A Literature Review of the Role of Emotional Intelligence

in Academic Performance and Learning Outcomes

Doaa Emad Mokhtar Ahmed ElShafie

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 Table of Contents

I-Introduction 3

II-Literature Review 5

1-EmotionalIntelligence Defined 5

2-Models and Measurements of Emotional Intelligence 6

3-Competencies of Emotional Intelligence 8

4-Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Learning Outcomes and Academic Performance 9

5- Learning difficulties, ADHA and ASD, and Emotional Intelligence 18

III-Discussion 19

IV- Conclusion and Implications 20

V-References 22

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I-Introduction

A human being has two degrees of reasoning: thinking and emotion. People are

intelligent, thoughtful, and solution-oriented when they think rationally. When they give in to

their emotions and act on instinct, they become illogical. The proportion of logic to emotionality

changes with time, for example, when a feeling becomes stronger, people succumb to emotional

thinking. their capacity to think rationally deteriorates at the same time, and vice versa. Positive

emotions, pleasant contact, collaboration, assessment, trust, respect, and tolerance drive such

relationships towards progress and have an effect, but destructive behaviors, bad emotions, and

sentiments obstruct the growth of relationships (Slušnienė, 2019).

Similarly, many people misread their own emotional reactions, cannot manage emotional

outbursts, or behave oddly in stressful situations, causing harm to themselves, others, and

society. Others have a better capacity to process complex emotions and emotion-relevant inputs,

and to utilize this ability to drive their own ideas and behaviors, as well as the thoughts and

behaviors of others in general (Drigas & Papoutsi, 2018). People with high emotional

intelligence are better at solving issues and managing their emotions, as well as maintaining

positive relationships with friends and coworkers. They are better at coming up with an

acceptable solution to a disagreement or even acting as mediators in such situations. Emotional

stability aids youngsters in more easily overcoming barriers and accepting diverse difficulties

without experiencing increased psychological discomfort. (Slušnienė, 2019)

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 The previous few decades witnessed an increasing scientific interest in Emotional

Intelligence (EI) because of its importance and connections to a variety of life aspects. Studies on

the nature of emotional intelligence (EI), its measurements, structure, positive and negative

impacts, and connection with various study disciplines have been conducted during the last two

decades (Drigas & Papoutsi, 2018).

This literature review aims to shed light on the role and significance of emotional

intelligence (EI) in educational settings in regard to its impact on academic performance and

learning outcomes of students at different stages including students with learning difficulties

such as ADHD, and autistic students. To achieve this goal, different aspects will be mentioned to

have a better understanding of emotional intelligence and its importance: definitions, models and

competencies of EI, how to measure, gain, as well as how to improve EI.

When compared to IQ or personality, EI is a relatively recent notion, with the first

scholarly publication published in 1990. This topic was obscure until scientific journalist Daniel

Goleman popularized the notion in his 1995 book “Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter

More Than IQ, the topic was virtually obscure” which attracted much attention of not only

researchers in the field but also the public. This attention was the spark that ignited several

research projects that unfortunately weren’t established on previous empirical literature, but were

merely separate incongruent efforts which resulted in conflicting theories and disagreements

about how to define and measure EI (MacCann, et al., 2020). By the end of the 1990s,

researchers proposed that a difference be established between two types of measuring models—

ability scales and rating scales— and two types of theoretical models—ability EI and mixed

(trait) emotional intelligence —to provide some clarity to the area. (MacCann, et al., 2020)
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 EI can also play a significant role in dealing with and improving the learning outcomes

and lives of students; it also plays a noticeable role in helping to create intervention programs for

students with learning difficulties such as students with (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder) ADHD (Climie, et al., 2019) and those with (Autism Spectrum Disorder) ASD (Boily,

Kingston, and Montgomery, 2017).

II- Literature Review

1-Emotional Intelligence Defined

Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, at least a thousand years ago, the structure, nature,

and qualities of human intellect have been explored and debated. Intelligence, according to Plato,

is a "learning tune". Plato and Aristotle proposed the three components of mind and soul in this

concept: intellect, emotion, and volition. (Drigas, & Papoutsi, 2018).

