type can have their son?
4. Moldir has O Rh– blood group. Both of her parents have B Rh+ blood
group. How is it possible?

Research time
If a mother has Rh– and a child Rh+, it will result in rhesus incompatibility.
First pregnancy passes normally, but during the second pregnancy
erythroblastosis fetalis occurs. Research about erythroblastosis fetalis. Why
does it happen during second pregnancy and why there is no erythroblastosis
fetalis during first?

Facts
World blood type statistics

O+ - 38.62%

A+ - 27.40%

B+ - 22.07%

AB+ - 5.91%

O- - 2.55%

A- - 1.99%

B- - 1.11%

AB- - 0.36%
Literacy
1. Why is it important to know your blood type?
2. What is the difference between incomplete dominance and codominance?

Terminology
absent - жоқ / отсутствие;
antibody - антидене / антитело;
blood transfusion - қан құю / переливание крови;
blood type - қан тобы / группа крови;
destroy - бұзу / разрушать;
erythroblastosis fetalis - ұрық эритробластозы / эритробластоз
плода;
multiple alleles - көп аллелділік / множественный аллелизм;
rhesus incompatibility - резустың сəйкессіздігі / несовместимость
резуса;
to represent - ұсыну / представлять.
12.6 Human genetics
You will:
explain the basic methods of studying human genetics and make pedigree
analysis;
construct a family tree.

Key terms
Karyotype - is the number, size and shape of chromosomes in an
organism;
Pedigree - a person’s family history which is used to determine genetic
trait and familiar diseases across several generations;
Autosomes - chromosomes that carry genes for the body traits;
Sex chromosomes - chromosomes that carry genes which have a role in
sex determination.

STQ
How knowledge about way of passing disease in family can help in
medicine?

Text
There are 46 chromosomes in human. 44 of them are autosomes and 2 sex
chromosomes. In sex cells there are 23 chromosomes: 22 are autosomes and 1
is a sex chromosome. In unusual conditions, the number of the autosomes and
sex chromosomes can be increased or decreased. These changes can affect
human health and phenotype. Studying the number of human chromosomes in a
cell is called cytogenetics method.
The total number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of the cells
known as karyotype. Some human chromosomes are very similar to each other
and it is difficult to distinguish them. That is why scientists classify them into
seven classes according their size and centrosome position.

Pedigree analysis

A pedigree is used to determine whether an individual is heterozygous or

homozygous for a certain trait, and to calculate the possibility of exhibiting
this trait in the phenotype.

Genes can be located on autosomes or in the sex chromosome and pedigree

based on them.
Autosomal inheritance

Related genes are located on autosomes as dominant or recessive. In figure

below you can see how a disease is passed on to the offspring through a
recessive gene.
Sex-linked inheritance

In this type of inherited diseases are located on sex chromosomes. They can
be dominant or recessive.
Activity
This pedigree shows how color blindness run through three generations of one
family. Answer to the next questions

1. Are females at the first generation carrier or not? Explain why.

2. How it can be possible to have a color blinded child while both of the
parents from second generation are normal for the trait?
3. What are the genotypes of twins?
4. Imagine that twins aunt from the father’s side married with not
hemophilic uncle from the mother’s side. What is it possible to have not
hemophilic son from this marriage?

Research time
In kazakh culture, we have “shejire” which is pedigree that shows seven
generations. Kazakh people do not marry if they have similarities in “jetyata”.
Make a research and list several reasons why these individuals cannot marry
according to our traditions?

Facts
One example of autosomal recessive disease is phenylketonuria. In this
disease enzyme converts phenylalanine to phenylpyruvic acid instead of
tyrosine.

The percent of people with this disease varies in different parts of the world:

In USA 1 effected in 15000 people has it;

In Turkey 1 in 2600;
In China 1 in 17000;
In Kazakhstan and Japan 1 in 100000.

Literacy
1. Can you determine the sex of human by observing his/her karyotype.
How?
2. Why is it helpful to know the pedigree of your future wife/husband?
3. Why fraternal twins may have different sexes, while identical twins
can’t?

Terminology
appearance - сыртқы келбет / внешность;
condition - жағдай / состояние;
distribution - тарату / распределение;
exhibiting - жарыққа шығушы / проявляющий;
fraternal twins - қос жұмыртқалы егіздер / двойняшки;
gender - жыныс / пол;
rapid - жылдам / быстрый;
to detect - табу / обнаружить;
to distinguish - айыру / различать.
12.7 Modern genetic technologies in
agriculture
You will:
explore the use of modern agricultural technology to increase crop
yields on the basis of the local region.

Key terms
Selecting breeding - purposefully selection of best characteristics;
Genetic engineering - constructing new DNA from DNA of different
species;
Polyploidy - organism which contain more than two sets of
chromosomes.

STQ
How genes can help us to solve problems with global food crisis?

Text
As the size of population grows the necessity of food grows too. One of the
goals of modern scientists is to make everyone well fed. Scientists use
several ways to improve crops such as selective breeding, polyploidy,
mutagenesis and genetic engineering

Selective breeding

Over thousands of years, the farmers picked out the best plants and breed
them to produce the offspring for the next year. This lead to great changes in
the varieties of crop plants, compared with their wild ancestors. This
purposefully selection of plants is called selective breeding.

Polyploidy

By the artificial increasing of total number of chromosomes scientists can get

polyploid plants. Polyploids are formed by the fusion of a diploid gamete
which did not undergo meiosis with a similar diploid gamete or with a
normal (n) gamete. Another cause of polyploidy is when all the chromosomes
stay in one cell during mitotic division of the zygote because cytokinesis
does not take place. Both processes can be caused either by external factors
or experimentally. Recently a chemical substance called colchicine has been
used for this purpose. This chemical inhibits the activity of spindle fibers and
delays the splitting of centromeres.

Mutagenesis

Mutagenesis is commonly used to produce traits in crops such as larger

seeds, new colors, or sweeter fruits, that either cannot be found in nature.
Mutant plants are obtained by changing their number or structure of
chromosomes.

Genetic engineering

In some cases, genetic engineering is applied to change or add genes into a

plant species in order to change its characteristics. Genetic engineering is
used to improve the desired features. The increase of yield, resistance to
diseases and pests are desired characteristics of crop plants. There are many
genetically modified crops, including soybean, maize, cotton and etc.

Activity
Class is divided into 6 groups. Teacher gives one plant or an organ of plant
to each group: pumpkin, orange, sunflower seeds, banana, wheat,
chrysanthemum. Groups observe the plant and answer to these questions:
 1. Is this plant was modified by human?
2. What characteristics people improved in this plant?
3. What characteristics you would improve in this plant?

Research time
Do a research and write a report about advantages and disadvantages of
genetically modified crops.

Facts
Usually watermelon is diploid (2n). Seedless watermelon is a triploid (3n).
To produce seedless watermelon, a diploid watermelon is pollinated by a
tetraploid (4n) watermelon. As a result, the new watermelon gets one
chromosome from the diploid parent and two from the tetraploid parent.

Literacy
1. Why polyploid plants have bigger fruits?
2. Which agricultural method takes more time to reach desired results?
Explain your answer.
3. Are all plants obtained by mutagenesis have desired characteristics?

Terminology
ancestor - ата-ана, баба / предок;
delay - тоқтау / задержка;
desired - күткен / желанный;
fed - тамақтандыру / кормить;
fusion - бірігу / слияние;
necessity - қажеттілік / необходимость;
pollinated - тозанданушы / опыляемый;
pumpkin - асқабақ / тыква;
purposefully - мақсатты бағытталған / целенаправленный;
resistance - тұрақтылық / устойчивость;
starvation - аштық / голод;
to inhibit - басу, тежеу / подавлять;
to pick out - таңдау / выбирать.
Problems
Test questions with one right answer
1.Branch of biology which studies heredity and variation is called:

A) entomology

B) cytology

C) genetics

D) genealogy

E) histology

2. What is the segment of DNA that encodes proteins?

A) trait

B) gene

C) variation

D) allele

E) soma

3. The “Father of genetics” is:

A) Darwin

B) Linneus

C) Virchow
D) Mendel

E) Mechnikov

4. Which genes are recessive?

A) aB

B) Ba

C) ab

D) AA

E) BB

Test questions with several (max 3) correct answers

1.Choose a heterozygous gene?

A) AA

B) aa

C) Aa

D) BB

E) Cc

F) ab

G) CC

H) bb

2. What can be example for phenotype?

A) AA x Bb
B) red hair

C) suntan

D) eye color

E) scar

F) scorch

G) AB

H) dimple

3. White (b) fur is recessive to black fur (B). Two heterozygous mice are
mated. Identify genotype of first generation.

A) BB

B) b

C) Bb

D) B

E) BBB

F) bb

G) Bc

H) BbB

Matching
1. Match the following terms with their definitions

1. color blindness
 2. codominance

3. karyotype

A) the number, size and shape of chromosomes in an organism;

B) the number of organisms;

C) an inability to distinguish some colors;

D) an inability to distinguish taste and smell;

E)an organisms that have two different recessive alleles;

F) heterozygous organisms have two different dominant alleles.

2. Match the following terms with the correct symbols.

1. recessive

2. heterozygous

3. rhesus factor

A) aa

B) AB+

C) O+

D) Rh (+;-)

E) Aa

F) O-
 CHAPTER 13.0
Microbiology and biotechnology
13.1 Biotechnology
You will:
describe the general scheme of the biotechnological process in the
example of insulin production;
give examples of products obtained in biotechnology.

STQ
How tiny bacteria can produce human hormone insulin?

Key terms
Biotechnology - using of biological processes or organisms to produce
different products;
GMO - genetically modified organisms;
Plasmid - ring-shaped DNA molecule of bacteria.

