Available online at www.ijournalse.

org

Emerging Science Journal

(ISSN: 2610-9182)

Vol. 8, Special Issue, 2024

"Current Issues, Trends, and New Ideas in Education"
Review Article

Cognitive Insights from Emotional Intelligence: A Systematic

Review of EI Models in Educational Achievement

Evgenia Gkintoni 1* , Ioannis Dimakos 1 , Georgios Nikolaou 1

1
Department of Educational Sciences and Social Work, University of Patras, Patras, Greece.

Keywords:
Abstract
Emotional Intelligence;
Objectives: This study aims to investigate the relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Academic Achievement;
and academic achievement within educational settings. It seeks to determine how different EI
models—specifically, Ability EI and Trait EI—impact students' academic performance, behavior, Trait EI;
engagement, and motivation. The goal is to provide insights that can guide the integration of EI Ability EI;
into educational practices to foster a more supportive and effective learning environment.
Mixed Model EI;
Methods/Analysis: The study is based on a systematic review of sixty-four (64) peer-reviewed
studies published between 2016 and 2023. These studies include randomized controlled trials Emotional Regulation;
(RCTs), longitudinal studies, and meta-analyses. The selected studies were analyzed to explore Learning Behavior;
the effects of EI on various academic outcomes, including performance, behavioral engagement,
Educational Setting.
and motivation. Findings: The analysis reveals that both Ability EI and Trait EI are positively
associated with academic success. These models of EI appear to contribute significantly to the
development of key skills such as emotional control, empathy, and problem-solving, which in turn
support effective classroom management and academic achievement. The findings suggest that
incorporating EI into educational curricula can lead to improved communication, better problem- Article History:
solving abilities, and enhanced relationships between students and faculty. These improvements
can create a more conducive learning environment and enhance overall academic outcomes. Received: 02 September 2024
Novelty/Improvement: This study adds to the existing literature by offering a comprehensive Revised: 11 December 2024
review of recent studies that examine the role of EI in academic settings. It highlights the
importance of implementing EI-focused interventions and curricula in schools, emphasizing the Accepted: 23 December 2024
practical implications for educators and policymakers. Published: 18 January 2025

1- Introduction
1-1- Understanding Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Emotional intelligence (EI) is a relatively new concept in psychology that builds on traditional conceptions of
intelligence. Emotional intelligence constitutes one’s knowledge of, attention to, and ability to manage emotional and
cognitive states in oneself and in others. It contains various traits or competencies, such as emotional awareness and
regulation, empathy, and motivation that are fundamental to EI models. Various EI theories and models exist and include
trait models that contain emotion-related competencies as well as the MBC model and the model of Mayer and Salovey.
The latter distinguishes between an emotional and a cognitive aspect of intelligence. EI as a trait competes and detracts
from cognitive abilities such as intelligence and cannot exist, due to this distinctiveness, nor will it have a direct influence
on academic grades or achievement. The latter can, however, be influenced through complex cognitive abilities that
involve emotional competencies [1-3].

* CONTACT: evigintoni@upatras.gr
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/ESJ-2024-SIED1-016
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee ESJ, Italy. This is an open access article under the terms and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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The definition and interpretation of EI in academic environments is important for several reasons. One of these is the
fact that educators are frequently on the lookout for ways to enhance the quality of education. Because emotional and
social learning claim to influence academic performance, EI is a desirable tool to employ to enhance learning, as it
contributes to co-orientation between people by achieving effective social functioning and learning effectiveness.
Moreover, from a broader and more complex point of view, becoming a human being involves the whole individual -
his thoughts, intellect, body, feelings, and emotions. Neuroscience supports the discussion of emotional and intellectual
integration as division levels of mind and below the level of mind. Stress and learning, as an internal chaos reaction,
have a negative influence on a student's ability and capability to learn. Furthermore, a student's interpersonal
relationships in the academic organization will suffer because of a lack of EI on the part of an educator. EI is not the
only requirement for an effective and embracing education system, but it is one that may be needed or utilized to provide
a safe, nurturing, and embracing learning environment. For scholastic advancement, the educational environment is
critical [4-10].

1-2- Cognitive Processes and Educational Achievement

While there is no single explanation for school disparities, evidence has identified cognitive processes relevant to
educational achievement. Educators have demonstrated interest in most of the constructs that make up the
conceptualization of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence has received significant attention due to its potential
connection to school productivity. Research in the field of emotional intelligence has demonstrated different associations
with constructs that often come close to achievement, such as academic self-concept, causal attributions, academic
performance, peer acceptance, and socio-emotional adjustment, control of academic performance, satisfaction, intrinsic
motivation, and engagement. However, the practical implications of emotional intelligence in terms of locus of control
and approach to learning have only been partially addressed, without focusing on the dimensional characterization of
the emotional intelligence construct [11-14]. In the educational field, emotional intelligence research has followed the
general trend of other social and emotional learning constructs, with several studies that provide the positive effects of
intervention programs on various student outcomes; however, there is evidence that the IQ component significantly
affects students with lower metacognitive skills. The conclusion is that students' self-perceived emotional abilities have
a greater impact on academic performance for socially competent and highly metacognitive students because the
cognitive processes are not hindered. However, to our best knowledge, little research to date has integrated
metacognitive skills, age, and gender as moderators in the association between emotional intelligence and academic
performance [15-20].

1-3- Impact of Emotions on Learning

Emotions have been shown to have a relevant impact on the behavior and actions performed by individuals. It is not
controversial to affirm that learning is natural and develops while living. Being part of a learning context is an overall
daily dynamic that involves emotions at different levels during the presence of an individual in an educational context
due to different factors. Each experience contextualized in a specific educational action can elicit different emotions in
the learner, generating specific or different feelings towards that educational context, thus creating a pedagogical
relationship not only with the teacher, but also with knowledge, other students, professionals, and the environment
involved. Considering that, individuals are biologically predisposed to experience several emotions during their life, and
such experiences affect cognition and learning. Nonetheless, it is important not to consider emotions only as a mediator
for cognition, but as an integral part of cognitive activity. Emotion regulation is an essential factor of emotional
intellectual processes related to cognitive skills which influence the behavior of individuals, their performance, and
academic learning [21-28]. Furthermore, emotions have been considered increasingly as being inseparable from
cognitive processes. This is because the new educational perspectives in the scope of planning and carrying out teaching
consider the person, acknowledging the importance of emotions and answering the demands of current society. Those
being, above all, citizens with intellectual and emotional abilities to interpret situations, to think, to act, and to decide in
life, being apt to assume a variety of roles, some not yet dreamed of. This also agrees with the definition of the term
"emotional intelligence" that highlights the role of emotions in the development of intellectual skills. This concept
emerges as a new way of understanding and harboring cognitive abilities and an affective aspect that involves positive
emotions and personal competencies such as social skills, empathy, self-regulation, motivation, self-awareness, and self-
realization [29-32].

1-4- Cognitive Factors in Academic Success

It is no coincidence that academic achievement includes several educational variables. Studies have shown that more
intelligent subjects have a better learning capacity in general, and that intelligence thus forms the foundation of academic
success. Some mention that more intelligent students take on less demanding strategies and that they use more advanced
strategies (which we could attribute to those with better executive functions). Our working hypothesis is that advanced
cognitive capabilities lead directly to better personal adjustment and better social competence. Then, in the case of
students, these attributes become cognitive emotions establishing the relationships with broader constructs and academic

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success [33-40]. It should not be surprising because individually, cognitive factors are moderately related to academic
achievement; in the case of cognitive intelligence, research data suggests that this relation is similarly of moderate
magnitude and magnitude. However, cognitive factors are more strongly related to achievement when we consider
interactions among cognitive variables, general cognitive variables combining different cognitive factors, or social or
other factors interacting with cognitive variables. It is expected because there are currently very powerful statistical
algorithms for modeling regression or classification of variables by interactions such as the path analysis model, but at
the same time, it helps us to be cautious in pointing to unique and multiple factor cognitive strategies as the general
models of the intelligence-achievement relationship [41-45].
Emotional Intelligence (EI) in School Environment
Emotional Intelligence (EI) plays a critical role in the operational and functioning of school environments. It is the
potential that an individual demonstrates to understand, perceive, manage, and use emotions in oneself and towards
others in a positive and resourceful manner. In the educational environment, EI enhances personality development for
both learners and educators to ensure a conducive and effective learning atmosphere [46-49]. The awareness of EI as an
integral component of well-being has continued to increase, with it being considered necessary for overall academic
excellence and interpersonal relationships in schools and other learning institutions. Schools may allow learners to
develop their EI in different ways through the promotion of better communication, conflict management, stress control,
kind and successful relationships between students and teachers, and more. The first work on the modern concept of EI
was carried out in 1990 by Mayer & Salovey [50]. Their cognitive model of EI focused on the ability of an individual
to use their emotions to reason and further employ them to enhance cognitive processes. According to the same author
[50], four key components were proposed: perceiving emotions, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding
emotions, and managing emotions. This model emphasized the significance of emotional competencies in education,
and an individual's ability to self-regulate and perceive emotions in others can significantly influence academic
performance and interaction with others. Studies have shown that individuals with high EI have advanced abilities in
handling stress, effective problem resolution, and the maintenance of social interaction. These characteristics
cumulatively create a conducive and yielding educational environment. EI is one of the most critical aspects that can be
used to create a conducive and effective learning environment. It allows teachers to meet the emotional needs of the
students and to manage them, and it will enable students to self-manage their emotions and respond empathically to
each other [51, 52]. EI is usually divided into two broad categories: as an inborn quality and a learned skill. Indeed,
some definitions mentioned in the literature include both aspects. Therefore, to understand EI in a learning context, both
aspects would be of utmost importance, and it becomes utterly essential to learn about Trait EI, Ability EI, and Mixed
EI. By looking at these three pathways, one can have a better, detailed understanding of Trait EI, Ability EI, and Mixed
EI from where they emerged uniquely, and if some areas require educational support and reinforcement will be
established [12, 30, 39].
Models of EI
The Trait EI model remains anchored firmly in the emotional capabilities assessment and self-perception process
modified by individualistic personality traits. According to it, a person must control and be aware of their emotions to
develop their personality, sustain under varied life contexts, such as education or the workplace, and cope with stressors.
This Ability EI is described as an ability to perceive, understand, and regulate both one's and others' emotions. It is
directly focused on influencing the educational processes, critical thinking, and stress regulation under performance
criteria. This concept influences academic success by creating an atmosphere of empathy that helps in learning through
the improvement of cognitive functions like attention, memory, problem-solving, and the management of stress. A
mixed model of EI contains parts of both the Trait EI and the Ability EI models, placing greater emphasis on
understanding and applying emotional knowledge and skills across several social domains comprehensively. The model
includes such practical features of EI as self-perceptions of abilities and inherent emotional abilities, which run
coherently in educational settings, interpersonal relationships, and personal development [22, 34, 38].
Research Focus
It is in this regard that this paper seeks to analyze carefully the linkages between EI and children, adolescents, and
instructors in a standard school environment. The paper will also try to explore how the influence of these relationships
could reflect on the general culture of the school, interpersonal connections, and educational experiences. The
incorporation of EI into education is growing conspicuously and has the potential to convert educational institutions to
become successful, flexible, and considerate. Emotional intelligence is the understanding and ability to examine
cognitively and perceive one's feelings or another person's in addition to participating in an activity in everyday life
guided by such emotional states and how to combat circumstances that challenge them. Various aspects related to the
day-to-day lives of children and adolescents, including their academic responsibilities, the ambient environment at
school, and their personality traits, are influenced by EI [53-56]. The importance and relevance of EI are reinforced by
the fact that not only its foundations, but also social and demographic dimensions are under research across countries
and cultures. As Geraci et al. (2023) [57] stated, the behaviors of teachers contribute to the significant growth of EI in

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the educational setting. Many research reports have also found a positive impact of academic activities on EI
enhancement [58-60]. The teachers must realize that their EI directly contributes to students and, by way of a reaction,
forms their EI finally. Students develop their own EI in response to the emotional and cognitive interactions they have
with their teachers.
Research Questions
The following section presents a concise overview of seven research questions formulated by analyzing keywords,
grouping, and identifying relevant studies in this systematic review. These research questions pertain to the relationship
between EI and optimal academic performance, focusing on critical factors such as engagement, motivation, personality,
and behavior based on the three conceptual pathways of EI (Trait EI, Ability EI, and Mixed EI):
 [RQ1] How do Trait, Ability, and Mixed models of EI differentially predict academic success in students across
various educational stages?
 [RQ2] What role does Trait EI play in shaping students' motivation and engagement in the classroom compared to
Ability EI?
 [RQ3] How do interventions aimed at enhancing Ability EI impact students' performance on standardized tests
and classroom behavior?
 [RQ4] In what ways do Mixed models of EI provide a more comprehensive understanding of students' academic
achievement and social interactions within the school setting?
 [RQ5] How does the development of EI, as defined by Trait, Ability, and Mixed models, influence teacher-student
relationships and classroom dynamics?
 [RQ6] What are the differential effects of Trait, Ability, and Mixed EI on students' stress management and coping
strategies in academic contexts?
 [RQ7] How do various models of EI correlate with leadership skills and peer relationships among students in
educational settings?
These questions aim to explore the nuanced impacts of different EI models on educational outcomes, offering a
holistic view of how EI shapes academic performance and behavior in educational settings. The synthesized key points
from the present study on EI and academic achievement combining the above research questions (RQs) highlight the
significance of different EI models: Trait EI, Ability EI, and Mixed EI. Trait EI focuses on self-perceptions and
personality traits, positively influencing academic performance, engagement, motivation, teacher-student relationships,
stress management, and leadership skills. Ability EI, centered on processing emotional information, enhances cognitive
functions, stress management, and academic performance, and is crucial in EI interventions. Mixed EI, combining
elements from both Trait and Ability EI, impacts social interactions, emotional skills, and overall academic achievement.
Research questions explored in this context include the prediction of academic success, the role of EI in motivation and
engagement, and the effects of EI interventions on academic outcomes (Figure 1)