EI has been proven to be as essential as, if not more important than, intelligence quotient

(IQ). There is a strong connection between emotion and intelligence. Being aware of your own

and others' emotions will aid you in managing behaviors and relationships, as well as predict

success in a variety of fields. EI is the capacity to recognize, comprehend, and use emotions in a

good way to reduce anxiety, improve communication, empathize, overcome obstacles, solve

problems, and resolve disputes. It is the perception, appraisal, and management of your own and

others' emotions, according to the Ability emotional intelligence paradigm. EI, often known as

the capacity to recognize, utilize, comprehend, and control emotions, is a relatively recent

concept that seeks to link emotion and intellect (Drigas, & Papoutsi, 2018).

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 Salovey and Mayer as cited in (O'Connor, et al., 2019, pp. 2) defined emotional

intelligence as

the “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate
among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (p. 189).
They argued that individuals high in EI had certain emotional abilities and skills related
to appraising and regulating emotions in the self and others. Accordingly, it was argued
that individuals high in EI could accurately perceive certain emotions in themselves and
others (e.g., anger, sadness) and also regulate emotions in themselves and others in order
to achieve a range of adaptive outcomes or emotional states (e.g., motivation, creative
thinking).

2-Models and Measurements of Emotional Intelligence

EI has been given two distinct theoretical models: mixed and ability models. The mixed

EI models conform of several units such as emotional capabilities, personality, factors of

motivation, and individual qualities which help people behave intelligently (MacCann, et al.,

2020). Ability models, on the other hand, presents EI as a cognition capability similar to being

capable verbally and quantitatively, yet the most important elements for it are emotions not

words or numbers (MacCann, et al., 2020).

To have a better understanding of these models, scholars of the field proposed two

measurement scales: ability scales and rating scales. While ability scales get tested individuals to

show knowledge of emotional situations and how to process such information to offer solutions

for such situations, rating scales ask tested individual to provide their opinions or agree with a

list of statements about themselves such as “I can deal with most unpleasant issues” (MacCann,

et al., 2020).

MacCann, et al., (2020, pp. 151) state that

“There is general agreement on a single theoretical model that describes the component
abilities of EI. The hierarchical four branch model was first described by Mayer and
Salovey in 1997. This model outlines four key branches of emotion-related abilities that
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 range in complexity from low-level information processing to strategic and deliberative
use of emotional information to meet personal goals. These four branches are: (a)
perceiving emotions accurately, (b) using emotions to facilitate decision-making, (c)
understanding emotions, and (d) managing emotions to upregulate positive emotions and
down-regulate negative emotions…The best-known assessment of these four branches is
the ability-based Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT, (Mayer,
Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003), which has two subtests for each of the four
branches. The MSCEIT is the only commercially available ability EI measure and is the
most commonly used ability measure in research. Although there are several
noncommercial alternative ability EI assessments, these tend to measure only one or two
of the four branches.”

The Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS), which was utilized in previous studies on

the four-branch model, was also employed. MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional

Intelligence Tests) and MEIS youth versions are frequently utilized in schools for study,

MacCann, et al. (2020).

Tests that use questions/items similar to those found in IQ tests are referred to as "ability" based

assessments. All tests with ability-type items, not just those based on Mayer and Salovey's

approach, fall into this category. Ability measures, unlike trait-based measures, do not need

participants to self-report on various statements; instead, they require participants to solve

emotion-related problems with correct or wrong responses. (For example, what feeling could

someone experience before a job interview? (a) Despair, (b) Excitement, (c) Nervousness, (d) All

of the Above) Capacity-based assessments provide a strong indicator of a person's ability to

comprehend emotions and how they function. They do not, however, predict normal behavior as

well as trait-based assessments since they are tests of maximum ability (O'Connor, et al., 2019).