Research time
Make a yoghurt at home.

Research how to make yoghurt.

Use 1 L of milk and make yogurt at home.
Bring your yoghurt to lesson and compare with your friends.

Text
People are using biotechnology methods from ancient times. They produce
bread, cheese, vinegar, different paints, perfumes and other products by this
method.
Modern biotechnology aim is to transfer certain genes from one organism to
another to modify an organism. This method is known as genetic engineering.
Its first product is insulin, which produced in 1980. At that time, insulin had
obtained from slaughtered animals. This method was expensive, and animal
insulin caused allergies in some people.

Genetically engineered insulin has the same chemical structure as human

insulin and is cheap to obtain. Insulin produced by the following steps:

1. The gene for insulin is isolated from human DNA by enzymes;

2. Bacterial plasmid is isolated from bacteria;
3. Plasmids are cut with special enzymes;
4. Human insulin gene is inserted into prepared plasmid;
5. New plasmid is inserted into bacteria cell;
6. Bacteria with human insulin gene is reproduced and starts to produce
insulin.

By the same method some hormones (calcitonin, somatotropin), enzymes and

antibodies can be produced. They can be used in medicine and industry.

Genetic engineering is widely used in agriculture too. Genes from one

organism can be transferred to another organism with certain purpose. This
organism called as a genetically modified organism. This is done to:

develop resistance to diseases, pests, and stress in plants;

keep fruits and vegetables fresh for longer periods;
produce plants with increased in size and number of fruits and seeds;
develop fast-growing chicken;
develop cows with more milk etc.
Activity
Why we use yeasts in bread production?
Materials: 4 cups of flour, 1,5 cup of warm water, 2 tablespoons of sugar,
yeasts, and 2 bowls for dough.

1. Divide warm water into two equal amounts.

2. Add yeasts and one teaspoon of sugar into first bowl, mix thoroughly. Put
2 cups of flour into bowl, add prepared mixture and mix it until it will
become a dough.
3. Put flour into the second bowl, add one teaspoon of sugar and water, mix
to make a dough.
4. You will have 2 doughs, one with yeasts, second without. Close bowls
with lid, put both of them to warm place and wait about 20 minutes.

Observe prepared doughs, and answer questions:

1. What kind of differences can you see between doughs?

2. Why was sugar added into the second dough?

Facts
Golden rice is GMO. It has genes from daffodil plant, which help produce and
store beta-carotene. Beta-carotene is used to produce vitamin A in the human
body. This rice grown in places with vitamin A deficiency. About 124 million
children suffer from vitamin A deficiency.

Literacy
1. Assume you are a scientist and want to develop a new plant with new
traits. Which organisms genes would you mix? Explain why.
2. What is the difference between the production of yogurt and production
of insulin?

Terminology
ancient - ежелгі / древний;
bowl - табақ / чашка;
daffodil plant - нəркес / нарцисс;
doughs - қамыр / тесто;
glowing - жарқыраған / светящиеся;
slaughtered - сойылған / зарезанный;
to insert - қою, салу / вставить;
yeast - ашытқы / дрожжи.
Problems
Test questions with one correct answer
1. Application of biological processes take place in

A) cell biology

B) population genetics

C) cytology

D) botany

E) biotechnology

2. Ring-shaped DNA of bacteria is called

A) chromosome

B) plasmid

C) mesosome

D) nucleoid

E) ribosome

3. Which one of the following biotechnology methods is used to make new

DNA molecule from different species?

A) genetic engineering

B) staining chromosomes

C) microclonal propagation
D) cell engineering

E) tissue culture

4. Which one of the followings is the first genetically engineered product?

A) calcitonin

B) antibody

C) insulin

D) growth hormone

E) lycopene

Test questions with several (max 3) correct answers

1. NOT the products of traditional biotechnology

A) alcohol

B) bread

C) vinegar

D) growth hormone

E) cheese

F) kumys (fermented horse milk)

G) curds

H) insulin

2. NOT the purposes of creating genetically modified organisms

A) resistant plants to pests

B) breeds of weak domestic animals

C) to cause a disease

D) high amount of vitamins

E) resistant plants to drought

F) keep plants for longer periods

G) milk yield of a cow

H) fast-growing animal

3. Which of the followings are NOT steps of producing insulin from

bacteria?

A) introduction of DNA into plant cell

B) isolation of plasmid

C) production of insulin by bacteria

D) injection of insulin into human body

E) cut of plasmid with enzymes

F) isolation of insulin gene

G) bacteria with growth hormone gene grow

H) insertion of insulin gene into plasmid

Matching
1. Match the following terms and their definitions

1. GMO
 2. Biotechnology

3. Plasmid

A) DNA of bacteria which used in genetic engineering

B) uses chemicals to produce new synthetic polymers

C) genetically engineered product

D) uses living things and their processes

E) method of producing new vaccine

F) organisms with changed DNA

2. How people use these organisms?

1. Yeast

2. Bacteria

3. Grape

A) to produce insulin

B) to cure diseases

C) to get meat

D) to produce dough

E) to produce wine

F) to produce milk
CHAPTER 14.0
Reproduction
14.1 Human reproductive system
You will:
describe the structure of human reproductive system.

Key terms
Testes - organs that produce male gametes and male sex hormones;
Ovary - organ that produces female gametes and female sex hormones.

STQ
What are key differences between male and female?

Text
The human reproductive system includes organs by which humans reproduce
and bear live offspring. Both male and female reproductive systems produce
reproductive cells and secrete some hormones.

Male reproductive system

Functions of the male reproductive system:

Production of male gametes, or sperm;

Production of male sex hormones;
Production of secretions needed for sperm transfer;
Transportation of sperm together with its nutrient fluids into the female
reproductive tract.

The male reproductive system is composed of a pair of testes, epididymis and

vas deferens (sperm duct) merging into a single urethra, which runs through a
penis. Accessory organs like the seminal vesicle, Cowper’s gland, and the
prostate gland produce secretions that assist the movement of sperm.

Testes (testis singular). Each testis is an egg-shaped organ encapsulated

within a pouch of skin known as the scrotum. Testes produce sperm
cells. Sperm cells are stored temporarily and mature in the epididymis.
The penis is a male copulation organ. It is rich in blood vessels and has
an erectile function. During erection, the penis becomes big and suitable
to transfer seminal fluid to the female reproductive tract.

Female reproductive system

Female reproductive system functions:

Production of female gametes.

Production of female sex hormones.
Provision of a favorable environment for growth and development of the
fetus.
 Expulsion of the fully developed fetus.

The female reproductive system is composed of a pair of ovaries, oviducts

(Fallopian tube), a single uterus, cervix, and vagina.

Ovaries are paired organs located in the lower abdomen and contain
many eggs or ova. All are present from the birth of the female. The ovary
also releases female sex hormones.
Oviducts (Fallopian tube) are paired, tube-like in shape and are both
fused at one end to the top of the uterus. If sperm is present, the Fallopian
tubes are also the site of fertilization.
Uterus is a pear-shaped, thick-walled, muscular structure, designed to
nurse and protect any new life growing within it. Normally the uterus
wall is thin, but it thickens to support the zygote and make implantation
possible. The lower part of the uterus is known as the cervix.
Vagina is an expandable elastic tube forming the connection between all
the internal structures of the reproductive system and the external
environment.
Activity
A class is divided into groups of 3-4. Teacher gives cards with a picture of
male or female reproductive systems to each group.

1. All groups label the organs on their picture.

2. Groups exchange their cards with groups of different reproductive
system organs.
3. Groups write the definition of organs and check the names of organs.
4. Groups exchange their cards back and check definition
5. Groups evaluate each other.

Facts
Prostatitis is inflammation of the prostate gland. It caused by freezing, alcohol
consumption and poor hygiene 5-10% of men have this disease.

Research time
There is a Kazakh tradition called circumcision. It is the removal of foreskin
from the boy penis. Do research about advantages of circumcision and write a
report.

Literacy
1. Why are secretions of seminal vesicle, Cowper’s gland, and the prostate
gland important?
2. Why do the walls of uterus thicken after fertilization?

Terminology
cervix - жатыр мойыны / шейка матки;
Cowper’s gland - баданалық без / бульбоуретральная железа;
circumcision - сүндетке отырғызу / обрезание;
epididymis - ұрықтық көпіршік / придаток яичка;
expulsion - итеріп шығару / выталкивание;
implantation - бекіну / имплантация;
ova (ovum) - жұмыртқа жасушалары (жұмыртқа жасушасы) /
яйцеклетки (яйцеклетка);
ovaries - аналық жыныс безі / яичники;
oviduct (Fallopian tube) - жұмыртқа жолы (фалопий түтігі) /
яйцевод (фаллопиева труба);
prostate gland - қуықалды без / предстательная железа;
scrotum - ұма / мошонка;
seminal fluid - шəует сұйықтығы / семенная жидкость;
seminal vesicle - көпіршікше без /семенной пузырек
testes - аталық жыныс безі / яички;
to bear - əкелу / нести;
uterus - жатыр / матка;
vas deferens - шəует шығаршыу түтік / семявыносящий проток;
14.2 Structure of male and female
gametes
You will:
study the structure of male and female reproductive cells.

Key terms
Gametogenesis - process by which gametes are produced;
Sperm cell - male reproductive cell;
Egg cell - female reproductive cell.

STQ
Why egg cell 10000 times bigger than sperm cell?

Text
Gametes are formed by process known as gametogenesis. Formation of sperm
cells is known as spermatogenesis. Formation of egg cells is known as
oogenesis. Each sperm and egg cell has got haploid number of chromosomes
or 23 chromosomes.