Figure 1. Key Points Mind-Map of the Theoretical Research Framework

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2- Literature Review
2-1- Ability EI and Academic Success
EI plays a vital role in academic success through various pathways; potential interventions and forms of support can
be assessed from that point. It is noted from the study that the correlation between academic success and ability EI is
positive, with higher scores on ability EI indicating better performance in academics for the individuals studied [61].
Ability EI is also associated with academic engagement, which is essential for academic success. This is because it
mobilizes active involvement and effort by students toward their studies. The role of ability EI in predicting academic
achievement has been shown to be consistent across many learning environments, such as those in medicine, dentistry,
and e-learning. These results underline the potential of targeted interventions within educational settings and the
multifaceted influence of ability EI on academic success. The pathways through which ability EI leads to academic
success present avenues where critical educational interventions are possible. The same researchers [61] argued that
ability EI development programs should be part of educational curricula with support initiatives because the relationship
between ability EI and academic achievement shows that it is there, but developing students' EI in a bid to increase their
academic performance is worth it.
This is further illustrated by the fact that those interventions aimed at enhancing the emotional skills of students and
their engagement with the learning process have potential since their EI can be promoted toward increased active
engagement in the learning process. The correlation that exists between clinical performance and EI suggests that
professional training programs have the inclusion of EI development for the facilitation of success in clinical practice
by students [62].

2-2- Trait EI and Academic Success

Trait EI is also quite important for the attainment of academic success through various pathways. In such findings,
academic achievement has been noted to be positively associated with the goal setting and planning facets of the trait
EI domain [63]. That is how much these constituents’ matter in the academic setting. Academic resilience is attributed
to trait EI, which allows students to continue and succeed within a challenging environmental context. Further, trait EI
indirectly predicts academic satisfaction through career adaptability, contributing to the general quality of the study and
the well-being by students [64]. These results underline the multifaceted impact of trait EI on academic success and the
areas in which educational intervention and support are needed. The current findings clarify how trait EI influences
academic success. As a recent study by Piqueras et al. [65] indicated, interventions at a targeted level could raise the
emotional skills and resilience of the students to a new level. They also encouraged good mental health and psychosocial
adjustment by targeting emotional education interventions that enhanced resilience. Investments in Trait EI
developmental interventions should be implemented within student support initiatives, as research supports the potential
to contribute to sustained student success, which suggests the importance of programs for trait EI development in
educational settings [66]. The impact that trait EI has on academic achievement is that a student's implicit theories and
EI are ways to facilitate their academic success [67].

2-3- Theoretical Frameworks Differentiating Ability EI and Trait EI

Theoretical frameworks and models discriminating between ability EI and trait EI provide critical insights into the
specific functions of ability EI in academic performance. Tommasi et al. [68] define Mayer and Salovey's model,
representing ability EI, as a kind of intelligence or mental ability that highlights skills in learning, problem-solving, and
attaining goals in life. This model suggests that the development of emotional skills through ability EI can directly
enhance learning, problem-solving, and goal attainment. In contrast to this model, Petrides' trait emotional self-efficacy
model highlights stable personality traits associated with EI and, therefore, represents an alternative approach among
EI-related models using self-report measures in one form or another [69]. Trait models, on the other hand, place much
emphasis on the role of emotional self-efficacy in influencing academic achievement to such an extent that individuals
with higher levels of trait EI will portray greater levels of confidence and competence in their ability to manage feelings,
hence positively affecting their academic performance. The integrated model of affect-related individual differences
supports the view that EI-related characteristics can be considered constituents within the existing models of cognitive
ability (ability EI) and personality (trait EI) [70]. This integrated model suggests that there is an influence from both
traits and abilities of EI on academic achievements and influences, in turn, cognitive ability and personality traits. The
tripartite model of EI offers a full view of the multidimensional impact of EI on academic achievement and is gaining
ground in contexts of performance and health [71]. This model suggests that educational success is considerably
explained by the interaction of trait EI with ability, both through the effects of emotional regulation and well-being.

2-4- EI in Educational Settings

EI is of critical importance in educational environments because it is the ability to use information effectively for the
guidance of cognitive processes and behaviors by recognizing, appraising, and evaluating emotions in oneself and others.
The significance of general well-being and achievement, particularly in educational environments, is becoming more

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widely recognized today [72]. This mixed model of EI about academic achievement and learning behavior is addressed
by various research studies that have combined elements from both the trait model and ability model of EI. Several
research studies have underscored the efficacy of the combined EI model in understanding and predicting academic
success and learning behaviors [73-76]. In children, the relationship between EI and better learning capabilities, as well
as enhanced personal relationships, has been identified. In schools, the implementation of EI learning helps to further
children's understanding and control of their own feelings, which include typical emotions such as frustration, anger, or
upset. It also encourages awareness of other people's feelings, from which healthy social relationships develop. Early
periods of children's development are good periods in which EI can be developed, improving their resilience and capacity
to overcome various obstacles [74, 77].
Most adolescent children experience diverse social situations and emotions. EI can be very beneficial for them since
it enhances their capacity to effectively navigate and manage the myriad issues encountered by adolescents. Adolescents
with high EI are more likely to show better skills in dealing with academic pressures, understanding and controlling
their feelings, and successfully negotiating social situations [78]. This, in turn, translates into better academic
performance, enhanced relationships with others, and lower levels of behavioral problems. Educator priorities can be
such that educators with EI and heightened EI can feel the emotional states of their students and, therefore, better
understand their needs. They enhance the creation of nurturing student relationships and are better at classroom
management strategies. In addition, teachers with high EI are likely to deal better with their emotions and hence will
have reduced burnout and, consequently enhanced job satisfaction. The EI of both students and teachers influences
classroom behavior considerably. Few studies have shown that teacher EI significantly influences teacher-student
interaction in such a way that it increases student achievement and affects classroom discipline. In addition, the level of
pupils' social-emotional and behavioral skills is associated with the classroom management techniques and emotional
expressiveness of their teachers [79].
For instance, EI plays a crucial role in students' motivation to learn. The emotion that students depicted determined
the level of self-regulated learning and motivation, which, in turn, predicted their academic success [80]. EI enables
college students to regulate, manage, and identify emotions. As such, they are highly motivated to study and have an
intense interest in learning [81]. It helps increase the resilience and self-efficacy of students towards online learning
activities. EI should also be built in students because of its strong influence on student engagement and school well-
being in their learning process. Different programs aimed at developing EI have been used in educational research. For
instance, EI skills are developed in pre-adolescents through school-based programs; through such programs,
enhancements have been achieved in the EI abilities of students. There is a very high degree of consistency between
cognitive well-being, EI, and academic achievement. People with high EI possess high cognitive capacity, efficient
emotion regulation, excellent problem-solving ability, and a high level of perseverance under stress, which is crucial for
high academic performance [82].
The present study analyzes the differential impacts of the various EI assessments on academic achievements with an
emphasis on Trait EI, Ability EI, and Mixed EI. High trait EI normally results in awareness of self, emotions, and control
over them; so, it is a positive feature that promotes resilience and ultimately better academic achievement. Trait EI
represents an ability related to self-perception of emotional abilities, whereby this is normally assessed via a self-report
questionnaire. For students, higher Trait EI translates to higher academic engagement and motivation, more positive
classroom behaviors, better interpersonal relationships, and an overall better learning experience. Furthermore, it helps
to reduce academic burnout, enhances academic performance, and provides stress management capabilities. For
example, teachers with high levels of Trait EI have better abilities for coping with stress, which adds value to the learning
outcomes of students and the effectiveness of their teaching [64, 83]. EI abilities are judged mainly by performance
measures and, thereby are marked by authentic skills in processing emotional information and handling social settings.
It needs those cognitive processes such as memory, attention, problem-solving, which are important for academic
achievement, to be honed by competencies like recognition, understanding, and regulation of emotions. Research has
indicated a high correlation with academic achievement and Ability EI, particularly in those disciplines where a high
level of cognition is demanded, e.g., mathematics and science. For instance, the ability to manage emotions allows
students to score high in classroom activities and standardized tests. For example, emotion regulation training is an
approach to enhancing the real emotional skill of students for better performance academically, which has also proved
effective in interventions [84, 85].
The Mixed EI model incorporates components of both Trait and Ability EI, considering self-perceptions and actual
emotional skills. This model integrates self-reported emotional abilities with quantifiable emotional skills to offer a
more comprehensive understanding of the impact of EI on academic performance. Students' social-emotional skills,
attitudes, and well-being are positively impacted by programs based on the Mixed EI model, such as Social and
Emotional Learning (SEL) interventions. These programs help students develop various emotional competencies crucial
for academic success. The Mixed model's integration of Trait and Ability EI facilitates the development of
comprehensive emotional skills, thereby improving students' engagement, motivation, and social interactions in the
school environment [41, 86].

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In summary, Trait EI primarily influences academic attainment through self-perceptions and personality traits, which
in turn affect students' engagement, motivation, and stress management. Academic performance is influenced by EI
through measurable emotional skills that improve cognitive functions and problem-solving abilities. Mixed EI is a
comprehensive approach that supports interventions enhancing a broad spectrum of emotional and social skills by
integrating components of both models. The significance of integrating EI into educational practices to promote
academic success and overall student well-being is emphasized by these differential effects. The research emphasizes
the necessity of targeted EI interventions and curricula that address both Trait and Ability EI to establish supportive
learning environments and improve academic outcomes [53, 87]. It is crucial to recognize that academic success is
significantly influenced by EI through a variety of pathways, such as academic achievement, engagement, and clinical
performance. Theoretical frameworks and models offer valuable insights into the unique contributions of ability EI and
trait EI to academic achievement. Students' academic performance, resilience, engagement, motivation, and emotional
regulation are all influenced by their EI. By integrating EI development programs into educational environments,
educators and practitioners can establish a supportive environment that encourages students' emotional skills and
engagement, thereby contributing to their academic success [80].

3- Materials and Methods

This study thoroughly analyzes the current body of literature conducted in the English language. The assignment
required performing a literature search on EI, adhering to the PRISMA guidelines that specify the recommended
reporting items for systematic reviews [88]. The study employed the following criteria to determine which articles would
be included: 1) Articles must be written in English. 2) Articles must be produced between 2016 and 2023. 3) Articles
must be relevant to the subjects of psychology and education. 4) Articles must be in the final stage of publishing. 5)
Verification is required to confirm that the content is highly pertinent to the subject. The study examined articles about
the EI of students, teachers, and the wider educational environment. After thoroughly searching databases and applying
appropriate filters, 462 articles were identified in the first step, Identification. In the second step, known as Screening, a
total of 210 articles were subjected to Screening based on their titles. Out of these, 112 articles were removed due to
titles that were irrelevant to the topic, and 6 articles were excluded due to language restrictions. Additionally, 7 articles
still need to be retrieved. As a result, a total of 85 articles were distinguished, with 21 being non-reviews and therefore
excluded. In the last stage (Included), after thorough deliberation, 64 papers were selected for additional examination
(Figure 2).

Identification of studies via databases and registers

Records identified from:

Identification

MEDLINE (n=115) Records removed before screening:

Web of Science (n=136)  Duplicate records removed (n = 140)
PsycINFO (n=121)  Records <2016 (n = 112)
Scopus (n=462)

Records excluded:
Records screened:  Records removed for title with non-relevant
(n = 210) topic (n=112).
 Records remove for language (n = 6).
Screening

Reports sought for retrieval: Reports not retrieved:

(n = 92)  (n = 7)

Reports assessed for eligibility: Reports excluded:

(n = 85)  Non-Reviews (n = 21)
Included

Studies included in review:

(n = 64)

Figure 2. Flowchart of PRISMA Methodology

A total of 64 studies that formed the basis of this systematic review were selected based on predefined inclusion and
exclusion criteria. The search considered only English language articles published between 2016 and 2023. Regarding

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direct relevance to psychology, education, or EI, priority was given to finding peer-reviewed research which was final-
stage published. The eligibility criterion would be that only those studies which have solely targeted the emotional
intelligence of students and/or teachers and/or educational environment would be included. The methodologies could
include RCTs, longitudinal studies, reviews, or meta-analyses. In this line, exclusion criteria included eliminating studies
published in a language other than English and unrelated papers to the key issues studied. For this reason, studies were
excluded with non-relevant titles presenting a duplicate study issue or those whose year of publication was earlier than
2016. Besides that, papers reporting non-review studies or failing to present a systematic or methodological approach
were not considered. Since this is so, only high-quality and relevant articles will be selected for analysis using the
PRISMA methodology.
The AMSTAR-2 tool was employed to evaluate the quality of the included studies, with an emphasis on seven critical
criteria. The risk of bias assesses the potential for bias to arise from the study's design or execution. Inconsistency
evaluates the degree of variability among studies, with higher ratings suggesting greater variability. On the other hand,
indirectness evaluates whether the evidence directly addresses the research question, with lower ratings indicating direct
applicability. Imprecision is a metric that quantifies the degree of certainty surrounding the effect estimates, with higher
ratings indicating a greater degree of uncertainty. Publication bias assesses the probability that published results deviate
systematically from unpublished ones, with higher ratings suggesting a substantial risk. The confidence in the study's
findings is determined by an aggregate assessment of the overall quality of evidence, which considers all other domains.
A comprehensive overview of the methodological quality and reliability of each study is facilitated by the color-coding
of each criterion, which is rated as 'Low', 'Moderate', or 'High' for visual clarity (See Table 1).