3-Competencies of Emotional Intelligence

Taking into consideration all the theories of the past concerning layer models dealing

with EI, Drigas, & Papoutsi, (2018) propose a layered model of EI that has 9 levels developing
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into more complex steps that eventually lead to conquer the upper levels, transcendence and

emotional unity. In a more hierarchical structure, this model incorporates elements from both

constructs (the Ability and the Trait emotional intelligence models). The ability level pertains to

self-awareness and social awareness, as well as management. The trait level refers to the mood

connected with emotions as well as the inclination to behave in a specific manner in emotional

states when other relevant variables are taken into account. Gardner's notions of intrapersonal

and interpersonal intelligences are also incorporated into the emotional intelligence pyramid.

Goleman, and Boyatzis, (2017, pp.3) state that

“There are many models of emotional intelligence, each with its own set of abilities; they
are often lumped together as “EQ” in the popular vernacular. We prefer “EI,” which we
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 define as comprising four domains: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness,
and relationship management. Nested within each domain are twelve EI competencies,
learned and learnable capabilities that allow outstanding performance at work or as a
leader (see the image below). These include … empathy, positive outlook, and self-
control. But they also include crucial abilities such as achievement, influence, conflict
management, teamwork and inspirational leadership. These skills require just as much
engagement with emotions as the first set, and should be just as much a part of any
aspiring leader’s development priorities.”

4-Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Learning Outcomes and Academic Performance

There is substantial evidence that EI has a favorable relationship with academic

achievement. Social and emotional learning programs (which are based on Goleman's concept of

emotional intelligence) have been shown to improve academic achievement, with a meta-

analysis indicating an 11-percentile gain in academic performance (MacCann, et al., 2020). Self-

awareness, social awareness, self-management, interpersonal skills, and responsible decision

making are five essential characteristics that overlap significantly with Goleman's emotional

competencies. Programs that followed a sequential, step-by-step approach, employed active

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modes of learning, provided enough time for skill development, and had stated learning goals

were more successful. Social emotional learning programs run by teachers are more successful

than those run by school staff (MacCann, et al., 2020).

Shafait, et al., (2021) state that Chinese higher education institutions are focusing more

on students' EI and learning outcomes as a critical educational output. Administrators in Asian

education systems are staunch supporters of EI and student learning outcomes. They conducted

research as a follow-up in the Chinese setting. Throughout their educational careers, students go

through several stages accompanied by various emotions (excitement, worry). EI encourages

students to retain their learning by stimulating their attention to the learning process. Even

though emotions have a significant role in learning, there is negligence regarding this role in the

educational sector. One of the hypotheses they proposed was that in Chinese higher education

institutions, students' EI has a major impact on student learning outcomes. Shafait, et al., (2021)

also aimed to examine and establish the link between students' EI, students’ learning outcomes,

confidence in instructors (emotional and cognitive learning), learning orientation (commitment

to learning), and academic effectiveness (cognitive skills and standardized test scores). Their

sample of students came from six universities in three different provinces, Xi’an, Sichuan and

Beijing, which kept the majority of their gross enrolment rate in higher education while

providing improved facilities. Data were collected during the time between September 2019 to

December 2019. Final-year university students from several scientific divisions were polled to

measure their emotion-based learning outcomes that aid academic effectiveness. They used an

electronic survey questionnaire delivered through (WeChat app and email addresses) as well as

paper surveys to gather data throughout the class sessions. For possible replies, more volunteer

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participants were explored. A research team as well as a third-party data collecting services

gathered the paper survey questionnaires. Teachers were consulted before creating electronic

surveys, which were then distributed through e-groups. A total of 900 questionnaires were

distributed. [To guarantee ethical consideration, the Northwestern Polytechnical University

Research Ethics Review Committee provided formal authorization to engage with and collect

data from students for research purposes.] A total of 477 questionnaires (or 53% of the total)

were returned. Because 23 questionnaires were determined to have missing information, only

454 were included for statistical analysis. The sample size is suitable for using the Structural

Equation Model (SEM) to analyze the complex route model, as indicated by Kline.