Spermatogenesis occurs in testes. Sperm cells are formed by meiotic cell

division from cells known as spermatocytes. From single spermatocyte four
spermatids are formed. Then, spermatids develop, mature and become a
sperm cell.

Millions of sperm are continuously produced throughout each day. Those that
are not used are degraded and recycled.
Oogenesis occurs in ovaries. Oogenesis is prolonged process, immature egg
cells (oocytes) are formed during embryonic development of human female.
At birth, each ovary contains approximately a million egg cells.

From the start of the menstruation, egg cells start to develop. Oocyte divides
by meiosis and forms only one egg cell. During meiotic divisions cytoplasm
divides unequally and egg cell has more cytoplasm, while other cells (polar
cells) have less cytoplasm.

Lab work
Pre-lab questions:
 1. Why egg cell needs more cytoplasm than other cells?
2. On the neck of sperm cells there are big amounts of mitochondria. What
is their importance for sperm cell?

Materials:

1. Light microscope
2. Fixed slides: sperm cell, egg cell

Procedures:

1. Observe sperm cell under different magnifications.

2. Observe egg cell in different magnifications.

Results:

1. Draw sperm cell. Label sperm cell parts: head, nucleus, acrosome, neck,
tail.
2. Draw egg cell. Label egg cell parts: follicular cells, cytoplasm, nucleus.
3. Compare structures and features of sperm and egg cells. Fill following
table.
Post-lab questions:

1. How the structure of egg cell is related to its function?

2. How the structure of sperm cell is related to its function?

Facts
About 350 million sperm cells are expelled during ejaculation.
Human egg cell is the largest cell in human body. Its size is about 0.1
mm. It is even visible by the naked eye.
Full development and maturation of single sperm cell takes about 7
weeks.

Research time
In a sperm cell there is a special organelle called acrosome. Find out its
functions.

Terminology
acrosome - акросома;
ejaculation - эякуляция;
formation - жасалу / образование;
mature - пісіп жетілген / зрелый;
neck - мойын / шея;
related - байланысты / связанный;
to recycle - өңдеу / перерабатывать.
14.3 Secondary sex characteristics
You will:
describe the development of secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty.

Key terms
Puberty - the stages of physical maturation;
Secondary sex characteristics - sex characteristics that appeared during
puberty.

STQ
Why our tone of voice changes?

Text
Puberty is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. It is the time
of dramatic changes in the human body. In just a few years human changes
physically and emotionally. Puberty is characterized by the maturity of the
sexual organs and the development of secondary sex characteristics. So after
puberty period men and women will get their characteristic features.

Both males and females experience notable increases in body height and
weight during this period. Puberty usually lasts from two to five years and
may be accompanied by emotional ups and downs.

Puberty period is started and controlled by hormones. Hypothalamus triggers

the start of puberty period by releasing special hormones. These hormones
act on other glands, especially reproductive glands.
Male reproductive glands produce testosterone hormone; female
reproductive glands produce estrogen hormone. These hormones bring to
different changes in males and females body structure and behavior.

Secondary sex characteristics in females

Puberty period begins between the ages of 8 and 14. Secondary sex
characteristics of the female organism:

Development and enlargement of breasts.

Widening of the hip.
The growth of body hair, especially underarms and pubic hair.
Fat accumulation around hips and thighs.

Secondary sex characteristics in males

Puberty period begins between the ages of 12 and 15. Secondary sex
characteristics of the male organism:

Enlargement of the larynx (Adam’s apple) and deepening of the voice.

The growth of body hair, especially underarms, chest, abdominal and
pubic hair.
The growth of the facial hair.
Increased stature.
Increased muscle mass and strength.

Lab work
During puberty, children face particular difficulties. Imagine you are a
psychologist, and you are consulting parents. Their children are at puberty
stage and have following problems:

1. Became interested in smoking;

2. Seems that nobody understands his/her;
3. Became lazy;
4. Disobey elders;
 5. Became depressed.

Make suggestions to their parents how to overcome these problems easily.

Divide into groups and make a poster about it. After this, present it to other
groups.

Facts
Although teenagers’ bodies may be sexually mature after puberty
period, emotional maturity takes longer time to develop. Main
responsibilities are given after the age of 16 or 18, some even after the
age of 21. For example, in Kazakhstan ID is given at the age of 16, in
Russia - at the age of 14, in Japan - 21.
It is widely suspected that the anaerobic bacterial species
Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) contributes to the development of
acne, but its exact role is not well understood.

Research time
Find out the differences between acne and pimples.

Terminology
adulthood - кəмелеттік жас / совершеннолетие;
behavior - мінез-құлық / поведение;
childhood - балалық жас / детство;
overcome - өту, жеңу / преодолеть;
puberty - жыныстық жетілу / половая зрелость;
stature - бой / рост;
transition - ауысу / переход.
14.4 Types of contraception
You will:
explain the meaning and types of contraception.

Key terms
Intercourse – physical sexual contact between individuals;
Progestin – a natural or synthetic steroid hormone.

STQ
Why is child planning important?

Text
Contraception is use of artificial methods or other techniques to prevent
pregnancy as a consequence of sexual intercourse. The purpose of
contraception is family planning and health preservation. Any ways of
contraception reduces amounts of abortions and sexually transmitted
infections (STI). Prevention helps to plan the appearance of a child depending
on the family’s living conditions and many other factors.

Classification of contraception methods

Hormonal contraception

Hormonal contraceptives consist of progestins or their combination with

estrogens. Examples of hormonal contraceptives are contraceptive pills and
injectable contraceptives. Disadvantage of the method is that ability to
become pregnant is restored from 6 months to 2 years after the last injection.
Barrier method of contraception

Barrier method is block up sperm cells, creating a mechanical barrier on their

way. Therefore, they are widely distributed. Example of mechanical
contraceptive is condom. Condoms offer good protection against sexually
transmitted infections and unplanned pregnancy. Disadvantage of condoms is
they don’t protect you from all STIs, like herpes and syphilis which can be
spread from skin to skin contact.

Natural method of contraception

Natural methods of contraception are considered natural, because they are not
mechanical and not a result of hormone manipulation. Instead, these natural
methods require individuals do not have sexual intercourse. Natural methods
of contraception is the safest of all.

Activity
Facts
 The effectiveness of contraceptives is estimated by the Pearl index. It
shows the effectiveness of a birth control method.
Ability to become pregnant after pills is restored within 1-3 months after
the cancellation.

Research time
Find pearl index for different types of contraceptives.

Literacy
1. What is the function of progestin?
2. Which method of contraception is the safest?

Terminology
abortion – түсік / аборт;
artificial – жасанды / искусственный;
block up – бұғаттау / блокировать;
condom – мүшеқап / презерватив;
contraception – контрацепция;
deliberate – əдейі / преднамеренный;
pill – дəрі / таблетка;
pregnancy – жүктілік / беременность;
sexual intercourse – жыныстық қатынас / половой акт;
spread – тарату / распространение;
to consider – қарастыру / рассматривать;
to distribute – тарату / распространять;
to estimate – бағалау / оценить;
to inject – енгізу / вводить.
14.5 Sexually Transmitted Diseases
You will:
explain the consequences of sexually transmitted diseases and the
measures for their prevention.

Key terms
Sexually transmitted disease – an infection that can be transferred from
one person to another through sexual contact;
HIV - human immunodeficiency virus;
AIDS - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.

STQ
Is it safe to socialize with a person who has AIDS?

Text
It is known that with sexual contacts, various bacteria and viruses are
transmitted. Four of these pathogens are associated with the highest incidence.
Two of these four infections are currently curable - syphilis and gonorrhea.
The other two infections are viral and are not treated - they are hepatitis and
HIV. Symptoms or effects of untreatable viral infections can be reduced or
altered by therapy.

Hepatitis

Viral hepatitis includes hepatitis A, B, and C – all of these can be caught by

having sexual intercourse with an infected person. Hepatitis can cause
inflammation to the liver, and it is potentially life threatening.
Gonorrhea

Gonorrhea is an infectious disease transmitted by the sexual intercourse and

characterized by damage to the mucous membranes of the urogenital organs.

Syphilis

Syphilis is a chronic infectious disease transmitted by sexually intercourse.

Syphilis should be necessarily treated, because the further development of the
disease leads to irreversible changes in the heart, brain, paralysis, blindness,
possible fatal outcome.

AIDS

AIDS is a disease of the human immune system of the body. The virus that
causes AIDS is HIV, which affects human lymphocytes. The death of
lymphocytes is accompanied by a strong weakening of the immune system, and
human becomes highly vulnerable to infections and often die.
After a person has been infected, years may pass before symptoms develop.
So people may carry the virus. They can still infect other people, however.
Ways of infecting HIV:

1. Unprotected sexual intercourse;

2. Use of non-sterile syringes and tools for tattoos, piercing, and shaving;
3. Transfusion of contaminated blood;
4. Transmission of a virus from an HIV-positive mother to a child - during
pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding.

Preventive measures consist in leading healthy lifestyles, compliance with

the norms of morality and ethics and in prevention of early sexual intercourse.

Activity
1. Complete the true/false quiz below on prevention the spread of HIV. You
can protect yourself by
a. using gloves when helping a friend who is bleeding. ____
b. not sharing drinking cups. ____
c. not sitting next to a person who has HIV. ____
d. not sharing needles or razor blades. ____
e. shaking hands with someone who has HIV. ____
f. not having sexual intercorse. ____
2. Work in pairs. Make dialogue about Questions/Statements below.
a. How do I know if I might be infected with HIV?
b. I’m too young to get AIDS.
c. I don’t think I should hang around her too much because I heard she is HIV-
positive.
d. I heard there is a cure for HIV.
e. I don’t think he has AIDS. He looks too healthy.
f. I feel nervous using the toilet after she has because I’m afraid I’ll get HIV.