Table 1. Quality Assessment of Included Studies (N=64)

Publication Quality of
Reference Risk of Bias Inconsistency Indirectness Imprecision
Bias Evidence
Agnoli et al., 2022 [89] Low Low Low Low Low High
Alam et al., 2021 [90] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Amirian et al., 2020 [91] High High High High High Low
Bakadorova & Raufelder, 2017 [92] Low Low Low Low Low High
Camacho-Morles et al., 2021 [76] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Chen and Zhang, 2022 [93] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Pascual et al., 2019 [94] High High High High High Low
Costa & Faria, 2023 [75] Low Low Low Low Low High
López-Cassà et al., 2022 [86] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Forsblom et al., 2022 [95] Low Low Low Low Low High
Frenzel et al., 2018 [96] Low Low Low Low Low High
Garon-Carrier et al., 2016 [97] High High High High High Low
Geraci et al., 2023 [57] Low Low Low Low Low High
Luque-González et al., 2022 [48] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
González-Alonso et al., 2020 [98] Low Low Low Low Low High
Gustavsen, 2017 [99] Low Low Low Low Low High
Hong et al., 2020 [100] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Joulaei et al., 2022 [101] Low Low Low Low Low High
Jung et al., 2023 [54] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Vineeth Kumar & Tankha, 2023 [102] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Kwon et al., 2018 [103] High High High High High Low

Lang, 2018 [104] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate

Lei & Cui, 2016 [87] Low Low Low Low Low High

Lei et al., 2018 [105] Low Low Low Low Low High

Li & Xu, 2019 [106] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate

Li et al., 2022 [107] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate

Lichtenfeld et al., 2023 [108] Low Low Low Low Low High

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 Emerging Science Journal | Vol. 8, Special Issue, 2024

Lim, 2023 [74] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate

Linden et al., 2017 [109] Low Low Low Low Low High
Lozano-Blasco et al., 2022 [110] High High High High High Low
Maamari & Majdalani, 2019 [111] Low Low Low Low Low High
Maamari & Salloum, 2023 [112] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
MacCann et al., 2020 [73] High High High High High Low
Mahmud, 2020 [113] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Manwaring et al., 2017 [114] Low Low Low Low Low High
Martin, & Collie, 2019 [115] Low Low Low Low Low High
Mendo-Lázaro et al., 2018 [116] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Muhtadi et al., 2022 [117] Low Low Low Low Low High
Nasti et al., 2023 [55] High High High High High Low
Nasvytienė & Lazdauskas, 2021 [118] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Olderbak et al., 2018 [119] Low Low Low Low Low High
Pekrun et al., 2017 [120] High High High High High Low
Pozo-Rico et al., 2023 [51] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Quílez-Robres et al., 2021 [121] Low Low Low Low Low High
Quiroz, 2020 [122] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Salmela‐ Aro et al., 2021 [123] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016 [124] Low Low Low Low Low High
Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2020 [125] Low Low Low Low Low High
Sofeia, 2023 [126] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Tang & He, 2023 [81] Low Low Low Low Low High
Tartakovsky & Vorobiova, 2022 [127] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Taylor et al., 2017 [128] Low Low Low Low Low High
Thornberg et al., 2020 [129] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Ulmanen et al., 2016 [130] Low Low Low Low Low High
Walker et al., 2022 [131] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Wang & Liu, 2023 [132] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Wang & Wang, 2022 [133] Low Low Low Low Low High
Wang et al., 2016 [134] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Wang et al., 2021 [135] Low Low Low Low Low High
Xu et al., 2019 [136] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Xu et al., 2020 [137] Low Low Low Low Low High
Zee & Koomen, 2019 [138] Low Low Low Low Low High
Zhen et al., 2020 [139] Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Zhoc et al., 2020 [140] Low Low Low Low Low High

Additionally, using the PRISMA methodology described above, all the obtained articles are listed in Table 2. To
fulfill this objective, a comprehensive search was conducted in Scopus, PsycINFO, PubMed, and WoS databases. The
search used the following keywords: EI, student/teacher, academic performance, and school setting. The present study
incorporated various types of studies, which were classified into three primary categories: (a) Randomized Controlled
Trial (RCT), b) Longitudinal, c) Review and Metanalysis. The Figure 3 presents a visually updated representation of the
classification of Emotional Intelligence (EI) models across different study types. It categorizes the models into three
main types: Trait AI, Ability EI, and Mixed EI, and compares them across three different research methodologies:
Review and Meta-Analysis, Longitudinal studies, and Randomized Controlled Trials (RCT). The data clearly illustrates
that Trait AI is the most frequently analyzed across all study types, with the highest count in Review and Meta-Analysis
studies, while Mixed EI also shows significant representation across all methodologies (Figure 3).

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Table 2. Main Results and Study Characteristics

Research
Authors Sample Outcomes Measured Main Findings EI Model
Design
 Educational intervention aimed at increasing the cognitive
 Creative Potential and metacognitive parts of children's creativity could be more
Agnoli et al., 2022 beneficial for children characterized by low levels of EI
RCT 448 children  Emotional Intelligence Trait EI
[89]  The analysis showed, indeed, that the training had positive
 Academic Performance effects on the ability to create original content in children
with low and medium levels of EI

 E-learning and EI have a significant influence on perceived

study stress, burnout, and performance of Pakistani students.
 Perceived Study Stress
Alam et al., 2021  Emotion regulation theory can be applied to understand the
RCT 387 students  Burnout Trait EI
[90] effects of e-learning and EI on students.
 Performance of Students
 EI has a significant impact on the psychological pressure of a
student.

 Cognitive rehabilitation is effective in improving academic

achievement in students with PTSD (P<0.01).
 Academic Achievement  Emotion regulation can moderate the effect of cognitive
Amirian et al., 2020  Emotion Regulation rehabilitation on academic achievement (P<0.05).
RCT 48 students Ability EI
[91]  Cognitive Abilities  Cognitive rehabilitation can strengthen cognitive abilities and
 Cognitive rehabilitation components related to executive functions, leading to
improved educational performance and academic
achievement in students with PTSD.

 There is a positive association between adolescents’ school

 Students’ Perception Of Peers self-concept and engagement.
Bakadorova & As Positive Motivators  Students’ perception of peers as positive motivators at the
1088 students & 845  Behavioral School Engagement
Raufelder, 2017 Longitudinal beginning of 8th grade positively predicts their behavioral Trait EI
students
[92]  Emotional School Engagement school engagement at the end of 9th grade.
 Students’ School Self Concept  Behavioral school engagement at T1 functions as a predictor
of a student’s school self-concept at T2.

 There is a positive relation between enjoyment of learning and

academic performance (ρ = .27), whereas the relations were
negative for both anger (ρ = − .35) and boredom (ρ = − .25).
 Academic Performance
 Relations of activity emotions with academic performance are
Review, 68, 31,868, 11,153,  Enjoyment of Learning stronger when students are in secondary school compared with
Camacho-Morles et
Meta- 1,418, 28,410,  Emotions both primary school and college, and when the emotions are Mixed EI
al., 2021 [76]
Analysis children/students  Self-regulation measured by the Achievement Emotions Questionnaires –
Mathematics (AEQ-M).
 Cognition
 Achievement emotions are linked to motivational, self-
regulatory, and cognitive processes that are crucial for
academic success.

 Emotional intelligence appears to positively predict creativity

 Self-Efficacy self-efficacy, and it seems that this is also influenced by self-
Chen and Zhang,
RCT 231 students  Emotional Intelligence esteem. Trait EI
2022 [93]
 Self-Esteem  Gender seems to have an influential role mainly in self-
esteem and positively affects boys and not girls

 A meta-analysis of 21 samples (n = 7,947) demonstrated a

moderately significant weighted effect size (r = 0.365)
between executive functions and academic performance in
primary education (6–12 years).
Review,  Academic Performance
Pascual et al., 2019  Working memory had the highest presence (k = 14, n = 3,740)
Meta- 7,947 children  Language Performance Ability EI
[94] and predictive weight for performance, with an effect size of
Analysis  Mathematics Performance r = 0.370 for random effects, with a moderate level of
significance.
 Gender resulted in a value of R2 = 0.49; the age variable was
not significant.

 Implicit theories of ITEI are related to EI (ability and trait) in

 Implicit Theories of EI (ITEI) the following year.
 Emotional Intelligence  ITEI is linked to students' emotions towards school and
Costa & Faria, 2023
Longitudinal 222 students  Emotions Towards School academic achievement (Portuguese academic grade) at the Mixed EI
[75]
 Academic Achievement end of secondary school.
 Negative Emotions  Ability and trait EI mediate the link of entity ITEI and
negative emotions and achievement.

 There is correlation of b2 {big two personality factors} and

b1{Big one personality factor} personality factors with EI.
López-Cassà et al.,  Personality
RCT 259 students  There is not much influence of the b5 {big 5 personality Trait EI
2022 [86]  Emotional Intelligence
factors} factors on EI, except for 2 that appeared to predict it
and these were impulsiveness and neuroticism.

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 Control-value appraisals influence the emotions, and the

 Perceived Competence In Math emotions influence achievement.
 Perceived Value Of Math  Enjoyment positively predicted subsequent math
Forsblom et al.,
Longitudinal 1,716 students  Math Emotions (Enjoyment, achievement, while anger and boredom negatively predicted
Trait EI
2022 [95] Anger, And Boredom) achievement.
 Math Achievement (School  Achievement showed reciprocal positive predictive effects on
Grades In Math) subsequent perceived competence, value, and enjoyment, and
negative effects on subsequent anger and boredom.

 A reciprocal effects model of teacher and student enjoyment

 Teachers' Enjoyment was proposed and tested, which suggests that there are positive
 Students' Enjoyment reciprocal links between teachers’ and students’ enjoyment.

69 teachers & 1,643  Teachers' Observations of
The model was supported by 3-wave longitudinal data
Frenzel et al., 2018
Longitudinal Students' Engagement in Class collected from 69 teachers and their 1,643 students. Trait EI
[96] students
 Students' Perceptions of  Teacher and student enjoyment were found to be positively
Teachers' Enthusiasm During related to each other, and these links were mediated by
Teaching teachers’ and students’ observations of each other’s classroom
behaviors.

 Achievement predicted intrinsic motivation from Grades 1 to

 Intrinsic Motivation Toward 2, and from Grades 2 to 4.
Garon-Carrier et
Longitudinal 1,478 students Mathematics  Intrinsic motivation did not predict achievement at any time. Mixed EI
al., 2016 [97]
 Achievement In Mathematics  This developmental pattern of association was gender
invariant.

 Burnout  Teachers reported feeling more burnout and lower self-

esteem because of distance learning
 Work Engagement
Geraci et al., 2023 65 early childhoods  The negative effects of COVID-19 differed according to
RCT  Academic Performance Trait EI
[57] to secondary teachers levels of EI
 Self-Efficacy
 The higher EI teachers have, the better they can deal with
 Emotional Intelligence these negative effects

 The dimension of emotional restoration, emotional clarity

and emotional attention were the highest. Levels of EI and
level of school climate were higher in Spanish students
Luque-González et  Emotional Intelligence
RCT 1,104 students  Girls showed higher scores compared to boys on emotional Trait EI
al., 2022 [48]  School Climate
attention. There was a correlation between school climate and
EI, gender and country are unrelated to the relationship
between school climate and dimensions of EI

 The ICCC programme was effective in reducing levels of

conflict and improving perceptions of bullying among
 Level Of Conflict Secondary Education students.
 Perceptions About Bullying
González-Alonso et  There were no differences between the control and
Longitudinal 55 students  Behaviour Of Students Based on experimental groups in terms of gender. Ability EI
al., 2020 [98]
Their Level of Coexistence With
The Group Of Classmates  The programme should be implemented over a longer period
of time in order to improve school coexistence and social
skills of students from the early stages of education.

 Teacher-rated social skills at T1 had a significant influence

 Teacher Rated Academic on boys’ and girls’ academic achievement two years later, but
Achievement in Norwegian the fixed effect varied by subject.
Gustavsen, 2017  Teacher Rated Academic  Social skills seemed to explain the variance in mathematics
Longitudinal 2,266 teachers Ability EI
[99] Achievement in Mathematics and Norwegian but not English, when controlling for
 Teacher Rated Academic previous academic achievement.
Achievement in English  There were no gender differences in the influence of social
skills on academic achievement.