Questionnaires’ 75 measurement items were selected from existing studies after applying minor

changes to the language of the items to fit the academic context. Shafait, et al., (2021) used a

cross-sectional research design applying the quantitative approach. The data was analyzed with

the SmartPLS 3.0 software program using the partial least squares structural equation modelling

(PLS-SEM) approach.

The findings of this study confirmed previous research as they show that EI has a

substantial and beneficial impact on student’ learning outcomes (social, cognitive, self-growth

outcomes, and university satisfaction) in Chinese HEIs. It also deep-rooted the suggestion that

students with stronger emotional and pressure-handling abilities are more likely to improve their

learning outcomes. When asked about their experiences with emotional circumstances and

learning under pressure in critical scenarios, the students in the sample expressed enthusiasm.

This was accomplished by filling out the questionnaire in person or via a technological medium,

such as the WeChat app and/or email feedback, Shafait, et al., (2021). They imply the need for

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proper training for teachers regarding how they can utilize EI to totally improve students’

learning outcomes. This comprehensive approach helps higher educational institution students

adapt with difficult situations with resolve, EI, and improved learning, as well as encourages

higher educational institutions to build healthy collaborative and encouraging learning

environments.

Shafait, et al., (2021) state that there are certain limitations to their study that point to the

need for more research and inquiry as the convenience sample size of a small number of Chinese

research institutions invites sampling bias and makes it hard to generalize the results to other

research higher educational institutions. They recommended future studies that use a larger

random sampling to generalize the results, and with improved responses to the study's research

questions.

Kastberg, Buchko, & Buchko (2020) have integrated previous research (conducted by several

scholars including Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Nelis, Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, & Hansenne,

2009; Frayne & Geringer, 2000; Gist, Stevens, & Bavetta, 1991; Boyatzis & Boyatzis, 2009;

Boyatzis R. E., 2007; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000; Singh, 2006; Cherniss, Goleman, Emmerling,

Cowan, & Adler, 1998; Nelis, Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, & Hansenne, 2009) on the EI

development with various development methods accessible in higher education to find ways for

colleges and universities to include emotional intelligence into their pedagogy and curriculum.

They outline some of the well-established methods for improving emotional intelligence skills

(Table 1), as well as how higher education institutions may put these resources to use to benefit

both students and employers.

Emotional Intelligence Improvement Possible Improvement Process(es) in Higher Education

increase your self-awareness, beginning with a lecture on management styles,

empathy, and leadership skills. followed by experiential learning through self-

assessments, listening exercises, and role play of a

corrective interaction, and ending with a discussion of

motivational theories, similar to the actual training.

Self-Management Training enhances Self-management training can be applied through an

accurate self-assessment, self- initial university course that includes a lecture on self-

confidence, self-control, management principles, pursued by interactive sessions

conscientiousness, and achievement and written assignments that include identifying

drive. problem behaviors, conditions that elicit and maintain

the behavior, possible strategies for coping with such

conditions and behaviors, goal setting, self-monitoring

of behaviors through logs, charts, or diaries, rewards,

and punitive measures.

Behavior Modeling Training may Each module of Behavioral Modeling training tackles a

help enhance accuracy, adaptability, distinct employee problem through a content-focused

initiative, and innovation, as well as lecture, observation of a good method to handle the

empathy, communication, and social circumstance, and then a role-play with feedback, and a

skills. similar format may be utilized in more advanced

360-degree evaluations and In an upper-level seminar-type class, students might use

coaching can help improve self- an online instrument to ask a supervisor (who might also

awareness. supervise professors), peers/friends/family, and those

they lead (a job setting, student organization, or sports

team) to rate them on a number of characteristics. The

students would go through a rigorous reflection on how

to interpret the comments, identifying areas of strength

and places where they might improve. This course

would also include a journaling exercise in which each

student would write a daily entry commenting on how

they felt and responded in at least one particular

incident, focusing on what worked and what didn't, as

well as what they may attempt next time. Finally, the

student would take part in an activity where they would

be videotaped in a restrained atmosphere participating in

a specific interaction, allowing the student and teacher

to discuss and exchange comments.