Facts
Symptoms of AIDS were first recorded in 1978. And in 1983, scientists
discovered the HIV. Now it is known that this virus comes from West
Africa. Medicines for HIV treatment have not been developed yet.

Research time
Below you see the statistics of people having HIV in Kazakhstan. Why did the
number of people having AIDS increased so much? Write an essay about this
topic.
Literacy
1. Which lifestyle does increase probability of infection?
2. Why people who abuse drugs risk their health?

Terminology
incidence - қамту / охват;
associated - байланысты / связанный;
curable - емделетін / излечимый;
syphilis - мерез / сифилис;
gonorrhea - соз ауруы / гонорея
HIV - АИТВ / ВИЧ;
AIDS - ЖИТС / СПИД;
altered - ауыстыру / изменять;
inflammation - қабыну / воспаление;
threatening - қауіп төндіретін / угрожающий;
mucous membrane - шырышты қабат / слизистая оболочка;
accompanied - бірге жөнелтілетін / сопровождаемый;
syringe - ине / шприц;
vulnerable - осал / уязвимый.
Problems
Test questions with one correct answer
1. Where sperm cells are produced?

A) fallopian tube

B) prostate gland

C) testes

D) epididymis

E) ovaries

2. During oogenesis oocyte divides by meiosis and produce ____ egg cell(s).

A) 1

B) 2

C) 3

D) 4

E) 5

3. Which one of these is not a female secondary sex characteristic?

A) development and enlargement of breasts

B) fat accumulation around hips and thighs.

C) the growth of body hair, especially underarms and pubic hair

D) enlargement of the larynx

E) widening of the hip

4. Which one of these disease cannot be transferred from one human to

another through the sexual contact?

A) hepatitis

B) hemophilia

C) gonorrhea

D) syphilis

E) AIDS

Test questions with several (max 3) correct answers

1. What are the parts of male reproductive system?

A) seminal vesicle

B) cervix

C) oviduct

D) ovaries

E) uterus

F) vagina

G) vas deferens

H) prostate gland

2. How a human can get AIDS?

A) through poisonous food

B) through air

C) through shaking hands with someone who has HIV

D) through intercourse

E) through the transfusion of contaminated blood

F) through speaking with someone who has HIV

G) through the using of non-sterile syringes

H) babies can get it from their mothers

3. What are the functions of female reproductive system?

A) to produce egg cells

B) to produce milk

C) to produce sex hormones

D) to store food

E) to produce blood cells

F) to protect embryo

G) to produce sperm cells

H) to produce energy

Matching
1. Find correct function to these organs of female reproductive system.

1. ovaries
 2. uterus

3. fallopian tube

A) the place of fertilization

B) it connect female reproductive system with external environment

C) it produces sex hormones

D) embryo develops there

E) it produces sperm cells

F) it produces milk

2. Match these terms with their definitions.

1. puberty

2. contraception

3. HIV

A) sexual contact between individuals

B) the production of male sex cells

C) disease that is transferred from one person to another through sexual

contacts

D) virus that causes human disease

E) methods or other techniques to prevent pregnancy

F) physical maturation
 CHAPTER 15.0
Growth and Development
15.1 Prenatal development
You will:
explain the role of the placenta in fetal development;
compare the development of the embryo and fetus.

Key terms
Placenta - connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow
nutrient uptake, via the mother’s blood supply during pregnancy;
Embryo - an unborn baby less than eight weeks;
Prenatal development - development of human in the uterus
Fetus - the unborn embryo from its eighth week of development till its
birth.

STQ
How does embryo take nutrients for development?

Text
After fertilization, zygote undergoes several mitotic divisions and goes to the
uterus. The thin-walled hollow stage of embryo is called blastocyst. The
blastocyst has inner cell mass that develops into the embryo. The outer layer
of the blastocyst is called trophoblast. It facilitates the implantation to the
wall of the uterus. Once it is implanted, it starts to form four extraembryonic
membranes: amnion, chorion, allantois and yolk sac.
The amnion is a thin layer that forms a sac around the embryo. Inside this sac,
there is an amniotic fluid. The fluid helps support the embryo and protects it.
Outside of the amnion is the chorion. Chorion together with the allantois
contributes to the formation of the placenta. A placenta is the vital organ that
provides the exchange of nutrients, gases, and wastes between the developing
embryo and the mother. The yolk sac in human does not contain any yolk but
serves as the first site of red blood formation for the embryo.

First 8 weeks from fertilization are called embryonic period. During this
stage, cells begin to develop into different types, specialized for different
functions. Embryo becomes more complex forming major organs like brain,
heart, lungs, internal organs, arms and legs. By 9 weeks, all the organs are in
place, the embryo is called a fetus. The fetus grows and develops steadily
until it is ready to be born.

Activity
Write on small pieces of paper weeks of development according to the
number of students. For example, 25 students and 25 different weeks. Mix all
papers and choose one of them. Use the information above and construct the
model of embryo/fetus by plasticine. At the end of the activity collect all the
models by order of the development and explain the whole process with your
friends.

Facts
Elephants carry their babies for about 600-660 days, while opossums carry
for 12-13 days.
Stem cells can develop into many cell types. They stimulate the body replace
and repair itself. Adult stem cells are found in body’s organs like bones and
blood vessels. In babies, most of the stem cells are found in the umbilical
cord. Kazakhstan has umbilical cord bank which stores them for future usage.
It helps treat diseases like leukemia and blood disorders in children.

Research time
Compare the development of embryo and fetus. Write differences between
them in your copybook.

Math in bio
Determine the predicted birth date of the baby if the egg was fertilized on June
1.

Literacy
1. Which organs’ job does placenta do in the developing fetus?
2. How do oxygen, nutrients and wastes pass between mother’s and baby’s
blood?
3. What would be if mother and fetus has a directly connected blood
vessels?

Terminology
fetus - ұрық / зародыш;
fluid - сұйықтық / жидкость;
implantation - имплантация;
steadily - біртіндеп / постепенно;
stem cells - бағаналы жасушалар / стволовые клетки;
to undergo - ұшырау / подвергаться;
umbilical cord - кіндік / пуповина;
15.2 Impacts of cigarettes, alcohol
and drugs on fetal growth
You will:
explain the effects of smoking, alcohol and other drugs on the
development of human embryos.

Key terms
Stillbirth - the death of baby before delivery;
Preterm birth - any birth before 9 months of gestation;
Miscarriage - is a spontaneous abortion.

STQ
Does placenta filter the things as good and bad for embryo?

Text
A fetus is well protected from physical damage, however it is not protected
from chemical and infectious damages. As nutrients and oxygen pass from the
mother’s blood into the baby’s blood, also other harmful things can. A
woman who has bad habits like drinking alcohol, using cigarettes and drugs
during pregnancy may harm her developing baby (fetus). These things can
damage and affect the baby’s growing cells.

Cigarettes contain dangerous chemicals, like nicotine. Nicotine cause

problems with the flow of blood through the vessels and reduce baby’s
oxygen and nutrients supply. Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause
FAS (Fetal alcohol syndrome). FAS is a group of mental and physical defects.
Illegal drugs including heroin, cocaine and marijuana can cause preterm birth
and fetal death. Drugs slow the baby’s growth causing breathing, feeding and
blood circulation problems.

Activity
Divide into groups of four students. Each group will write a letter to avoid
future mothers from the usage of alcohol, drugs and cigarettes. Imagine that
you are one of the person listed below with birth defects. Write a letter on
behalf of this person to their mothers about his/her life and consequences of
their mothers bad habits on them. At the end, read all letters in the class.
Facts
The development of an embryo’s brain is dependent on three factors.
60% of the development is determined by genes, 10% by the diet of the
mother and 30% by the environment inside the uterus.
In a female reproductive system all egg cells are present from the birth.
If girl or young woman use cigarettes or alcohol, it may affect her egg
cells. These damaged egg cells stays for many years in organisms, and
then they may be fertilized by a sperm cell. This may harm her baby!

Research time
Along with nutrients and oxygen, one important thing also pass to the newborn
baby which will help stay healthy. Make a research and find out what is it.

Literacy
1. Does taking medicine affect the baby during pregnancy?
2. Does the mother’s emotions impact the unborn baby?
3. Some women face health problems like abnormal hair loss during
pregnancy. What can be the reason for this and how to prevent it?

Terminology
cleft lip - қоянжырық / заячья губа;
infertility - бедеулік / бесплодие;
mental retardation - ақыл-естің кемдігі / умственная отсталость;
miscarriage - түсік / выкидыш;
premature (preterm) birth - мерзімінен бұрын босану /
преждевременные роды;
seizure - ұстама / приступ;
spontaneous abortion - кездейсоқ түсік / спонтанный аборт;
stillbirth - өлі туылу / мертворождение;
cleft palate - жырық таңдай / волчья пасть.
Problems
Test questions with one correct answer
1. The cell formed after fertilization

A) adult

B) neurula

C) fetus

D) gastrula

E) zygote

2. The thin-walled hollow stage of embryo

A) morula

B) neurula

C) gastrula

D) blastocyst

E) placenta

3. After ___ embryo is called fetus.

A) 3 weeks

B) 9 months

C) 7 weeks
D) 9 weeks

E) 7 months

4. Fertilization is

A) division of cell

B) formation of sperm cell

C) copying of gametes

D) formation of egg cell

E) fusion of male and female gametes

Test questions with several (max 3) correct answers

1. Which of the followings form embryonic membranes?

A) allantois

B) blastocyst

C) placenta

D) chorion

E) amnion

F) fetus

G) egg yolk

H) amniotic fluid

2. Drinking alcohol and smoking increases the risk of _______.

A) having a dimples
B) having a birthmark

C) having a cleft lip

D) having a freckles

E) having a big eyes

F) having a cleft palate

G) having a long hair

H) having a teeth

3. Which of the followings affect negatively fetus growth?

A) calcium

B) alcohol

C) drugs

D) vitamins

E) healthy diet

F) relaxation

G) exercises

H) cigarettes

Matching
1. Match terms with their definitions

1. placenta

2. embryo
 3. fetus

A) the unborn embryo from its eighth week of development

B) newborn baby

C) an unborn baby less than eight weeks

D) organ that joins mother and fetus

E) organ that feeds mother

F) fusion of egg and sperm cell

2. Match terms with their functions.

1. amniotic fluid

2. allantois

3. amnion

A) first site of red blood formation

B) forms a sac around embryo

C) outside of the amnion

D) contributes to the formation of placenta

E) support and protect embryo

F) formation of skeleton
CHAPTER 16.0
Evolution
16.1 The History of Life on Earth
You will:
study all the basic stages of development of life on Earth.