 Behavioural engagement stably predicted cognitive and

emotional engagement over time.
 Behavioural Engagement  The prediction of cognitive engagement on emotional
Hong et al., 2020
Longitudinal 789 students/teachers Cognitive Engagement engagement was not consistent from T1 to T2 and from T2 to Trait EI
[100]
 Emotional Engagement T3.
 Emotional engagement significantly predicted behavioural
and cognitive engagement only from T2 to T3.

 The practice of resilience positively affects the development

of EI, especially in boys, since mainly in them a significant
 Resilience statistical difference is observed in EI performances
Joulaei et al., 2022
RCT 191 students concerning, for example, problem solving, happiness, Trait EI
[101]  Emotional Intelligence impulse control, self-awareness, optimism, self-
concentration and more generally EI at the level of the
intervention.

 Emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between

115 school-aged  Shyness shyness and internalizing behaviors.
Jung et al., 2023
RCT children (8-9 years  Emotional Intelligence Trait EI
[54]
old) and their parents  Social Skills  Emotional intelligence may help avoid internalizing
behaviors for some shy children in middle childhood.

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 Emotional Intelligence  The Big Five factors, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness,

Vineeth Kumar &
RCT 342 students Extraversion, Receptiveness, and Openness, served as Trait EI
Tankha, 2023 [102]  Personality predictors of Global Trait EI.

 Cross-lagged path analyses indicated significant directional

effects from negative emotionality and emotion regulation to
 Negative Emotionality
achievement, but not vice versa.
Kwon et al., 2018  Emotion Regulation
Longitudinal 199 children  The link from negative emotionality and emotion regulation Ability EI
[103]  Achievement to achievement was mediated through academic engagement.
 Academic Engagement
 Promoting children's academic skills might have a broader
positive impact on children's emotional development.

 A 5-week EI training program did not result in a meaningful

improvement in regulated negative emotion dimensions and
perceived empathy when post training changes were
compared between both groups.
 Regulated Negative Emotion
Lang, 2018 [104] RCT 40 students  80% of people's success relates to skills that are in some way Ability EI
 Perceived Empathy related to EI.
 An appropriate control group plays an important role in
studies evaluating interventions to survey EI on the emotion
regulation of bullying students.

 There was a positive correlation between positive high-

arousal (PHA) and positive low-arousal (PLA) emotions and
academic achievement (r PHA = .312, r PLA = .376).

 Academic Achievement  There was a negative correlation between negative high-

Lei & Cui, 2016 Meta-
17,548 students arousal (NHA) and negative low-arousal (NLA) emotions Mixed EI
[87] Analysis  Emotional Regulation and academic achievement (r NHA = -.179, r NLA = -.371).
 The effects of academic emotions on academic achievement
were moderated by regional location, age, achievement
domain match, and gender.
 There was a moderately strong and positive correlation
between overall student engagement and academic
 Overall Student Engagement achievement.
 Behavioral Engagement  An analysis of the domains of behavioral, emotional, and
Lei et al., 2018 Meta-
196,473 students  Emotional Engagement cognitive engagement showed that almost all had a positive Ability EI
[105] Analysis
 Cognitive Engagement correlation with students’ academic achievement.
 Academic Achievement  The relationship between student engagement and academic
achievement was influenced by the method of reporting
engagement, cultural value, and gender.
 A correlational study showed medium correlations between
students’ EI, FLE, and FLA.
 Foreign Language Enjoyment  An intervention study showed that a PP-based EI intervention
Li & Xu, 2019 (Fle) was effective in improving EI, boosting more positive
RCT 1,718 students Trait EI
[106]  Foreign Language Anxiety (Fla) classroom emotions and alleviating negative classroom
 Emotional Intelligence (Ei) emotions.
 The findings have theoretical and practical implications for
L2 education.
 Child Psychological Abuse and  CPAN at T1 was associated with academic achievement at
Neglect (Cpan) T2, mediated by learning engagement at T1.
 Children’s Learning  Family SES at T1 moderated the relationship between
Li et al., 2022 Engagement
Longitudinal 271 children learning engagement at T1 and academic achievement at T2. Trait EI
[107]
 Family Socioeconomic Status  Learning engagement is a critical factor in children’s
(Family Sees) academic achievement, especially for those from low SES
 Academic Achievement families.
 Enjoyment
 Boredom  Enjoyment decreased, whereas boredom and anxiety
 Anxiety remained relatively stable across second to fourth grade.
 Students’ Emotions During  Enjoyment positively predicted subsequent achievement, and
Lichtenfeld et al.,
Longitudinal 670 students Learning achievement positively predicted subsequent enjoyment. Trait EI
2023 [108]
 Students’ Emotions When  Boredom and anxiety negatively predicted subsequent
Taking Test and Exams in Math achievement, and achievement negatively predicted
 School Grades in Math subsequent boredom and anxiety.
 Math Achievement Test Scores

 Emotional Intelligence  The experimental group showed a statistically significant

improvement in some areas of EI, specifically in self-
Lim, 2023 [74] RCT 48 children  Social Skills Mixed EI
awareness and relationship management, compared to the
 Self-awareness control group.

 General Factor of Personality  There is a large overlap between the GFP and trait EI (r ≈ .85).
(Gfp)
 There is a positive, but more moderate, correlation with ability
Linden et al., 2017 Meta-  Emotional Intelligence
36,268 students EI (r ≈ .28). Trait EI
[109] Analysis
 Trait Ei  The GFP is very similar, perhaps even synonymous, to trait
 Ability Ei EI.

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 Emerging Science Journal | Vol. 8, Special Issue, 2024

 Intelligence is a significant, positive and moderate predictor

of academic performance (r = 0.367; p < 0.001).
Meta-
 The predictive capacity of intelligence on school
Lozano-Blasco et Analysis,
42,061 students  Academic Performance performance is influenced by the type of intelligence and the Ability EI
al., 2022 [110] Systematic
country of origin.
Review
 Age and gender do not have a significant influence on the
predictive capacity of intelligence on academic performance.

 The primary factor that will increase the EI of students is not

the EI of the teacher, but the class interactions.
Maamari &  Student Satisfaction  Universities should hire emotionally intelligent teachers to
283 students & 10
Majdalani, 2019 RCT
teachers  Emotional Intelligence (Ei) Of increase the EI of their students. Trait EI
[111] Students  Increasing the EI of students will improve the business
situation of universities, as students will be more likely to
remain and encourage others to do so.
 High EI is important for teaching effectiveness at universities.
 Personality traits of the teacher moderate the positive
Maamari & 410 students & 32 relationship between EI and teaching effectiveness.
RCT  Teaching Effectiveness Trait EI
Salloum, 2023 [112] teachers  Universities should hire emotionally intelligent teachers and
conduct EI workshops for existing teachers in order to
improve their EI skills.
 EI is associated with academic performance (ρ = .20).
 Academic Performance  Ability EI is a stronger predictor of academic performance
MacCann et al., Meta-
42,529 students than self-rated or mixed EI (ρ = .24, .12, and .19 respectively). Mixed EI
2020 [73] Analysis  Emotional Intelligence
 EI is the third most important predictor for academic
performance, after intelligence and conscientiousness.
 The intervention had a significant positive impact on empathy.
 Focus group findings highlighted ways the intervention
 Empathy helped pupils to address negative emotions, cope and manage
Mahmud, 2020
RCT 60 students difficult problems. Mixed EI
[113]  Emotional Management
 The paper highlights a context-specific approach to support
programmes, based on the inclusion of an exploratory phase
when designing such interventions.
 Academic Achievement
 Retention  Emotional and cognitive engagement are highly correlated,
but emotional engagement does not necessarily lead to
 Graduation higher levels of cognitive engagement.
 Behavioral Engagement
 Course design and student perception variables have a
Manwaring et al., Review,  Emotional Engagement greater influence on engagement than individual student
68 students Mixed EI
2017 [114] Longitudinal  Cognitive Engagement characteristics.
 Student Control Appraisals  Student multitasking has a strong negative influence on
 Value Appraisals engagement, while students’ perceptions of the importance
of the activity has a strong positive influence on both
 Achievement Goals cognitive and emotional engagement.
 Classroom Environment
 There is a significant linear effect, with an increase in the
number of positive relationships (relative to negative
relationships) with teachers predicting greater school
engagement.
 Academic Participation  When the relational balance became predominantly negative,
Martin, & Collie, 2,079
Longitudinal  Enjoyment students’ engagement was lower, but did not decline with an Trait EI
2019 [115] students/teachers
 Aspirations increasing number of negative teacher–student relationships.
 When the relational balance became predominantly positive,
students’ engagement was higher and became increasingly
more so as the number of positive teacher–student
relationships outnumbered the negative.
 Social Skills Necessary for  Cooperative learning in university classrooms is effective in
Teamwork developing the social skills necessary for teamwork.
 Behavior Patterns in Social  The number of students in a group, the basic social skills, and
Mendo-Lázaro et Skills Concerning Self Assertion the academic level of the students are relevant factors related
RCT 346 students Trait EI
al., 2018 [116]  Behavior Patterns in Social with efficacy.
Skills Concerning Reception  Continuity over time in the use of the cooperative
and Imparting Of Information In methodology is what marks the greatest differences in the
Teamwork Situations development of the social skills necessary for teamwork.
 A meta-analysis of 36 primary studies with a sample of 2474
found that EI has a large effect on mathematics achievement
in Indonesia (M = 0.65).
 Emotional Intelligence  Analysis of moderator variables found that there was a
Muhtadi et al., 2022 Meta-
2474 students significant difference in the education level group (Qb = Ability EI
[117] Analysis  Mathematics Achievement 62.94; p<0.05).
 There was no difference in the publication type group (Qb =
0.64; p>0.05) and year of publication group (Qb = 4.16;
p>0.05).

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 Personality
 Bullying  Emotional intelligence mediates the relationship between the
Nasti et al., 2023
RCT 199 children Big Five personality traits and bullying, reducing the risk of Trait EI
[55]  Emotional Intelligence engaging in bullying acts
 Empathy

 Positive association between effortful control (EC) and

academic performance.
Nasvytienė &  Academic Achievement
Lazdauskas, 2021
Meta-
79,913 students  Inverse relationship between negative affectivity (NA) and Trait EI
[118]
Analysis  Emotional Regulation academic performance.
 No apparent trend of surgency (SU) in the relationship
between temperament and academic achievement.

 4 Branch Model of Ability EI

 Fluid Intelligence (Gf)  The strength of relations between the four-branch model of
ability EI and fluid (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc)
 Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) were equivalent.
Olderbak et al., Meta-  Understanding Emotions
15,333 students  Understanding emotions had the strongest relation with Gf/Gc Ability EI
2018 [119] Analysis
 Facilitating Thought Using combined (ρ = .43).
Emotion
 Relations between perceiving emotion and Gf/Gc were
 Managing Emotions moderated by stimulus type.
 Perceiving Emotion
 Positive Emotions (Enjoyment,
Pride)  Positive emotions (enjoyment, pride) positively predicted
subsequent achievement in math.
 Negative Emotions (Anger,
Pekrun et al., 2017
Longitudinal 3,425 students Anxiety, Shame, Boredom,  Achievement positively predicted positive emotions. Ability EI
[120]
Hopelessness)
 Negative emotions (anger, anxiety, shame, boredom,
 Achievement (Math End of The hopelessness) negatively predicted achievement.
Year Grades and Test Scores)

 The 14-week teacher training program had a positive impact

on teacher well-being, resilience, emotional competence, and
 Teacher Well Being self-efficacy.
Pozo-Rico et al.,  Resilience  The program was linked to the introduction of innovative and
RCT 141 teachers Mixed EI
2023 [51]  Emotional Competence effective teacher methodologies.
 Self-Efficacy  The training contributes to teacher empowerment and provides
knowledge, strategies, and resources for greater innovation
and quality in the classroom.

 A moderate positive effect size was found for motivational and

social factors, and a small positive effect size was found for
emotional factors on academic achievement in children aged
6–12 years.
 Academic Achievement
 Emotional Factors  Age and geographical area had a moderating effect on the
Quílez-Robres et al., Meta-
15,777 children relationship between motivational, emotional, and social Mixed EI
2021 [121] Analysis  Social Factors factors and academic achievement.
 Motivational Factors
 These results highlight the importance of motivational and
social factors regarding academic achievement, and the need
to design school plans that address the correct development of
these variables.

 A pre-experimental study was conducted with 382 university

students from different areas of study.
 The BarOn's ICE EI inventory was used to measure pre and
Quiroz, 2020 [122] RCT 382 students  Emotional Intelligence post results. Mixed EI
 Significant differences were found between the pre and post
results after applying the PRODPE program, indicating that
the program was successful in developing emotional skills.

 104 studies of 104,304 adolescents published during 2010-

2020 were included in the review.
 Antecedents Of Engagement
Salmela‐ Aro et al., Review,  Most studies focused on antecedents of engagement rather
104,304 students  Outcomes Of Engagement (Not Mixed EI
2021 [123] Longitudinal than outcomes of engagement.
as Commonly Studied)
 Most studies focused on behavioral engagement, followed by
emotional and cognitive engagement.

 There is a positive significant relationship between EI and

SWB (ȓ = 0.32).
 Emotional Intelligence
 Subjective Well Being (Swb)  The relationship between EI and SWB is higher in studies
Sánchez-Álvarez et Meta- 8520
using self-report mixed EI instruments (ȓ = 0.38). Mixed EI
al., 2016 [124] Analysis students/teachers  Cognitive Component of Swb
 Affective Component of Swb  There is a larger association between EI and the cognitive
component of SWB (ȓ = 0.35) than with the affective
component (ȓ = 0.29).