Anger Management classes can help The university might help students (and employees)

increase self-control, self-awareness, learn how to become more aware of their thoughts and

and empathy. feelings as well as the reactions of others by writing

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 them down as they notice them (increasing awareness),

and how to control them by replacing negative thoughts

with positive ideas. The practice may then be used to

improve empathy by teaching people to pay attention to

what others say and read their fundamental emotional

reactions.

Cognitive methods, self- In a university setting, a course or program may have

management training, and students participate in small group discussions on

accomplishment motivation training sources of success motivation and then have them write

can all help to improve self- stories exhibiting an achievement mindset, followed by

motivation and self-regulation skills. the development of a personal action plan with faculty

comments.

Emotional intelligence Intervention Short lectures, role plays, group discussions, two-person

can help in emotion identification works, and readings may all be part of the intervention,

and management (of one's own and which would take place over a minimum of four weeks.

others' emotions).

Institutions of higher education play a critical role in developing these abilities to prepare

students for success in the workplace as they prepare students to join the workforce. Colleges

and universities gain from developing these abilities in students. These schools may advance

their goals linked to student success by enhancing data assessing student placement after

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graduation, student engagement, and overall student happiness. Kastberg, Buchko, & Buchko

(2020)

Estrada, et al. (2021) conducted a research study examining the relationship between EI

and academic performance through compassion and engagement. They proposed four hypotheses

to investigate this relationship:1- EI has a key direct link to students’ academic performance. 2-

Students' EI is linked to their compassion for their classmates in a clear and beneficial way. 3-

Students' degrees of compassion are connected to their academic involvement in a positive and

direct way. 4- Academic engagement is strongly and closely connected to students’ academic

achievement. They presented these hypotheses in this figure:

The research was conducted as part of a partnership agreement between four Spanish

higher education institutions and one secondary school (from three different regions). Four of the

five institutions participating in the research provide face-to-face instruction (University 1,

University 2, University 3, and a secondary school). The fifth offers online courses mostly to

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students from South America (University 4); thus, allowing a wide range of spectrum such as

region, academic major, course, qualification, and gender, as well as optimizing generalizability

of the results. Estrada, et al. (2021).

The questionnaire items were updated by education professionals and pretested on a

group of 25 students before the fieldwork began, modifying the language and validating the

adequacy of the form, design, difficulty, length, and time it took to complete the questionnaire.

Then, the students were polled using an online questionnaire created by the study team. To

promote honest replies, the questionnaire was made anonymous, and none of the questions

identified the respondents in any manner. The participants were also told that the information

would be anonymized in order to maintain secrecy when the findings were released. The

fieldwork was done between February and June of 2019, and a total of 550 valid responses were

collected. The information gathered from these replies was analyzed to determine the sample's

primary features. All of the scales used to assess the constructs were derived from scales

previously used by other authors and evaluated in prior investigations. Closed attitude questions

were measured on 7-point Likert-type scales, with 1 representing "completely disagree" and 7

representing "absolutely agree" with the proposition. Results show that all the hypotheses were

confirmed, and presented good model fit indicators.

5- Learning difficulties, ADHA and ASD, and Emotional Intelligence

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 Although there are fairly numerous studies about EI’s role in normal students’ academic

performance and success, there is scarce research that explores the impact of EI on students with

autism (ASD) which led to not knowing which interventions should be used with them, Boily,

Kingston, and Montgomery (2017). They conducted a study recruiting thirty-three adolescents

with ASD and twenty-seven normally functioning adolescent. The inclusion criteria for this

study were satisfied by 25 adolescents with ASD (aged 13-17 years; M = 15.08, SD =.96; 18

males, 7 females) and 25 adolescents without ASD (aged 13-17 years; M = 15.05, SD = 1.47; 14

boys, 11 girls). ASD students had to be diagnosed of ASD from a medical doctor, psychologist,

or psychiatrist not associated with the study. students with (ASD) were tested for the first time to

ensure that they have the requisite verbal abilities to read and respond to test protocol items.