Key terms
Eon - the period in history of Earth;
Era - one division of eon;
Fossils - the remains of organisms which lived long time ago.

STQ
What type of organisms lived on our planet millions or billions years ago?

Text
According to the fossils, the oldest living organisms had lived 3.5 billion of
years ago. They were primitive prokaryotic unicellular microorganisms.
Over last 3.5 billion years, life changed and developed, producing a large
diversity of complex and highly adapted organisms.

Scientists study fossils to understand when and how living organisms

changed. Using radiometric dating technique, they can define exact time of
any fossil. The time of Earth is divided into periods called eons. Some eons
are divided into eras.

The history of life on Earth:

1. Archean eon (4 to 2.5 billion years)

The unicellular prokaryotes first appeared 3,500 mya (million years ago).
They were the only living things on Earth for next 1.5 billion years. Also in
this eon, some organisms started to make photosynthesis.

2. Proterozoic eon (2,500 to 542 mya)

The first eukaryotes were found 1.8 billion years ago. Then, 1.2 billion years
ago first multicellular organisms emerged, they were small red algae. At the
end of this eon first primitive soft-bodied animals come into existence.
The last eon is a Phanerozoic eon. It is divided into three eras:

1. Paleozoic era (542-251 mya)

Colonization of land begins. Also, the origin of many groups of organisms

happened, including many types of algae, vascular and seed plants, fish,
insects, amphibians, reptiles and many others.

2. Mesozoic era (251-65 mya)

The origin of mammals at the beginning. Gymnosperm trees and dinosaurs

are abundant most time of this era. In the end, dinosaurs became extinct, but
angiosperms appeared.

3. Cenozoic era (65 mya - now)

Mammals, birds, angiosperms and insect spread on land. First primates come
into existence. Ice age began 2.6 mya with mammoths and first humans.

Activity
Imagine you have a clock with time scale not for 12 hours, but for 3.5 billion
years: from the first organism to this day. On this clock label each eon or era.
Then mark these events:

1. the beginning of photosynthesis;

 2. living organisms begin to move on land;
3. the appearance of the first multicellular organisms;
4. the first mammals;
5. the first humans.

Facts
The origin of Life

There are no proved theories about Origin of Life on our planet. But there are
some ideas:

“Panspermia” theory says that life on Earth came from space;

“Creationism” says that all living things were created by God;
“Biochemical Evolution” says that living things were spontaneously
formed from different molecules.

Research time
Scientists think that birds are descendants of dinosaurs. Can you explain
why?

Literacy
1. Scientists discovered that the amount of O2 in the atmosphere rapidly
increased in the period from 2.7 to 2.4 billions years ago. Explain the
reasons for this event?
2. Scientists say that the spread of angiosperm plants and insects in
Cenozoic era are related. Explain why?

Terminology
adapted - бейімделген / адаптированный;
algae - балдыр / водоросли;
angiosperms - жабық тұқымдылар немесе гүлді өсімдіктер /
покрытосеменные или цветковые;
existence - тіршілік / существование;
eon - эон;
mammoth - мамонт;
origin - туындау / возникновение;
spontaneous - кенеттен / спонтанный;
to appear/ to emerge - пайда болу / появляться;
to become extinct - құрып біту / вымирать.
16.2 The Theories of Evolution
You will:
study the ideas of Linnaeus and Lamarck;
explain the role of Charles Darwin in the creation of the Theory of
Evolution.

Key terms
Evolution - the change in groups of organisms over a long period;
Theory - one explanation for different facts and observations.

STQ
Where did all living creatures come from?

Text
There are many living organisms. People always tried to explain how all
living things appeared.

Some scientists thought that all species are constant, they are not changing,
and there are no new species. One of them was Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish
botanist, who believed that all organisms were created by God. He made
“Classification system”. In this system, organisms are grouped according to
their characteristics.

Other scientists thought that organisms slowly change over long periods of
time, creating new species. This is called evolution. One of them was French
biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829). He thought that if an
organism uses one of its organs more often than others, this organ in the next
generation will be slightly bigger or stronger. One example is a giraffe’s neck.
When a giraffe tries to eat leaves from higher branches of a tree, it stretches
its neck. That’s why giraffe’s offspring will have a slightly longer neck.

Lamarck’s theory (Lamarckism) turns out to be wrong. Another evolutionary

theory was proposed by Charles Darwin, an English naturalist. At 1831, he
started a long voyage around the world on a ship Beagle. During this voyage,
he made notes about all animals and plants on different islands.
For example, on Galapagos Islands, he studied different species of finches.
These birds were similar, but there was a little difference among them.
Darwin noticed that these differences were related to the differences in their
food type. Other examples also show that organisms are highly adapted to
their environment.
After all these observations, Darwin made his theory of Evolution
(Darwinism), according to which species change over time, producing more
adapted species.

Activity
Phylogenetic tree.

According to Darwinism, all organisms are related to each other: different

groups of organisms originated at a different time from other groups. Look at
this tree.
This is called Phylogenetic tree. It shows how different groups are related,
and when they appeared. Write in the blank these animals to make a correct
phylogenetic tree:

cow;
human;
frog;
shark;
lancelet;
ant;
sparrow.

Facts
The origin of Life

There are no proved theories about Origin of Life on our planet. But there are
some ideas:

“Panspermia” theory says that life on Earth came from space;

“Creationism” says that all living things were created by God;
“Biochemical Evolution” says that living things were spontaneously
formed from different molecules.

Research time
If Lamarck’s theory was correct, how would your life change?

Literacy
1. Explain why the theory of Lamarck is wrong.
2. What type of scientific evidence do evolutionists use to support
Darwinism?
3. The Classification system was created by Linnaeus, but then Darwin
used it to prove his theory. How did Darwin use Classification system?
Terminology
according to – сəйкес / в соответствии с;
adapted – бейімделген / адаптированный;
environment – қоршаған орта / окружающая среда;
finch - шұбар шымшық / вьюрок;
make notes – жазып алу / делать записи;
observation – байқау / наблюдение;
related – байланысқан / связанный;
species - түр / вид;
to appear - пайда болу / появляться;
to notice – байқау / замечать;
turn out – болып қалу / оказаться;
voyage – саяхат / путешествие.
16.3 Darwinism
You will:
characterise the driving forces of evolution;
describe the role of natural selection in adaptations.

Key terms
Natural selection - the process whereby organisms better adapted to their
environment tend to survive and produce more offspring;
Adaptation - a process that fits organisms to their environment;
Population - a group of organisms of one species that live together;
Variation - differences among organisms in one population.

STQ
Is evolution real?

Text
There are important points in Darwinism:

1. There are differences among organisms in one population: because of

sexual reproduction, mutations, and environmental factors organisms are
different in one population. This is called variation.
2. Organisms produce many offspring. Many of these new organisms will
not survive.
3. Organisms with “better” (stronger or fittest) characteristics survive and
produce offspring, while organisms with bad or weak characteristics
often die and do not reproduce. This is called Natural Selection.
4. And because of reproducing of “better” organisms, over many
generations in the population will stay only the fittest organisms. So, it is
 a population that changes, not an organism.

There are different types of natural selection: directional, stabilising, and

disruptive. In stabilising selection organisms with the most abundant
characteristics has advantage over others and survive. Directional selection
happens when environment changes and a few organisms have an advantage.
As natural selection works the fittest organisms stay and population changes.
Over time these changes produce adapted organisms. Examples of adaptations
are camouflage and mimicry.

Сamouflage is when an organism has colours that make it invisible in its

environment. Examples are zebras, chameleon, flounder and many others.

Mimicry is when an organism of one species looks like (mimics) an organism

of another species. Animals often mimics stronger or more dangerous (maybe
poisonous) species for protection. Most of the dangerous species have bright
warning colours. These colours are signals to others which means “don’t
touch me!”.

Activity
You can see moth of different colours on this picture.

These insects are mostly found on trees. Imagine these conditions and answer
to the questions:

1. Trees are white. Explain how and why population will change.
2. Then, trees become black. Explain how and why population changes
now.

Facts
Different molecular mechanisms in the cell consist of many components.
Without any of this component, mechanisms will not work. According to
evolution, all components can not emerge altogether at the same time.
Instead, they should appear one by one in a long period. In this case, they
will not work, and will not give any advantages to the cell. So, these
incomplete mechanisms will not stay, they must be deleted.
 Variation is an important condition for evolution. Rotifers are animals
which have reproduced only asexually for nearly 200 million years.
They were all identical, and there was no variation among them. But they
were evolving all this time! Scientists still search for explanation of
Rotifers’ evolution.