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 A significant effect of EI on AP was found (Z¯ = 0.26).

 Average association between EI and AP was higher in studies
Sánchez-Álvarez et Meta-  Emotional Intelligence measured EI as ability (Z¯ = 0.31) than in studies measured EI
19,861 students Ability EI
al., 2020 [125] Analysis  Academic Performance as self-report (Z¯ = 0.24) or self-report mixed EI (Z¯ = 0.26).
 This meta-analysis provides information on the specific role
of EI as a function of used measures.

 Perceived teacher-student and peer interactions significantly

impact students' self-efficacy and emotional value
expectations.
 Self-Efficacy
 Self-efficacy and emotional value expectations mediate the
Sofeia, 2023 [126] RCT 265 teachers/students  Emotional Value Expectations Trait EI
relationship between perceived teacher-student and peer
 Deep Learning Behavior interactions and deep learning.
 Micro ecosystems can influence individuals' intrinsic belief
values, which can, in turn, affect their behaviour.

 A negative correlation was found between university

students' anxiety and academic performance during the
COVID-19 pandemic (r = −0.211).\

 Anxiety  Subgroup analysis found no significant regulatory effects for

Tang & He, 2023 Meta-
1,205 students the year of publication, country development level, student Ability EI
[81] Analysis  Academic Performance type, or anxiety type.
 Negative emotions induced by the pandemic are the most
significant factor linking anxiety to poor academic
performance.

 Exposure to terror attacks from the Gaza Strip was associated

with increased PTSD symptoms among immigrants from the
Former Soviet Union to Israel.
 Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Tartakovsky & (Ptsd) Symptoms  Social support from both the immigrant group and the larger
Vorobiova, 2022 RCT 601 students society buffered the effect of exposure to terror attacks on Mixed EI
 Cultural Identities
[127] PTSD symptoms.
 Social Support
 Identification with the group and adherence to the group’s
cultural practices predicted social support received from the
group.

 School-based SEL interventions have a positive effect on

 Social Emotional Skills youth development, including social-emotional skills,
 Attitudes attitudes, and indicators of well-being.
Taylor et al., 2017 Meta-
97,406 students  Indicators Of Well Being  Benefits were similar regardless of students' race, Mixed EI
[128] Analysis
 Graduation socioeconomic background, or school location.
 Safe Sexual Behaviors  Postintervention social-emotional skill development was the
strongest predictor of well-being at follow-up.

 Teacher-student relationship quality was found to predict

student engagement one year later, even when controlling for
sex, age, and prior student engagement.
Thornberg et al., 234 students & 120  Affective Engagement  The longitudinal association between teacher-student
Longitudinal Ability EI
2020 [129] teachers  Behavioural Engagement relationship quality and student engagement was
unidirectional.
 Two significant categories emerged from the qualitative
findings: ‘teacher being’ and ‘teacher doing’.
 Students' Emotional
Engagement  Emotional engagement remained stable over time.
 Emotional Engagement in  Teacher-student relationships associated with emotional
Ulmanen et al., Teacher Student Relationships engagement in peer relations.
Longitudinal 170 students Mixed EI
2016 [130]  Emotional Engagement in Peer  The association between teacher-student and peer‐ group
Relations relations was stronger among the secondary school students
 Perceived Peer Group Relations than among the primary school students.
Over Time
 Lower anxious and avoidant attachment styles are
significantly associated with both EI rating-scales and ability
EI.
Walker et al., 2022 Meta-  Attachment Styles
6914 students  Secure attachment is significantly associated with EI rating- Ability EI
[131] Analysis  Emotional Intelligence (Ei) scales only.
 EI type significantly moderated the EI/avoidant attachment
association only.

 A moderate-to-large effect size was found between EI and L2

achievement (r = .43).

Wang & Liu, 2023

Review,  Actual Language Performance  The effect was stronger for female, collectivistic culture, and
Meta- 6,571 students final grades as language measures. Mixed EI
[132]
Analysis  Perceived Language Proficiency
 The effect was not influenced by educational level, major,
specificity of L2 achievement, skills of language learning or
publication year.

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 Results of the meta-analysis showed moderate to large meta-

correlations between EI, self-efficacy (SE), and burnout
 Emotional Intelligence among foreign language teachers.
Review,
Wang & Wang,
Meta- 5,665 teachers  Self-Efficacy  EI and SE were positively correlated with each other, but Trait EI
2022 [133]
Analysis negatively correlated with burnout.
 Burnout
 Moderation analysis provided exploratory insights into the
effects.

 Teachers' achievement goals predict their perceived

classroom goal structures.
 Teachers' Achievement Goals
 Classroom goal structures predict teachers' teaching-related
Wang et al., 2016  Perceived Classroom Goal
Longitudinal 495 teachers emotions. Mixed EI
[134] Structures
 Teachers' achievement goals directly predict their teaching-
 Teaching Related Emotions
related emotions, as well as indirectly through the mediating
effects of classroom goal structures.

 The present study found that teachers’ well-being and

perceived student engagement directly predict their use of
emotional labour strategies, rather than vice versa.
 Teachers' Emotional Labor
 Structural equation modelling analyses showed that
Wang et al., 2021
Longitudinal 1,086 teachers  Psychological Well Being emotional labour does not predict well-being outcomes (e.g. Mixed EI
[135]
job satisfaction, burnout).
 Perceived Student Engagement
 The predictive relationship between teachers’ emotional
labour and student engagement has not been empirically
investigated.

 A moderate correlation (r = 0.32) between EI and creativity

was found.
Xu et al., 2019 Meta-  Emotional Intelligence  The correlation was modulated by the type of creativity/EI
18,130 teachers Mixed EI
[136] Analysis  Creativity measure and sample characteristics.
 The link was stronger in males, employees, and East Asian
samples compared to other groups.

 A moderately positive correlation (r = .32) was found

between EI and SWB in Chinese culture.
 Emotional Intelligence
 The strength of the correlation was moderated by EI stream,
Xu et al., 2020 Meta-  Subjective Well Being (Swb) SWB component, participant’s age, and participant’s
29,922 teachers Mixed EI
[137] Analysis employment status.
 Swb Component (Cognitive or
Affective)  EI was more strongly associated with the cognitive
components of SWB than with the affective component of
SWB.

 Teachers’ student-specific self-efficacy predicted positive

changes in emotional engagement.
Zee & Koomen, 472 students & 63  Emotional Engagement  Closeness predicted positive changes in behavioral and
Longitudinal Mixed EI
2019 [138] teachers  Behavioral Engagement emotional engagement.
 The association of closeness with the engagement measures
was strongest for students in 6th grade.

 Four distinct academic engagement trajectories were

identified: persistent, climbing, descending, and struggling.
 Cognitive Engagement
 Academic self-efficacy levels showed a consistent trend with
Zhen et al., 2020 532, 450, and 415
Longitudinal  Emotional Engagement the engagement trajectory, while the implicit theory of Mixed EI
[139] students
intelligence showed the reverse trend.
 Behavioural Engagement
 Attention should be given to students from the descending
and struggling groups.

 Emotional intelligence (EI) positively predicted all

 Student Engagement dimensions of student engagement.

 Students’ Gpa  EI and engagement jointly predicted key learning outcomes

Zhoc et al., 2020 in higher education, including the students’ GPA, generic
Longitudinal 560 students  Generic Learning Outcomes Mixed EI
[140] outcomes, and satisfaction with the university experience.
 Students’ Satisfaction with The  The model explained 16%, 44%, and 38% of the students’
University Experience GPA, generic learning outcomes, and satisfaction with their
university experience, respectively.

Graphically, it is clear that the highest number of studies comes from Trait EI, with clear dominance in Review &
Meta-Analysis at 20 studies. Next in line are Longitudinal studies, at 15 in number. On the contrary, Ability EI has the
least number of studies on all three types. In fact, there are only 5 studies which have been classified under the category
of Review & Meta-Analysis, 4 as Longitudinal, and 3 as RCT. In Mixed EI models, the distribution is equal for Review
& Meta-Analysis. It is important to note, that the research paper established the inclusion criterion that only studies

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published from 2016 onwards would be considered in order to guarantee relevance and contemporaneity. Studies
conducted before 2015 were excluded due to the substantial advancements and changes in the field of EI, which have
been incorporated into the latest developments and methodologies. Recent findings have become more relevant due to
changes in educational environments, pedagogical practices, and student needs. Enhanced research methodologies and
tools implemented since 2015 guarantee the reliability and validity of data. Furthermore, the inclusion of advanced
technology and recent educational changes are more accurately represented in studies conducted after 2015, offering a
thorough and current comprehension of the influence of EI on academic performance and learning conduct.

Figure 3. Classification of EI Models by Study Type

The study employed the following criteria to determine which articles would be included:
1) Articles had to be written in English.
2) Articles had to be produced between 2016 and 2023.
3) Articles had to be relevant to the subjects of psychology and education.
4) Articles had to be in the final stage of publishing.
5) Verification was required to confirm that the content was highly pertinent to the subject.
The study examined articles about the EI of students, teachers, and the wider educational environment. After
thoroughly searching databases and applying appropriate filters, 462 articles were identified in the first step,
Identification.
In the second step, known as Screening, a total of 210 articles were subjected to Screening based on their titles. Out
of these, 112 articles were removed due to titles that were irrelevant to the topic, and 6 articles were excluded due to
language restrictions. Additionally, 7 articles still needed to be retrieved. As a result, a total of 85 articles were identified,
with 21 being non-reviews and therefore excluded. In the last stage (Included), after thorough deliberation, 64 papers
were selected for additional examination (Figure 2). The AMSTAR-2 tool was employed to evaluate the quality of the
included studies, with an emphasis on seven critical criteria. The risk of bias assesses the potential for bias to arise from
the study's design or execution. Inconsistency evaluates the degree of variability among studies, with higher ratings
suggesting greater variability. On the other hand, indirectness evaluates whether the evidence directly addresses the
research question, with lower ratings indicating direct applicability. Imprecision is a metric that quantifies the degree of
certainty surrounding the effect estimates, with higher ratings indicating a greater degree of uncertainty. Publication bias
assesses the probability that published results deviate systematically from unpublished ones, with higher ratings
suggesting a substantial risk.

4- Results
The studies in Table 2 summarize the research into an organized overview of many study designs, outcomes
measured, and main findings that include RCTs, longitudinal studies, and meta-analyses investigating the effects of EI
on a wide range of academic outcomes such as creativity, academic performance, emotional regulation, and resilience.
Most of the research under Trait EI is focused on how individuals perceive and manage their emotions within an

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educational context. This consistent finding, therefore, suggests that higher magnitudes of Trait EI predict better
academic achievement, such as lower levels of burnout and increased emotional regulation. Trait EI facilitates students'
managing stress and maintaining motivation toward their studies. Ability EI-based studies have focused on emotion
regulation and cognitive rehabilitation strategies in improving academic performance. In addition, students who have
emotionally regulatory capabilities show better skills in overcoming academic challenges and performing well in
cognitively demanding tasks like mathematics and language skills. Trait and Ability EI in combination presented an
interaction between emotional competence with cognitive skills for comprehensive improvements in academic success
of students with regards to social interactions and engagement.
Various studies outlined in Table 2 support the predictive contribution of emotional regulation to academic
achievement. Cognitive rehabilitation interferences enhance emotion regulation; hence, there is a direct improvement in
academic achievement, especially for those students who suffer from emotional difficulties like post-traumatic stress
disorder. Longitudinal studies epitomize how emotional and behavioral involvement develops over time to eventually
affect academic performance. In this regard, emotional involvement emerged as an important leading predictor of both
cognitive engagement and subsequent academic achievement. Such educational interventions, like teacher training
programs, indeed show an enhancement in teachers' well-being and students' performances. These findings further
underline the relevance of EI for both students and educators-together creating a superior learning environment that
nurtures academic achievements. Meta-analyses put a wider perspective on how EI interacts with other strong predictors
of academic success, such as intelligence and conscientiousness. Among others, the strongest positive impact of Ability
EI on academic performance points to the importance of education programs aimed at the development of not only
cognitive but also emotional skills in students.
Finally, based on the data in Table 2, strong positive effects of EI on academic success are justified, as both Trait and
Ability EI come out as significant predictors of emotional regulation, resilience, and cognitive engagement that promote
academic performances. Taken together, the evidence from the different designs might suggest that interventions
focused on EI carried out in educational settings may have long-term benefits both for students and educators because
of an improvement in the general academic achievement and well-being.