Participants with concomitant medical or mental health problems were not excluded from this

study to ensure equity and neutrality. Co - occurring mental health problems were reported by 18

adolescents with ASD, eight reported comorbid anxiety, four reported comorbid depression, and

one reported comorbid obsessive-compulsive disorder. Measured used included WASI, which is

a brief, reliable intellectual functioning measure for individuals aged 6 to 89 years; BarOn

Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version, which is a 30-item, self-report questionnaire

measuring TEI in 7- to18-year-olds. After excluding students who didn’t qualify, results of the

EI validity scale revealed adolescents with ASD showed valid and acceptable replies, the control

group had considerably more negative self-impressions than the normative group.

Climie, et al. (2019) conducted similar research aiming at examining trait and ability EI

in children with ADHD. In their study The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth

Version–short form (EQi:YV-Brief) and the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test

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(MSCEIT-YRV), Youth Research Version were completed by forty-one children with ADHD

(9-11 years old who has lived with their parents or guardians for at least the past five years and

attended school daily and professionally diagnosed ).

Results showed that on either the ability or trait EI tests, children with ADHD did not

vary from the normative data in total EI scores. They did, however, outperform the group on the

MSCEIT-YRV subscale of Managing Emotions and underperform on the MSCEIT-YRV

subscale of Understanding Emotions. Children with ADHD had substantially poorer

Interpersonal and Adaptability EI on the EQi:YV-Brief. When it comes to EI ratings, children

with ADHD are identical to those without ADHD. However, there is some variation in EI

measurements, which should be taken into account when developing intervention programs.

III-Discussion

People can recognize, understand, and manage their own and other people's emotions and

emotional reactions if they have EI. Beginning by learning about oneself and then go to knowing

other people's selves, one learns to cohabit more effectively, which is critical since no one lives

alone in this world and because collaboration and harmony are required to progress oneself and

society as a whole. One can learn to insist, control one’s impulses, live despite adversity and

challenges, hope for, and have empathy with emotional intelligence. According to Trait EI,

Emotional Intelligence allows a better inner world to cope with the outside world, Drigas, &

Papoutsi, (2018).

The outcomes of this literature review postulate the significant role EI abilities of

normative students as well as students with ASD or ADHD play in their learning outcomes and

academic performance. On a variety of characteristics of both trait- and ability-based EI, students

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with ADHD were generally similar to typically developing children, Climie, et al. (2019); never

the less, components of trait and ability EI in students with ASD were considerably lower than in

normally developing students, Boily, Kingston, and Montgomery (2017).

Academic performance can cause worry, boredom, and frustration. If this is the case,

emotion management would be to blame for the negative consequences. Students with greater EI

may be better able to handle their social environment, developing stronger bonds with

instructors, peers, and family which would provide a greater impact on grades than on

standardized test scores, MacCann, et al. (2020).

IV- Conclusion and Implications

EI is a relatively new field of intelligence that provides balance between intellectual and

emotional abilities in order to make the optimum use of mental and emotional capabilities which

lead to better academic performance, better learning outcomes, and a successful life.

On the one hand researchers have successfully carried out many studies aiming to

properly define EI, identify its competencies and models, and come up with efficient scales and

measurement tools that can accurately measure AEI and TAI for people of different ages and

with different disorders such as ASD and ADHD. They have tried to offer several intervention

programs that can improve and enhance EI competencies allowing students of different ages to

improve their EI capabilities.

On the other hand, and as mentioned before, this novel field of science is hungry for more

research and study cases that examine the significance of EI and its roles in enhancing the

abilities and lives of all human kind through improving students’ learning outcomes as well as

academic performance. More research exploring and studying how can students with different

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learning difficulties or disorders such as ASD and ADHD benefit from EI competencies through

originating new and improving current intervention programs.

Word count: 4401

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