Research time
There is an Artificial Selection. Try to explain what is it, and give examples.

Literacy
1. Inheritance is important for evolution. Explain why.
2. Explain disruptive selection.

Terminology
abundant - жайылған / распространённый;
advantage - артықшылық / преимущество;
among - арасында / среди;
camouflage - бүркену / маскировка;
competition - бəсекелестік / конкуренция;
fittest - бейімделген / приспособленный;
flounder - камбала;
invisible - көзге түспейтін / невидимый;
mimicry - мимикрия;
offspring - ұрпақ / потомство;
rotifera - коловраткалар / коловратки;
struggle - күрес / борьба;
to differ - айырмашылығы болу / отличаться;
to mimic - еліктеу / подражать;
to survive - тірі қалу / выживать;
warning - ескерту / предупреждение.
16.4 Speciation
You will:
characterize the criteria of the species;
explain the causes of speciation.

Key terms
Species - a group of organisms with many similarities;
Speciation - a process of forming new species from old ones.

STQ
How to produce a new species?

Text
There are millions of different species on the Earth. But what is a species?
Why a leopard and a jaguar are different species, while St. Bernard dog and
Pekingese are the same?

There are some criteria we use for organisms of one species:

1. Organisms of one species must have the same chromosome number in

their cells.
2. Organisms of one species must be able to mate.
3. The offspring of two organisms of one species must be fertile.

New species are formed in a process called speciation. During this process
two groups of organisms of one population cannot reproduce with each other.
This is called reproductive isolation. After a long period of time these
organisms change and form new species.
In a type of speciation called allopatric speciation organisms of one
population are separated geographically and cannot reproduce. For example,
when water level in a lake or sea decreases and it is divided into two, a
population of fish is divided into two groups which cannot reproduce. If this
division stays for a long period of time two groups of fish evolve separately,
become different, and cannot reproduce any more. So, now we have two
different species.

Another type of speciation is called sympatric speciation. Here new species

are formed without geographic barriers by one of three factors:

1. Polyploidy - accidental increase in number of sets of chromosomes.

Some polyploid organisms (mostly plants) can survive and form a new
species, because they have different number of chromosomes now, and
they cannot reproduce with original population;
2. Sexual selection - when females (or males) choose certain partners to
mate. Having different preferences will make reproductive isolation,
even if all organisms are in one place;
3. Habitat differentiation - differences in the source of food, or places to
live, or time to mate in one population can also cause reproductive
isolation, which leads to speciation.
Activity
On the picture below you can see three types of speciation.
 1. Find out allopatric speciation. Explain your answer.
2. Find out sympatric speciation. Explain your answer.
3. There is one more type of speciation called parapatric speciation. Using
picture above explain parapatric speciation.

Facts
Intermediate species are evolutionary connection between two groups of
organisms. For example, between fish and amphibia. According to evolution,
they should have characteristics between previous group and emerging group.
So, they would fail the competition with more adapted species. Mostly fossils
of intermediate species are not found.

Research time
Find out examples of speciation. Define the type of speciation and explain
why.
Literacy
1. Give three examples of changes in environment, which can cause
allopatric speciation.
2. Although horse and donkey can mate and produce offspring called a
mule, they are different species. Explain why?

Terminology
ancestor - баба / предок;
barrier - кедергі / барьер;
certain - белгілі / определенный;
criteria - белгі / критерий;
fertile - өсімтал / плодовитый;
isolation - оқшаулау / изоляция;
mate - жұптасу / спариваться;
mule - қашыр / мул;
preference - артық көру / предпочтение;
to separate - айырып алу / отделять.
Problems
Test with one correct answer
1. Which one of these is an example of sympatric speciation?

A) the river began to flow through the valley, dividing it into two parts. A
population of mice is also divided into two new populations

B) the emerging mountain divided the forest with a populations of pine trees
into two

C) maggot flies divided according to their references in food

D) the water level in a lake lowers, dividing it into several new lakes. So,
one population of fish is divided into many small populations

E) people built a railway in the steppe, and divided a population of

earthworms into two parts

2. Which one of these is an example of natural selection?

A) water level raises divided one big land into many small islands

B) flood kills all insects in a valley

C) because of fire many trees die in a forest

D) people allow only some sheeps to reproduce

E) the fastest rabbit stay alive

3. Which one of these is not an example of Lamarckism?

A) if a man does gymnastics all his life, his son since birth will be slightly
stronger than others
B) if you cut the tail for 20 generations of mice, mice of 21st generation will
have a shorter tail

C) rabbits used their ears for many generations, that’s why they have big ears

D) weak sparrows cannot reproduce, that’s why there will be less weak
sparrows

E) dogs have trained their sense of smell for thousands of years

4. In which period of time we are living right now?

A) proterozoic eon

B) archaen eon

C) cenozoic era

D) mesozoic era

E) paleozoic era

Test with several (max 3) correct answers

1. Which events happened in Proterozoic eon?

A) photosynthesis begins

B) primates emerged

C) the colonization of land

D) eukaryotic cells emerged

E) multicellular organisms emerge

F) the Origin of mammals

G) the first human appeared

H) the first animals appeared

2. What did Darwin do?

A) he first made a Classification system

B) he made a voyage around the Earth

C) he proposed the first theory of evolution

D) he published book “The Origin of Species”

E) he believed that all species do not change

F) he discovered the cell

G) he visited Kazakhstan

H) he was a teacher of Alfred Wallace

3. Which are the criteria of species?

A) organisms have the same chromosome number

B) organisms have the same colour

C) organisms can mate, but cannot produce offspring

D) organisms can mate, but cannot infertile offspring

E) organisms can mate, but cannot fertile offspring

F) organisms live in one place

G) organisms eat the same food

H) organisms have the same sizes

Matching questions (3 correct answers)

1. Match the following eras with events in these eras.

1. mesozoic era

2. cenozoic era

3. paleozoic era

A) colonization of land

B) the origin of Earth

C) mammals and birds spread

D) dinosaurs spread

E) the first prokaryotic cells emerged

F) the first eukaryotic cells emerged

ANSWERS
Gloassary
A
Absorption: uptake of substances by a tissue.

Action potential: the change in charges inside and outside of the cell.

Active transport: transport of large molecules with energy loss.

Adaptation: a process that fits organisms to their environment.

Aerobic respiration: the process of breakdown organic molecules using

oxygen.

AIDS: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.

Allele: versions of gene for one trait.

Ammonia: a strongly basic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen that is very

soluble in water and formed in nature by-product of protein metabolism.

Amylase: enzyme, which breaks down carbohydrates.

Anaerobic respiration: the process of breakdown organic molecules without

oxygen.

Antagonistic pair of muscles: a pair of muscles which have opposite

functions.

Atmosphere: a layer of gases which surrounds the Earth.

Autosome: chromosome that carry genes for the body traits.

Auxin: plant hormone that regulates growth and other processes of plants.
Abdomen: The part of the body of a vertebrate containing the digestive and
reproductive organs; the belly.

Absorption: Take up or take in; The sponge absorbs water well

Acid: A chemical that reacts easily with other substances and turns litmus
paper red; less than 7 on the pH scale

Acne: inflammatory disease of the sebaceous gland

Active immunity: is immunity in an organism resulting from its own

production of antibody or lymphocytes

Agglutination: adhesion of separate parts

Albinism: Albinism is a range of disorders varying in severity. They are all

caused by a reduction or absence of the pigment melanin, often causing white
skin, light hair, and vision problems.

Alveoli: tiny air sacs found in a lung which is used for gas exchange

Amino Acid: A molecule that joins with other amino acids to form proteins

Analyze: Think about the different parts of a problem or situation to figure

out how it is related to the whole.

Angiosperms: flowering plants

Arteriosclerosis: a disease of the arteries characterized by the deposition of

fatty material on their inner walls.

Artery: Blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart

Arthropods: animals with segmented body, jointed limbs and exoskeleton

Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction that happens without sex; one organism

creates one or more organisms
Atom: The smallest unit of a substance that has all of the properties of that
substance

Atrium: upper chamber of heart that receives blood from the body and lungs

B
Binomial nomenclature: a system of nomenclature in which each species is
given a unique name that consists of a generic and a specific term.

Biogeochemical cycle: the flow of chemical elements and compounds

between living organisms and the environment.

Biotechnology: using of biological processes or organisms to produce

different products.

Brain-Computer Interfaces: a system for exchanging information between the

brain and an electronic device.

Backbone: the row of connected bones that go down the middle of the back
and protect the spinal cord.

B cells: a kind of lymphocyte that provide humoral immunity

Bacteria: The kingdom of life which has no cell membrane or nucleus and is
always unicellular

Beriberi: a disease causing inflammation of the nerves and heart failure,

ascribed to a deficiency of vitamin B1.

Bile: a yellow or greenish liquid that is made by the liver and that helps the
body to digest fats.

Biological classification: Organization of how living things are related to

each other

Biology: The study of living things

Blastula: early stage of development, two-layered ball like structure

Body cell: All of the cells in an organism not involved in reproduction

Bond: An electrical force that links atoms together

Bronchi: major air passages of the lungs which diverge from the windpipe.

C
Canines: a pointed tooth between the incisors and premolars

Carbon: a widely distributed element that forms organic compounds in

combination with hydrogen, oxygen, etc.

Carrying capacity: the number of organisms which a region can support

without environmental degradation.

Cell cycle: it a period of cell life from one cell division to the next cell
division.

Cellular respiration: the process of breakdown organic molecules producing

energy.

Centrosome: an organelle, which plays role in cell division.

Cilia: a short structure, used for movement.

Classification: systematic arrangement in groups or categories according to

established criteria.