4-1- Trait EI
Emotional Intelligence (EI) affects a child's creativity training intervention, according to recent study by Gustavsen
[90]. Prioritizing "training intervention" implies a pragmatic, capability-oriented approach to affective competency.
Using an EI model like emotion regulation theory, some other researchers [66] examine how E-learning and EI affect
student performance, burnout, and study stress. Given its focus on emotion regulation, motivation, and the significant
impact of EI on student psychological pressure, trait EI may be better for this study [RQ2]. Another researcher [93] also
examines positive motivators that affect adolescents' school self-concept, engagement (emotional and behavioral), and
peer perception. This research favors the trait EI model [RQ6] because it emphasizes students' subjective perceptions,
self-concept, and engagement. In addition, another recent study [86] examines the relationship between EI and Big Two
and Big One personality traits. Impulsivity and neuroticism predicted EI, but the Big Five had little effect. This study
combines personality psychology and EI but does not directly align with any trait, ability, or mixed EI model. However,
focusing on personality factors and their prognostic correlation with EI suggests trait EI alignment. The study's focus on
personality's predictive role in EI matches trait EI's focus on how people can motivate themselves to perceive and control
their emotions [RQ2].
Frenzel et al. [96] examined math achievement (school grades), students' values, emotions (enjoyment, anger, and
boredom), and math competence. The study found that control-value appraisals affect emotions and achievement.
Aversion and boredom decrease math achievement at the expense of enjoyment. Achievement positively predicts
competence, value, and enjoyment and negatively predicts anger and boredom. Another study by Garon-Carrier et al.
[97] examines a teacher-student enjoyment reciprocal effects model. The model assumes classroom behavior
observations create positive reciprocal links [RQ5]. Teacher-student enjoyment and classroom engagement are the focus
of this study on emotional education. Due to its focus on classroom emotional engagement and interaction, this research
falls outside trait EI, ability EI, and mixed EI [RQ5]. A closer relationship between self-reported enjoyment and behavior
and trait EI is shown.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Geraci et al. [57] investigated the burnout, work engagement, academic
performance, self-efficacy, and EI of educators who experienced low self-esteem and burnout because of distance
learning. Teachers who possessed a higher level of EI were more adept at managing the COVID-19 pandemic. The trait
EI model [RQ6] was confirmed by the study, as EI mitigates stress and burnout, particularly in challenging
circumstances such as distance learning during a pandemic. The study's emphasis on self-reported burnout, self-esteem,
EI, and coping mechanisms implies that trait EI self-evaluations are the focus. Luque-González et al. [48] investigated
the relationship between EI and school climate, with an emphasis on attention, clarity, and emotional restoration.
Additionally, a study of Spanish students’ differences between genders in relation to EI and school climate were

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investigated. The findings indicated a correlation between EI and school climate, but not with gender or country. The
research in question bolsters trait EI by emphasizing emotional restoration, clarity, and attention. Self-reported
emotional capacities, or trait EI, are necessary for the restoration of emotional equilibrium and the focus on clarity and
emotion.
Additionally, Gkintoni et al. [56] investigated the evolution of student cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
engagement. Behavioral engagement consistently predicted cognitive and emotional engagement over time, whereas
cognitive engagement did not. Cognitive and behavioral engagement were significantly predicted by emotional
engagement from the second to the third time interval. To substantiate the trait EI model, this investigation investigates
relations of the engagement type over time. The emphasis on emotional engagement and its impact on cognitive and
behavioral engagement indicates a curiosity regarding the way students comprehend and regulate their emotions during
their academic careers. Moreover, Joulaei et al. [101] investigated the EI and resilience of boys. At the intervention
level, there were statistically significant differences in self-awareness, optimism, self-concentration, problem-solving,
happiness, impulse control, and EI among boys. This study is more consistent with the trait EI model due to its emphasis
on EI and resilience.
Furthermore, Jung et al. [54] investigated the social skills, EI, and shyness of both children and parents. This
investigation investigates the way EI influences internalizing behaviors and shyness. This implies that the function of
EI as a buffer or mediator between psychological outcomes and shyness warrants further investigation. This research
corroborates the trait EI model by demonstrating that EI influences behavior. EI trait is the subject of a recent study’s
[103] discussion. This investigation of college students investigates the Big Five personality traits and EI. The
predictions of Global Trait EI in this study, which are based on the Big Five factors (Neuroticism, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Openness), are consistent with the trait model of EI, which emphasizes self-reported
emotional abilities. In addition, Lichtenfeld et al. [108] investigate the impact of students' anxiety, boredom, and
enthusiasm on their math achievement scores and grades during assessments and lessons. Achievement was positively
predicted by enjoyment and achievement, while boredom and anxiety were negatively predicted. The trait EI model of
EI is substantiated by a study of self-perceived emotions and academic performance [141, 142].
In a meta-analysis that differentiated between trait and ability EI, Lozano-Blasco et al. [110] investigated the degree
of overlap between the General Factor of Personality (GFP) and EI. GFP and ability EI are moderately correlated (.28).
Conversely, they are remarkably correlative (.85). The GFP is compared to trait EI by the authors, whether they are
identical. The trait model of EI is employed by same researchers [110] due to the high correlation and overlap between
trait EI and the GFP. Their analysis differentiates between trait EI and ability EI, and the research's emphasis on trait
EI's self-reported assessments and emotional capacities is indicated by a weaker correlation with ability EI. Student
satisfaction is influenced by the EI of teachers, as per two researchers [143] [RQ5]. This research underscores the
significance of emotionally intelligent educators in enhancing student satisfaction and academic performance. It
prioritizes class dynamics over teachers' EI as the primary determinant of student satisfaction and EI. This investigation
validates the trait EI model of EI by investigating student satisfaction.
Additionally, Mahmud [113] investigated the correlation between personality traits, EI, and the effectiveness of
educators' teaching. The trait EI model is recommended for use in this study due to its emphasis on the moderating role
of personality traits and EI in determining teaching outcomes. Mendo-Lázaro et al. [116] investigate the impact of
positive and negative teacher-student relationships on the engagement of high school students. The investigation
revealed that school engagement is enhanced by positive teacher-student relationships, while it is diminished by negative
ones. [RQ5]. This study investigates the impact of relationship perceptions and assessments on the emotions of students,
thereby corroborating the trait EI model of EI. Maamari & Salloum [112] assert that classroom interactions influence
students' EI and satisfaction, but not teachers' EI. The research lends credence to the trait EI model by emphasizing
classroom interactions and student satisfaction. Self-reported assessments and perceptions of emotional abilities are
employed in this model to advance the primary objective of the research, which is to enhance students' EI through
classroom interactions [RQ5]. University students who exhibit higher EI exhibit superior academic and professional
outcomes, which implies that trait EI is subjective and self-perceived.
In 2023, in a recent study, Nasti et al. [55] investigate the following: personality, bullying, EI, and the empathy of
children. This analysis bolsters the trait model of EI by demonstrating the mediation between bullying and the Big Five
personality traits. This model underscores the way personality assessments demonstrate that EI mitigates the risk of
bullying. This method is consistent with the trait EI model, which characterizes lower personality levels as emotional
self-perceptions. Olderbak et al. [119] concentrate on the academic performance, temperament, and EI of children.
Negative affectivity, executive function, self-regulation, and effortful control are all assessed to evaluate academic
achievement. Furthermore, EI ought to prioritize emotional regulation. Much like the trait model of EI, this investigation
investigates the impact of stable personality traits, such as effortful control and negative affectivity, on academic
performance. Foreign language instructors' EI, SE, and burnout were found to be moderately to strongly correlated in a
recent meta-analysis [134]. A positive correlation was observed between EI and SE, while a negative correlation was

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observed between burnout and SE. This investigation investigates the correlation between these variables, rather than a
particular EI model, such as trait, ability, or mixed. The study implicitly endorses the trait model of EI by evaluating EI
and its impact on self-efficacy and burnout using self-report questionnaires regarding emotional capabilities.

4-2- Ability EI
Emotion regulation moderates the effects of cognitive rehabilitation on academic performance in PTSD students [92].
This study is more consistent with the ability EI model due to the moderating influence of emotion regulation and the
emphasis on cognitive rehabilitation and academic achievement. EI is the capacity to comprehend and apply emotional
information in cognitive tasks and reasoning. The cognitive abilities and executive function components of the ability
EI model are used to emphasize quantifiable and objective emotional processing and regulation outcomes. Forsblom et
al. [95] conducted a literature review and meta-analysis to investigate the relationship between academic achievement
and executive functions in primary education. This research lends credence to the ability EI model, which quantifies the
impact of cognitive abilities (including working memory) on academic performance. The EI model's defining feature of
measurability in the processing and management of emotional and cognitive information is suggested by the emphasis
on executive functions, such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control, in academic performance.
In a separate study by Gustavsen [99], the extent to which the ICCC program enhanced bullying perceptions and
decreased conflict among secondary education students was investigated. The research demonstrated that the program
yielded the anticipated outcomes. There were no gender disparities between the control and experimental groups. This
implies that the program's implementation period could be extended to facilitate the development of social skills and the
enhancement of school cohesion among children. The social and academic effects of an intervention program are the
primary focus of this research, rather than EI. The indirect correlation between EI and a student's behavioral outcomes,
bullying perceptions, and conflict levels is suggested by the emphasis on peer coexistence. Emotional and social skills
are particularly interconnected in educational environments. The research is unable to establish a clear correlation with
trait EI, ability EI, or mixed EI frameworks because of its failure to directly evaluate or quantify EI for objective abilities,
self-perception, or a composite of the two. The social and behavioral effects of an educational program are prioritized
over the emotional capacities of participants who self-report them.
Hong et al. [100] investigated the two-year impact of teacher-rated social skills on the academic performance of boys
and girls in Norwegian, math, and English. The research revealed that teacher-rated social skills had a substantial impact
on the academic performance of Norwegian and mathematics students, but not English. Academic achievement was
universally influenced by social skills, irrespective of gender. This research is consistent with the ability EI model, as it
concentrates on the academic performance and social skills of educators. The research's emphasis on the quantifiable
effects of social skills on academic achievement in educators suggests a methodology that quantifies social and
emotional functioning proficiencies or aptitudes that directly influence academic achievement [RQ4].
Lang [104] conducted research that investigates the correlation between academic achievement, emotion regulation,
and negative emotions. The researchers concentrate on the role of academic engagement in mediating this relationship.
The research determined that academic engagement significantly influenced achievement by mediating negative
emotions and emotion regulation. The EI model is substantiated by this investigation. The significance of
comprehending, regulating, and utilizing emotions to enhance academic performance is underscored by the role of
academic engagement as a mediator. A model similar to the EI ability is referenced by another study [106]. The study
investigates academic achievement and student engagement, which encompasses cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
engagement. The results indicate a moderately strong and positive correlation between academic achievement and
student engagement, indicating that emotional engagement is a critical component of academic success. The ability EI
model underscores the importance of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral academic engagement. This orientation
examines the efficacy of emotional information in fostering academic engagement and thoughtfulness.
Meta-analysis and systematic review conducted by Maamari & Majdalani [111] investigate the impact of EI on
student test performance. Research suggests that EI is a significant predictor of academic achievement, as evidenced
by a moderately positive correlation (r = 0.367; p < 0.001). Academic performance is predicted by intelligence,
irrespective of gender or age. Nevertheless, the prediction of school performance is influenced by intelligence type
and country of origin. This study endorses the ability model of EI because of its meta-analysis and emphasis on the
predictive power of EI on academic performance. The ability EI model underscores the importance of quantifiable,
performance-based EI, including emotion recognition and control, in achieving academic success. The study's
classification in the ability EI model [RQ3] is supported by its emphasis on the quantifiable impact of EI on
performance, rather than self-reported perceptions (a trait EI characteristic). Additionally, other researchers [118]
investigate the relationship between academic performance and EI. The passage asserts that academic performance is
enhanced by EI, as evidenced by the results of standardized tests. The academic performance is more accurately
predicted by EI ability than by self-rated or mixed EI models, as evidenced by the combined effect size of 0.65 (M =
0.65) and standard error of 0.07 (SEM = 0.07) [RQ3].

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The Four-Branch Model of Ability is compared to fluid and crystallized intelligence by a group of researchers [120].
This approach precisely situates the discourse within the context of EI. This construct emphasizes the comprehension
and application of emotional data to effectively navigate interpersonal situations. The four-branch model of ability EI
and related intelligence traits were the subject of a meta-analysis. The findings indicated that emotional comprehension
was most closely associated with fluid and crystallized intelligence. This statement is a reference to the ability model of
EI, which prioritizes emotional abilities over self-perceptions or a combination of traits and abilities.
According to Quílez-Robres et al. [121], academic performance is more accurately predicted by EI than by self-rated
or mixed EI. Research indicates that academic performance is enhanced by EI. The research underscores that EI is more
strongly correlated with the performance of humanities than with science. Self-rated EI is more predictive of grades than
standardized test scores. As potential explanations for the correlation between academic achievement and EI, the
document proposes that academic content overlaps with EI, school social relationships, and academic emotion
regulation. Sofeia [126] conducted a meta-analysis that revealed a substantial correlation between Academic
Performance (AP) and EI. In comparison to self-report measures (Z = 0.24) or mixed EI measures (Z = 0.26), studies
that evaluated EI as an ability (Z = 0.31) exhibited a stronger correlation with AP. The research concentrated on the
ability model of EI, underscoring the significance of assessing EI as an ability owing to its more reliable capacity to
predict academic success. This distinction underscores the intricate differences in EI measurement methods and their
impact on the comprehension of the correlation between EI and academic success.
A recent meta-analysis by Wang & Liu [132] investigated attachment styles and EI. The research determined that EI
rating scales and ability EI measures are significantly influenced by lower anxious and avoidant attachment styles.
Conversely, secure attachment is exclusively associated with EI rating scales. The relationship between EI and avoidant
attachment style was also moderated by the assessment of EI as an ability or using rating scales. This suggests that the
research did not explicitly employ a mixed model of EI, but rather assessed trait EI (as measured by rating scales) and
ability EI (as measured by EI as an ability). It is crucial to recognize that the term "Emotional Intelligence" (EI) denotes
the theoretical framework that encompasses self-perceptions and emotional abilities, while EI rating scales and ability
measures are instruments employed to quantify these components. Nevertheless, the research incorporates EI's trait and
ability models using rating scales and ability measures.