Codominance: when the neither phenotype is dominant, the individual

expresses both phenotypes.

Cystitis: inflammation of urinary bladder or urethra by infection of bacteria.

Canines: a pointed tooth between the incisors and premolars of a mammal.

Calorie: Measure of energy, usually contained in food

Cancer: Disease where cells grow in an uncontrolled way

Capillaries are blood vessels that connect arteries and veins

Carbohydrate: An essential chemical in all cells that is broken down to form

sugars; glucose, sucrose, lactose, galactose

Carbon Dioxide: Molecule made up of one carbon and two oxygens,

produced by animals and other organisms; main contributor to manmade
global warming

Cell: The basic structural and functional unit of all organisms

Cell differentiation: A process where cells change to perform different roles

Cell division: A process where one cell becomes more than one cell

Cell membrane: Surrounds the cell and keeps it together; also decides what
material enters and leaves

Cell organelle: Parts of the cell that perform specific functions

Cell wall: The stiff outer layer of a cell that protects the cell and gives it
shape

Cellular respiration: The process where organisms get energy from organic
molecules

Cellulose: a substance that is the main part of the cell walls of plants and that
is used in making various products (such as paper)

Characteristic: A distinguishing quality of something; generosity is one of his

best characteristics

Chloroplast: Organelle in plants and some other organisms which is

responsible for photosynthesis
Chest cavity: internal space of chest where heart and lungs are located.

Chitin: a kind of polysaccharide which is found in the structure of fungi cell

walls and insect skeleton.

Closed circulatory system: blood is contained inside blood vessels,

circulating unidirectionally.

Compound: A chemical combination of two or more atoms (of different

elements)

Consumer: Living thing that eats other living things

Cotyledon: part of the seed that will grow into the leafs.

Covalent Bond: A type of chemical bond where electrons are shared

between the atoms

Crop: organ used for storage of food in birds.

D
Deforestation: the cutting down of trees without replacing them.

Digestion: breaking down big molecules into small molecules.

DNA: a molecule that store and transmit genetic information.

Double helix: structure formed by two strands of DNA.

Dynamic work of muscles: muscle contract and relax to move different parts
of your body.

Decomposer: A type of living thing that survives by consuming dead organic

matter

Denaturation: change of the structure of protein by heat or an acid.

Dentine: hard dense bony tissue forming the bulk of a tooth, under the enamel.

Development: growth from one cell to multicellular organism

Dermis: thick layer of skin under epidermis

Differentiation: Process where cells grow and become different than their
mother cell

Diffusion: Where molecules spread out until they are evenly distributed in a
medium, such as the air

Diaphragm: a large flat muscle that separates the lungs from the stomach area
and that is used in breathing.

Diarrhea: an intestinal disorder that causes pass waste from your body very
frequently and in liquid state

Dicot: plant with two cotyledons(seed leaves)

Digestion: breaking down food into small particles

DNA: Abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid, which contains the genetic

instructions for all forms of life

Dominant: A genetic characteristic that is always expressed by the organism

Donor: a person who gives some of their blood or a part of their body to help
someone.

E
Egg cell: female reproductive cell.

Electrocytes: a modified muscle or nerve cell that generates electricity.

Electroreception: the biological ability to perceive natural electrical stimuli.

Electroreceptors: cells capable of detecting electric fields.

Elimination: the passing of undigested material out of the body.

Embryo: an unborn baby less than eight weeks.

Emulsification: the breakdown of large fat droplets into smaller droplets.

Endoplasmic reticulum: a network of membranous tubules in the cytoplasm

of cell.

Energy: the ability to do work.

Enuresis: frequent inability to control urination known as bedwetting.

Eon: the period in history of Earth.

Era: one division of eon.

Erosion: the wearing away of land by different forces (water, wind, ice,
living organism, temperature) cause.

Evolution: the change in groups of organisms over a long period of time.

Exponential growth: development at an increasingly rapid rate in proportion

to the growing total number or size.

Ectoderm: the outermost layer of cells or tissue of an embryo in early

development

Eczema: inflamed skin characterized by redness, itching, and scaly.

Edema: a condition characterized by an excess of watery fluid collecting in

the cavities or tissues of the body.

Enamel: the white, compact, and very hard substance covering and protecting
the dentin of a tooth.
Endoderm: the innermost layer of cells or tissue of an embryo in early
development.

Embryology: The study of how organisms develop; the more closely related
two organisms are, the more similar they are as they develop

Endoplasmic reticulum: Organelle that produces proteins and fats

Energy: The property of something’s ability to do work

Environment: The complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (e.g.,

climate, soil, living things) that act upon an organism or an ecological
community and ultimately determine their forms and survival

Epidermis: outermost layer of the skin

Erythrocyte: are red blood cells, which carry oxygen

Esophagus: the part of the digestive system which connects the throat to the
stomach.

Eukaryote: A type of organism that has a true nucleus in its cell(s)

Excretion: process of elimination of wastes from the body

Excretory system: a system that removes excess water and unnecessary

products. It consists of kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Exhalation: movement of air out of lungs.

Exoskeleton: external skeleton that supports and protects an animal’s body.

F
Fetus: the unborn embryo from its eighth week of development till its birth.

Filtrate: a solution produced from filtration .

Filtration: passing of water and dissolved substances to renal tubule except
for large molecules.

Flagellum: a long structure, used for movement.

Fossils: the remains of organisms which lived long time ago.

Fern: seedless, nonflowering vascular plant which lives in tropical to

temperate regions.

Fiber: a thin, threadlike structure.

Fixed joint- joint between two bones that doesn’t move

Fluid: Anything that flows; both gases and liquids are considered fluids

Food poisoning: becoming ill after eating spoiled food

Forensics: science that use of scientific knowledge or methods in solving

crimes

Fraternal twins: twins those are developed from two zygotes.

Fungi: The kingdom of living things that are eukaryotic and make their own
energy; mushrooms, yeast, molds

G
Galvanometer: an instrument for detecting and measuring small electric
currents.

Gametogenesis: process by which gametes are produced.

Gene: a segment of DNA which codes a particular protein.

Genetic engineering: constructing new DNA from DNA of different species.

Glia: cell that feeds and protects the nerve cell.

GMO: genetically modified organisms.

Golgi apparatus: a complex of vesicles and membranous sacs in the

cytoplasm of cells.

Greenhouse effect: the Sun’s radiation is trapped in the atmosphere and leads
to a warming of the Earth.

Greenhouse gas: a gas in the atmosphere which can trap the heat escaping
from Earth.

Gametes: The cells that are responsible for sexual reproduction; sperm, eggs

Germ: A small organism that causes disease

Gizzard: a muscular, thick-walled part of a bird’s stomach for grinding food.

Gills: respiratory organ of aquatic animals.

Goggles: A safety device used whenever the eyes could be injured by a

chemical or physical experiment

Golgi apparatus: Organelle that packages proteins and fats so that they can
leave the cell

Growth: The increase of size of an individual; can also be the presence of

something

Gymnosperm: a group of plant that have seeds unprotected by an ovary or

fruit, including the conifers, cycads, and ginkgo.

H
Heredity: the passing of a trait from parents to offspring.

heterozygous appear intermediate trait.

HIV: human immunodeficiency virus.

Homeostasis: maintaining a relatively constant environment within the body.

Humoral regulation: regulation by the endocrine system.

Heart attack: blocking of heart arteries which brings to death of heart

muscles

Heterotroph: Living thing that needs to consume other organisms for food

Homeostasis: Maintenance of a constant internal environment in an organism.

Humoral immunity: antibody-mediated immunity

Hypertension: high blood pressure

Hypodermis: the deepest part of the skin which contains fat сells

I
Incomplete dominance: when both alleles for the trait have same level of
affect.

Ingestion: the process of taking food, drink, or another substance into the
body.

Intercourse: physical sexual contact between individuals.

Interphase: a part of a cell cycle, when cell is not dividing.

Identical twins: twins that are produced from a single zygote.

Incisor: tooth at the front of the mouth, adapted for cutting and biting.

Inflammation: physical condition in which part of the body becomes

reddened, swollen, hot, and often painful.

Immunity: Ability to completely fight off disease

J
Joint: the area where two bones are attached for the purpose of permitting
body parts to move.

K
Kidney: either of a pair of bean-shaped organs in the back part of the
abdominal cavity that forms and excrete urine, regulate fluid and act as
endocrine glands.

Kidney stones: formation of stones that block urine flow caused mostly by
unhealthy diet.

Kingdom: Most general classification of living things (sometimes placed

under “Domains”)

L
Linear magnification: the ratio of image length to object length measured in
planes.

Lipase: enzyme, which breaks down lipids.

Lysosome: an organelle in the cytoplasm of cells containing degradative

enzymes.

Large intestine: end part of the intestine that is wider and shorter than the
small intestine.

Leukocyte: white blood cells, which protect the organism

Leukemia: Cancer of the blood or bone marrow

Lichen: A combination of a fungus and an algae that help each other

Life cycle: The series of stages in form and functional activity through which
an organism passes between origin and expiration

Limbs: an arm or leg of a person or four-legged animal, or a bird’s wing.

Lipid: Refers to a group of fats that cannot be dissolved in water

Liquid: The state of matter where the particles are loose and form the shape
of their container but do not necessarily fill up the container

Living thing: An organism

Lymph: fluid that circulates through lymphatic system

Lymphatic system: network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of
toxins, waste and other unwanted materials.

Lymphocyte: A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell that is part of the

immune system. There are two main

types of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells.

Lysosome: Organelle that digests food and waste in the cell

M
Membrane potential: the difference between charge outside and inside of the
cell.

Micrograph: a photograph of an image under the microscope.