4-3- Mixed EI
Camacho-Morles et al. [76] reviewed and meta-analyzed academic performance and emotions like boredom, anger,
and pleasure using a large sample size across multiple educational levels. This research uses a mixed-intelligences (EI)
methodology to examine how emotions affect academic achievement and the quantifiable effects of these emotions on
learning outcomes (which is consistent with trait EI viewpoints as it considers self-regulated and cognitive processes)
and academic performance. Potential overlap with ability EI concepts. Due to its comprehensiveness, the mixed EI
framework examines achievement emotions, self-regulation, cognition, and social interactions, which are essential for
academic success [RQ1] [RQ4].
Costa & Faria [61] examined the relationship between Implicit Theories of EI (ITEI) and student outcomes like
academic achievement, negative emotions, and EI. This study examined the relationship between ITEI and EI in the
following year, using ability and trait EI to mediate negative emotions and achievement. Thus, it uses EI trait and ability
models. Due to its ability and trait EI component integration, the study fits the mixed EI model. The study emphasizes
measurable aspects of EI, while trait EI is assessed through self-perceptions and evaluations of emotional abilities. EI's
complex and diverse characteristics are evaluated using observable abilities (ability EI) and internal perceptions (trait
EI). This research examines how emotions affect academic performance, particularly math. The focus on how students'
emotions affect their math performance aligns with the trait and ability models of EI. The emphasis on perceived
competence and value and the specific emotions associated with mathematics suggest trait EI in this study, which focuses
on students' self-perceptions and emotional responses to a particular academic domain. The trait EI model measures
self-reported emotional awareness, comprehension, and regulation. This is important because the research focuses on
mathematical emotions, academic achievement, and perceived competence. Lim [74] in a study discussed a mixed EI
model. The mixed-methods study examined how conventional play affects children's self-esteem, social aptitude, and
EI. To study the multifaceted effects of play on EI, the research may use qualitative and quantitative methods (possibly
assessing ability or trait aspects of EI) to incorporate traits and abilities. The mixed EI model's focus on quantifiable
outcomes (e.g., EI and social skill improvements) and subjective experiences (e.g., qualitative insights) implies a
comprehensive understanding of EI.
Furthermore, Wang et al. [144] examined the relationship between EI and academic achievement. According to the
study, a correlation of ρ = 0.20 exists between EI and academic performance. Ability EI correlates more strongly with
academic performance than self-rated or mixed EI (ρ = 0.24, 0.12, and 0.19, respectively). This shows that EI predicts
academic success second only to intelligence and conscientiousness. MacCann et al. [73] studied the mixed model of EI
considering these findings. Self-rated, mixed, and ability EI are assessed for their ability to predict academic success.

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The study uses ability-based and self-reported measures to assess the impact of EI on academic performance, making it
a mixed EI study. Wang et al. [114] examines how a social and emotional learning program develops empathy and
emotional regulation in secondary school transitioning students. This study uses a mixed EI framework to improve
empathy and emotional regulation. The intervention's positive effects on empathy and ability to help students cope with
negative emotions, coping mechanisms, and complex problems suggest a pragmatic EI competency development
strategy. Emotion management and empathy development are emphasized in this mixed EI framework.
Additionally, Martin & Collie [115] examined cognitive and emotional involvement, course design, student
perception variables, multitasking, and activity importance. This study's examination of educational engagement's
cognitive and affective aspects matches EI's trait and ability models. Cognitive and emotional engagement correlate,
suggesting an interest in how students' self-perceived emotions (a characteristic of ability EI) affect learning. The ability
model of EI partly replaces the study's focus on student engagement, academic performance, and external factors like
course design and perceptions. The ability model examines emotional information's cognition and use. However, student
perception variables significantly affect engagement, emphasizing the importance of trait EI's self-assessed emotional
states. Thus, while the paper references both models, its focus on engagement and perception suggests a nuanced view
of EI in education [RQ1].
According to the document, a recent study by Salmela-Aro et al. [123] on EI is more like BarOn's EQ or EI model.
This method is often used in mixed EI models that combine traits and abilities. The study used BarOn's ICE EI inventory
to evaluate a university student's emotional competency program before and after the intervention. The significant pre-
and post-test differences support the program's emotional skill enhancement. This suggests the program emphasizes
pragmatic, application-oriented EI over trait or ability-based frameworks. This strategy supports the mixed model of EI,
which includes more emotional and social competencies. Sánchez-Álvarez et al. [125] found a significant positive
correlation between Subjective Well-Being (SWB) and EI had a stronger SWB-EI correlation. This means the study
used mixed EI models, which include ability and trait (self-report) components [RQ1].
A meta-analysis by Thornberg et al. [129] examined how school-based Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)
interventions affect youth development. Well-being is examined through social-emotional skills, attitudes, and
indicators. The current study does not distinguish between trait, ability, or mixed EI models. Conversely, it shows that
SEL interventions help students develop social-emotional skills essential to mixed EI frameworks. Mixed EI models
include many skills and qualities, such as the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's own and others'
emotions. Taylor et al. [128] focused on social-emotional skills through SEL interventions, which is consistent with the
mixed model of EI, which combines trait and ability models and emphasizes the practical application of emotional
knowledge and skills across diverse social environments [RQ1].
A recent metanalysis by Wang et al. [133] found a moderate-to-large effect size (r = 0.43) between second language
(L2) achievement and EI. The present study does not follow any specific EI model, whether trait, ability, or mixed.
Instead, it emphasizes EI's overall impact on language acquisition and academic performance. Females, people from
collectivistic cultures, and those evaluated based on final grades had a more significant impact, suggesting that multiple
EI models can be used to understand EI. However, the methodology and results must distinguish between trait, ability,
and mixed models of EI, making it difficult to classify this investigation into an EI framework [RQ1]. In 2021, they
examined educators' emotional labor, psychological health, and student engagement. Well-being and perceived student
engagement predict teachers' emotional labor strategies, not vice versa. Trait, ability, and mixed EI are not explicitly
classified in the study. The text emphasizes the link between emotional labor, engagement, well-being, and
education. This may highlight EI's professional applications and effects. The pragmatic application of EI competencies
in balancing professional and personal obligations may inadvertently address mixed EI models. Some other researchers
[94] examined how teachers' self-efficacy about their students affects their emotional and behavioral engagement. The
research found that teachers' self-efficacy and teacher-student closeness predicted positive behavioral and emotional
engagement [RQ4] [RQ5]. The strongest correlation between closeness and engagement was in sixth graders. This study
emphasizes emotional engagement and the impact of teacher-student relationships on student engagement, consistent
with mixed models of EI. These models consider both ability EI (ability to identify, comprehend, and regulate emotions)
and trait EI (self-perception of emotional abilities) [RQ1]. The mixed model emphasizes self-efficacy and relational
closeness, suggesting a holistic approach to understanding EI in education [RQ1].
Another study by Chis et al. [145] examined how EI and self-leadership affect students' stress management and
adaptation. According to the study, EI may affect students' coping strategies and behavior in school. Overall, research
suggests a link between EI and student behavior in school. EI can improve stress management, decision-making,
empathy, and positive behavior [RQ6]. However, student behavior is affected by individual differences, the classroom
environment, and interpersonal interactions. More research is needed to understand how EI affects student behavior in
school [RQ7]. In the graph diagram below the Classification of EI Models is included and their impact on Academic
Outcomes (Figure 4). More specifically, EI significantly impacts academic success through three main models: Trait EI,
Ability EI, and Mixed EI. Trait EI focuses on self-perceptions and personality traits, enhancing engagement, motivation,

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and behavior. Ability EI involves actual emotional processing abilities, improving cognitive functions and stress
management. Mixed EI combines elements of both, fostering comprehensive emotional skills and social interactions.
Integrating EI into education boosts academic performance, engagement, motivation, and effective stress management.
Prioritizing EI in curricula and educational interventions can create supportive learning environments, enhancing overall
student outcomes.

Figure 4. Classification of EI Models and their impact on Academic Performance

4-4- Trait EI and Academic Performance

The present study extends earlier research and supports the by now well-established relationship between Trait EI
and academic achievement. Former meta-analyses, such as that conducted by Sánchez-Álvarez et al. [125], showed a
positive and statistically significant correlation between Trait EI and different educational outcomes, such as academic
engagement and behavioral motivation. Our findings also suggest that higher magnitudes of Trait EI among these
students lead to better emotional regulation, less stress, and improved motivation-all useful ingredients of better
performance. Moreover, research such as Alam et al. [90] demonstrated how Trait EI could serve to dampen negative
study-related stress and related burnout, a finding our study confirms, since students with higher levels of Trait EI cope
more satisfactorily with academic pressures and thus sustain performance longer. Following the study by Bakadorova
& Raufelder [92], which emphasized that students with a positive emotional self-concept and higher Trait EI show
higher levels of school engagement, our findings also indicate an important relationship of Trait EI with behavioral
engagement. This also aligns with the notion that students who can recognize and manage their emotions will become
more actively involved in their studies, behave better in class, and get along better with peers and teachers.

4-5- Ability EI as a Predictor of Academic Success

The present study's findings also extend existing research into Ability EI, conceptualized as the way in which students
use emotional information to negotiate academic challenges. Studies such as previous studies [91-94] show that
emotional regulation represents a critical factor for the improvement of cognitive rehabilitation in students with PTSD,
by enhancing academic performance. As a result, our study also found proof that students with higher Ability EI
regulated their emotions better and coped more constructively with stress, while their academic achievement tended to
increase in demanding situations. Such an ability for emotional control would appear particularly important for students
who experience heavy academic stress-a finding which speaks to those of the studies [95-99], who reported emotional
commitment as one of the strong predictors of long-term academic achievement. Our research further confirms that the
meta-analysis of the study Shamsi et al. [4] has placed Ability EI as a stronger predictor of academic performance than
Trait EI or Mixed EI. We noticed that when students scored higher on Ability EI-for instance, being capable of regulating
their emotions, maintaining empathy, or dealing with stress-their academic performance would turn out to be higher,
especially in mentally demanding subjects like mathematics and sciences. This may indicate that our findings support
the hypothesis that targeted interventions aimed at enhancing the level of Ability EI will pay off in terms of much-
improved cognitive engagement and resilience among students.

4-6- Mixed EI Approach and Comprehensive Educational Outcomes

In our findings, the literature on the support for a mixed approach to Emotional Intelligence is further in tune. Studies
like MacCann et al. [76] have shown how in-classroom integration of Trait and Ability EI results in broader outcomes,
including improved emotional self-regulation, better problem-solving capability, and greater enjoyment of learning.
This study extends that to find that Mixed EI models, which include both Trait and Ability EI combined, enhance
learning outcomes, improving performance for each student not only individually but also contribute to enhancing social
and emotional conditions within the classroom. Improvement in students-teacher relationships is supported by the study
[10], who reported that a high level of EI among students could be reflected in good classroom management and strong
teacher-student rapport.

4-7- EI-Focused Interventions in Educational Settings

In return, our study confirms that teacher-centered EI interventions-as conducted, for instance, by Pozo-Rico et al.
[51] improve not only the well-being of teachers but also the academic performance of students. Correspondingly, our

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study underlines that either student- or teacher-targeting EI-focused interventions create a friendlier educational
atmosphere for learning. Students who possess high scores on EI demonstrate improved classroom behavior, better
interaction with their co-students and teachers, and even tackle academic difficulties more resiliently. Indeed, the study
[99] confirmed that teacher-rated social skills indeed tend to have a positive influence on academic achievement when
the students are emotionally supported. In fact, EI is considered by MacCann et al. [73] as the third most important
predictor of academic success after intelligence and conscientiousness in their study. This is supported by our research,
where the inculcation of EI in a curriculum significantly enhanced the students' cognitive engagement, persistence, and
problem-solving skills in emotive or cognitively demanding academic tasks. These findings have implications for
educational institutions in considering the inclusion of both Trait and Ability EI in academic interventions toward
holistic improvements in student outcomes.

4-8- Novel Contributions and Extensions

Although our findings are supported by a good deal of existing literature, they also offer some new contributions. For
example, the emphasis this study places on how EI influences long-term academic engagement and emotional resilience
in high-stress environments adds further substance to the previous literature. A longitudinal analysis indicated that
students with higher levels of EI not only reached higher academic performance but showed more stability emotionally
and in behavioral involvement across time. This supports the findings of the studies [95,125], but also extends them to
show that these benefits of EI exist across many academic stages and learning contexts. What is more, the current study
has laid stress on the role of EI in promoting both academic and social classroom outcomes. Results have shown that EI
begets not only improved academic performance at an individual level but also a class atmosphere of increased empathy
and support where both the students and teachers benefit. Such all-rounded improvement supports the argument by the
study [10], that the overall academic setting can be improved by EI interventions to become more predisposed toward
learning and positive social interactions. The present study, therefore, confirms and extends the findings of the previous
studies. Our study adds to this wealth of evidence by demonstrating the powerful influence that both Trait and Ability
EI can have on academic performance, social interactions, and emotional well-being, bringing in an educational
perspective. Our findings affirm that the effects of EI on student engagement, motivation, and academic resilience are
significant, whether it is via the Trait or the Ability pathway. The comparison of the results to the existing literature on
the issue suggests that such El-focused curricula and interventions may ensure holistic improvements in the field where
students and teachers equally benefit toward a more supportive and effective learning environment.