Muscle contractions: a process in which muscles become short, moving our

body.

Muscle fatigue: decrease in muscle ability to generate force, because of

tiredness.

N
Natural selection: the process whereby organisms better adapted to their
environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Nephron: a unit of filtration in a kidney that regulates water balance and

removes toxins.

Neural regulation: regulation by nervous system.

Neuron: a nerve cell.

Neuroprosthetic: Any biomedical engineered device designed to be linked to

the peripheral or central nervous system and enhance the cognitive, motor, or
sensory abilities of an organism.

Nitrogen: a chemical element that is a gas with no colour or taste, forms most
of the earth’s atmosphere and is a part of all living things.

Nucleotide: monomer of DNA that consists of sugar, phosphate group, and

nitrogenous base.

Nausea: sickness at the stomach, an involuntary impulse to vomit an atom;

fission, fusion

Nonvascular plant: plants without vascular tissue such as mosses.

Nucleic acid: In the nucleus of a cell, there are two major types of nucleic
acids: DNA and RNA

Nucleotides: These are found on a strand of DNA or RNA as a sequence of

bases

Nucleus: In biology, this refers to the middle of a cell; in physical science,

this refers to the center of an atom

Nutrient: Any molecule that is needed for an organism to survive

O
Ovary: organ that produces female gametes and female sex hormones.

Objective: Based upon fact

Observation: Noticing or paying attention

Offspring: Children, of any organism

Open circulatory system: organisms with open circulatory system have open
ended vessels. Blood leaves the vessels and enters to the body space.

Order: Classification of living things between Class and Family

Organ: Group of tissues that perform a certain function

Organ system: Group of organs that together perform a common function

Organelle: Part of a cell that performs a function for the cell

Organic: Comes from living things

Organic molecule: A molecule that contains carbon atoms bonded together

Organism: A living thing that can live and reproduce independently

Organogenesis: formation of organs

P
Passive transport: transport of small molecules without energy loss.

Pepsin: enzyme, which breaks down proteins.

Photosynthesis: process by which plant convert energy from sunlight into

chemical energy.

Placenta: connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient
uptake, via the mother’s blood supply during pregnancy.
Plant hormones: organic substances that control plant development and
growth.

Plasmid: ring-shaped DNA molecule of bacteria.

Pollution: contamination of environment by rubbish, oil spill and so on.

Polyploidy: organism which contain more than two sets of chromosomes.

Population: a group of organisms of one species that live together.

Positive geotropism: growth of plants towards the gravity.

Passive immunity: the immunity resulting from the injection of antibodies or

lymphocytes from another organism

Peristalsis: the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the

intestine or another canal, creating wave-like movements which push the
contents of the canal forward.

Permanent teeth: second set of teeth in mammals that grows as the milk teeth
are shed

Phagocytes: leukocytes which digest viruses and bacteria

Photosynthesis: The process that happens in plants and some other organisms
which takes the sun’s energy and turns it into usable energy; 6CO2 + 6H2O +
Light = C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2

Plasma: liquid part of blood.

pollen: the fertilizing element of flowering plants, consisting of fine,

powdery, yellowish grains or spores, sometimes in masses.

Pollination: the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma.

Polymer: large molecule or macromolecule composed of many repeated

parts
Premolar: situated in front of the molar teeth.

Producer: Living thing that makes its own energy from the sun

Prokaryote: A type of living thing that is single-celled and has no true

nucleus

Protein: A sequence of amino acids

Protist: Kingdom of life made up of single-celled eukaryotes

Pulmonary circulation: movement of blood from the heart to the lungs for
oxygenation, then back to the heart again.

Pulp: soft part of the tooth where blood vessels and nerves are found.

Pulp cavity: the space within a tooth that contains the pulp.

Pulse: the regular beating of the heart, especially when it is felt at the wrist
or side of the neck.

R
Reabsorption: water and other essential substances return back to
capillaries.

Replication: is a process of DNA copying.

Resting potential: the resting state of a cell, when outside is positive, inside
is negative.

Reaction: When one or more substances are changed into other substances

Regeneration: The process that creates something over again

Reproduce: To create more of

Reproduction: The process of creating offspring

Research: Discovering information that other scientists have already
published

Resistance: (Biology) Ability to fight off some amount of disease

Respiratory minute volume: the amount of inhaled or exhaled air in a minute.

Resource: A supply of something that can be used when needed

Respiratory rate: rate of breathing

Ribosome: Organelle that reads the mRNA to produce proteins

S
Secondary sex characteristics: sex characteristics that appeared during
puberty.

Secretion: removing toxic substances from capillaries forming concentrated

urine.

Selecting breeding: purposefully selection of best characteristics.

Sex chromosomes: chromosome that carry genes which have a role in sex
determination.

Sexually transmitted disease: an infection that can be transferred from one

person to another through sexual contact.

Sigmoid curve: a mathematical function having a characteristic “S”-shaped

curve.

Sink: plant organ that store sugar.

Solute: substance dissolved in a solution.

Solution: homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

Speciation: new species come from old species.

Species: a class of individuals having some common characteristics or

qualities. distinct sort or kind.

Species: a group of organisms with many similarities.

Sperm cell: male reproductive cell.

Static work of muscles: muscles stay contracted to hold your body in certain
position.

Stomata: pores on the underside of the leaf which accelerate gas exchange
and transpiration.

Synapse: connection between nerve cells.

Sebaceous gland: (oil gland)a small gland in the skin which secretes a
lubricating oily matter (sebum) into the hair follicles to lubricate the skin and
hair.

Salivary glands: glands which produce saliva

Saturated: Completely full; for a solution, the most amount of solute that can
be put into the solvent

Scabies: skin disease with itching and small raised red spots, caused by the
itch mite.

Semi movable joints: joints between bones in which the motion is limited

Sexual reproduction: The combination of two individuals (genetically) to

form one or more new organisms

Small intestine: narrow upper part of the intestine where digestion of food
completes and absorption starts

Species: A very specific classification of organisms; all members of a

species can mate together
Spleen: an abdominal organ involved in the production and removal of blood
cells in most vertebrates and forming part of the immune system.

Starch: A kind of storage polysaccharide found in plants.

Stem cell: A type of cell that can turn into any other type of cell.

Sternum: Flat bone that connects ribs to each other forming the front part of
rib cage.

Stimulus: Anything that affects an organism

Stomach: saclike organ which store and digest food

Stroke: death of brain tissue occurred as a result of artery blockage

Substance: A type of matter that has the same properties; water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, diamond

Systemic circulation: movement of blood from the heart through the body to
provide oxygen and nutrients to the tissues of the body while bringing
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

T
Testcross: cross which is made for to determine dominant trait genotype in
organism by using recessive gene.

Testes: organs that produce male gametes and male sex hormones.

Theory: one explanation for different facts and observations.

Thermoregulation: the control of body temperature.

Trait: characteristic of an organism.

Translocation: movement of organic compounds inside of the plant.

Transpiration: the loss of water as vapor.

T cells: leukocytes that provide cell-mediated immunity

Tetter: any of various eruptive skin diseases

Tidal volume: volume of gas inhaled or exhaled in each respiration, during a

normal, regular breathing

Tissue: Group of cells that perform a similar function

Tissue fluid: fluid between cells

Tonsil: either of two small masses of lymphoid tissue in the throat, one on
each side of the root of the tongue.

Toxin: a poisonous substance and especially one that is produced by a living

thing

Trachea: a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending

from the larynx to the bronchial tubes and conveying air to and from the
lungs; the windpipe.

Typhoid: an infectious bacterial fever with an eruption of red spots on the

chest and abdomen and severe intestinal irritation.

U
Urea: a water-soluble organic compound, synthesized from ammonia and
carbon, formed by the metabolism of proteins and excreted in the urine.

Uric acid: an almost insoluble compound a breakdown product of

nitrogenous metabolism.

Urine: a mixture removed from our body, it consists of water, urea, salts and
other excretory substances.
Ultraviolet: A form of electromagnetic radiation that has more energy than
visible light; most ultraviolet light is usually blocked in our atmosphere by
ozone

Unicellular: Made up of one cell

Urinary bladder: a membranous sac in many vertebrates that serves for the
temporary retention of urine and discharges by the urethra.

Urine: liquid waste excreted by the kidneys, in humans being a yellowish,

slightly acid

Urea: a substance found in urine and also made from ammonia,

Ureter: a muscular duct or tube conveying the urine from a kidney to the
bladder or cloaca

Urethra: the duct by which urine is conveyed out of the body from the
bladder, and which in male vertebrates also conveys semen.

V
Variation: differences among organisms in one population.

Variation: variety of traits in species.

Vacuole: Organelle that stores nutrients in the cell

Vascular: relating to or denoting the plant tissues (xylem and phloem) which
conduct water, sap, and nutrients in flowering plants, ferns, and their
relatives.

Vena cava: any of the large veins by which in air-breathing vertebrates the
blood is returned to the right atrium of the heart.

Ventricle: one of two sections of the heart that pump blood out to the body.

Veins: are blood vessels that transport blood to the heart

Vessel: tube shaped structure that carries blood in the body.

Virus: A small particle that contains DNA or RNA and is able to reproduce
only inside of a living cell

Vital capacity: greatest amount of air that can be forced from the lungs after
maximum inhalation

Vitamin: organic molecule essential for body processes

W
Wax: an oily organic compound insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents; essential structural component of living cells (along with proteins
and carbohydrates).

Y
Yeast: an organism of the kingdom Fungi lacking chlorophyll and feeding on
organic matter; ranging from unicellular or multicellular organisms to spore-
bearing syncytia.

Z
Zygote: combination of a sperm and egg cell.
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