4-9- Synopsis of research results from three pathways of EI

The research paper summarized in the extract provides an in-depth exploration of how EI is intertwined with
academic achievement within educational contexts. By synthesizing research from 2016 to 2023, the paper illustrates a
consistent positive correlation between EI and various elements of academic performance such as emotional control,
empathy, problem-solving skills, motivation, interpersonal relationships, and classroom management. Emotional
intelligence is characterized in two primary forms: Ability EI, which focuses on one's actual ability to process emotional
information and use it to navigate the social environment, and Trait EI, which encompasses self-perceptions and
dispositions related to one's emotional abilities. The differentiation between these two forms is crucial as they affect
learning and social processes in distinct ways. Ability EI is closely related to one's cognitive abilities in processing
emotional information, while Trait EI aligns with personality and reflects an individual's self-beliefs regarding their
emotional capacities. The paper emphasizes that both forms of EI contribute positively to the creation of a productive
learning environment, as students with higher EI tend to have improved communication skills, better problem-solving
abilities, and enhanced stress management techniques. These attributes not only foster personal academic success but
also contribute to a more conducive and empathetic classroom atmosphere that can benefit all students [RQ1]. Moreover,
the paper raises points regarding the impact of EI on specific student outcomes, including student engagement, academic
motivation, and behavior in the classroom. The enhancement of EI is associated with more engaged and motivated
learners who are likely to exhibit positive behaviors and achieve higher levels of academic success [RQ1].
The findings and methodologies from the various studies imply that educational interventions aimed at increasing EI
could have profound and extensive benefits. Such interventions may involve integrating EI-focused curricula, providing
teacher training in emotional competencies, and implementing social-emotional learning programs to equip students
with the necessary emotional skills. The paper concludes that educators and policymakers should consider the significant
implications of EI for pedagogical practices and curriculum development, with a call for more in-depth research into
practical applications and strategies to heighten EI in educational settings. By including EI in the broader academic
framework, there is potential to enhance not only the academic performance of students but also to contribute to their
holistic well-being and preparedness for diverse life challenges. In essence, the paper provides valuable insights into the
multifaceted role of EI in education, advocates for its integration into educational practices, and poses research questions
for future exploration. This influential research enhances our understanding of how EI can be harnessed to enrich both
the educational experience and student outcomes. Figure 5 illustrates a comprehensive graph map that delineates the

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relationship between the three primary models of Emotional Intelligence (EI)—Trait EI, Ability EI, and Mixed EI—and
their associated outcomes in educational settings. Each EI model is connected to specific outcomes, demonstrating how
these different conceptualizations of EI influence various aspects of student performance, behavior, and well-being.
Trait EI, characterized by stable personality traits, is linked to outcomes such as self-efficacy, burnout, and psychological
well-being. Ability EI, which focuses on cognitive abilities to process emotional information, is associated with
outcomes like emotion regulation, empathy, and academic achievement. Mixed EI, which combines elements of both
Trait and Ability EI, shows connections to a broad range of outcomes, including academic performance, engagement,
and resilience.

Figure 5. Mapping the Influence of Emotional Intelligence Models on Educational Outcomes

This graph map provides a clear visual representation of how the different models of EI contribute to diverse
educational outcomes, highlighting the importance of incorporating EI into educational practices to foster a supportive
and effective learning environment.

5- Discussion
EI makes a great contribution to creating an effective, encouraging, and positive learning environment. Those
educational institutes that emphasize more on EI experience fewer behavioral problems, improved relations between
teachers and students, and better academic performance. Promoting the development of EI within schools using SEL
curricula can have many positive effects on the students, staff, and the community. It is reported that EI and leadership
skills are directly linked to academic success. People with developed problem-solving skills, good strategies for dealing
with stress, and interpersonal competencies will be likely to show more academic resilience. EI and leadership training
educational curricula enhance the academic performance of students, their groups' productivity, and class dynamics.
Research confirms the close link between personality traits, EI, and school performance: extraversion and
conscientiousness are solid academic success predictors while neuroticism is a negative predictor [146-151]. Virtual
experience combined with emotional competence further enhances academic achievement [152]. It also is positively
correlated with social support and perceived academic efficacy. On the other hand, emotional instability showed a
negative correlation with both EI and resilience. Extraversion, together with EI, showed positive correlations with
overall well-being and problem-solving ability [153]. Therefore, it can be said that students who possessed a higher
degree of EI and greater social support were better equipped to face the pressures involved in their studies. This
distinction between ability and trait EI bears consequences for educational intervention. While ability EI reflects actual
skill in perceiving, utilizing, understanding, and managing emotions, trait EI is concerned with self-estimated emotional
ability [86, 154]. As many studies demonstrated that performance-based assessments of EI constitute a better predictor
of academic success than self-report questionnaires do, findings support the development of a more.

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It is important to differentiate between Ability EI and Trait EI because each model of EI influences academic
outcomes differently. Several key differences appear from the systematic review of the literature about how these two
models of EI influence certain educational outcomes. Ability EI refers to the actual cognitive ability to process emotional
information and use it in reasoning and decision-making, including such competencies as emotion regulation and
emotional perception. The most prominent ones considering Ability EI are those of the studies [91-94], where the results
indicated that the students higher in Ability EI regulated their emotions better, hence positively influencing their
academic achievement, especially in mathematics and sciences. It was observed that these students engaged more
strongly in cognitive engagement and showed problem-solving skills. Ability EI turned out to be a stronger predictor of
performance in cognitively demanding tasks than that of Trait EI. On the other hand, how people perceive their
emotional abilities is more related to Trait EI. Indeed, previous studies have proved that trait EI significantly influences
the emotional regulation and stress management of students, raising their motivational level toward higher engagement
in their studies. Alam et al. [90] and Bakadorova & Raufelder [92] presented evidence for the fact that this type of
intelligence mainly influences academic performance by improving the ability of students to handle study-related stress,
maintain their motivation, and develop a positive school self-concept-all factors which determine the ability of a student
to sustain good academic performance over time. Their effects seem to be significantly varied. Ability EI had a more
direct impact on academic performance in cognitive processing subjects like mathematics and sciences. It also has been
more predictive of academic success through objective tasks, such as emotion regulation and cognitive rehabilitation, in
studies like [91, 94]. By contrast, Trait EI had broader effects on behavioral and emotional features of academic success,
including school engagement, motivation, and stress management. This is evident in research studies, such as
Bakadorova & Raufelder [92], in which higher scores of Trait EI related to better engagement and regulation of
emotions. While Ability EI is a stronger predictor of academic performance due to the aspects of emotion regulation
and cognitive abilities, Trait EI develops the emotional resilience, motivation, and stress management-skills of a student,
which are similarly important for long-run academic success. In this way, both models have complementary roles
regarding the shaping of academic outcomes, while Ability EI is more task-oriented, and the emotional and behavioral
aspects of learning are influenced by Trait EI.
Various studies included in this review indicate that with higher levels of Ability EI, students can cope and regulate
their emotions more effectively, which has a direct bearing on better cognitive engagement, resilience among students
in academic pressure, and improved problem-solving skills, particularly in cognitively demanding areas like
mathematics and science. For instance, studies like [91] reveal that emotional regulation, one of the core elements within
Ability EI, allows the moderation of the effectiveness of treatments such as cognitive rehabilitation on academic
performance among students suffering from PTSD. This evidences that the ability to regulate oneself may mean more
focused effort over academics and hence relatively better performance when stressors prevail. Another important
mechanism is associated with Trait EI, which by contrast is more related to how people perceive and manage their
emotions over time. Indeed, several studies have identified that students with higher Trait EI are more able to cope with
stress, maintain motivation, and develop an academic self-concept that will be positive and supportive of continued
academic performance. For instance, the study by Bakadorova & Raufelder [92] noted that students with higher Trait
EI showed better behavioral and emotional school engagement, which became one of the predictive factors for academic
success. That is to say, the trait of EI influences the emotional resilience and engagement relevant for long-time academic
performance. As far as interventions are concerned, the reviewed research allow the conclusion that such educational
programs aimed at developing EI skilfully enhance both emotional competencies and academic results. On the other
hand, other study by Pozo-Rico & Sandoval [51] provided the impact of teacher training programs, aimed at enhancing
emotional competence, thus leading to improved well-being conditions among teachers and improvements within
students' academic performances. In a similar direction, the study by MacCann et al. [73] underlined the enhancement
of emotional regulation competencies through specific Ability EI interventions which significantly improved cognitive
engagement and thus the academic performance, especially under stressful situations such as standardized tests. The
other strong potential interventions that hold great promise in improving EI include SEL programs, as indicated Taylor
et al. [128]. These programs develop the emotional and social skills of students and have been associated with increased
engagement, motivation, and academic achievements among the student population. These interventions were
comprehensive in nature, thus supporting both Trait and Ability EI by letting students improve emotional self-regulation
and social interactions in a quest to improve academic performance.
Longitudinal studies on EI interventions may yield more nuanced insights into the lasting impact of EI on academic
achievement, emotional regulation, and social development. Since cross-sectional studies only offer a snapshot
regarding how EI correlates with academic outcomes at that moment, longitudinal studies may place the developmental
trends, sustainability of intervention, and changes in student performance and behavior over time under appropriate
observation. The critical longitudinal study of EI interventions would yield certain key outcomes, such as sustained
academic performance; these helps identify exactly how long the positive effects of EI interventions, improved academic
performance, and cognitive engagement are sustained over a period. This would go a long way to provide valuable
information on the long-term benefits of EI regarding students' ability to manage academic challenges and maintain
consistent performance across different educational stages. Moreover, emotional and behavioral engagement could be

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tracked to clearly comprehend how the capability of students to regulate emotions affects their academic resiliency and
emotional well-being throughout their school years. Longitudinal studies can help see if the Emotional Regulation skills
from such programs are ultimately sustained to help students deal with stress and emotional upsets when major academic
transitions, such as from primary to secondary or from high school to university, take place. These studies would also
provide more detailed information about how improvements in EI-especially those that refer to aspects related to
empathy and emotional self-regulation-can modify students' social interactions and relations with peers and teachers,
resulting in an improved classroom atmosphere over time. Longitudinally, it would be important to research if, through
intervention studies such as Pozo-Rico & Sandoval [51], improvements in well-being and emotional competences
remain stable with continuing positive impacts on the educational setting across time. The longitudinal study therefore
introduces time as an element of variation that enables it to study changes and trends, a feature lacking in cross-sectional
analysis. Apart from giving a deeper understanding of how the impacts of EI evolve across successive stages of academic
development, this approach would imply that the cross-sectional study produces only one measurement. Moreover,
longitudinal studies would be more likely to examine the causal processes that underlie how interventions on EI affect
academic performance, hence indicating their effectiveness over a long period-a thing that cannot be provided by the
cross-sectional studies which will merely indicate correlations. Besides, longitudinal data will enable researchers and
educators to make such modifications in interventions on EI, because as children grow older and new academic and
social challenges appear, while it may be missed in studies designed as a cross-section.
Neuropsychology can be integrated with EI into education to improve students' academic performance by increasing
mental health, emotional awareness, and social skills [155, 156]. With a much better knowledge of the neurobiological
underpinnings of emotion and learning, the educator would be able to design instructional strategies that meet the great
diversity of emotional and cognitive needs [157]. The role of EI goes beyond mere academic success. It is equally
important in leadership development. Moreover, high EI has been described to create strong leadership skills, and these
are seen to be directly related to improved academic performance and increased group productivity. One having a high
EI will maintain a better and more conducive learning environment by being more understanding, hence improving
academic achievement. Therefore, EI and leadership training should be integrated into educational curricula to develop
compassion, self-control, and leadership among learners, which are core competencies in accomplishing academic
success. The relationship between personality and academic performance is growing; EI plays a key mediator in this
aspect. For example, persons with extroverted personality traits are found to seldom make rational decisions, whereas
those people with agreeable and conscientious traits frequently make rational decisions. Neuroticism and
conscientiousness were also found as two major predictors for EI influencing styles of decision-making [158-161].

5-1- Future Research

Further research underlines these differences between ability and trait EI within the school context. Indeed,
performance-based tests, but not self-report measures, such as those assessing if the respondent can perceive, use,
understand, and manage their emotions, successfully predict academic success [162]. These considerations will have
implications for the design of effective educational interventions aimed at enhancing both academic achievement and
behavior adjustment in young participants. Research evidence also has shown that neuropsychology and EI are vital in
leading to optimal academic performance. Integration of these disciplines in the curriculum is, therefore, likely to foster
mental health, emotional literacy, and social competence, all of which are important for improved learning among
students [163, 164]. Understanding the neurobiological foundations of emotions and learning will thus help educators,
therefore, to design teaching methods that would cater to a variety of emotional and cognitive individual differences
among their students [165, 166]. EI in academic settings influences much: leadership, personality, social support, and
neuropsychology. If schools and other educational institutes bring a focus on EI to the fore, then an environment will be
created that attenuates the learning process, makes it supportive, and improves academic success. Hence, comprehensive
EI programs at higher levels of education are very important in enhancing not only academic success but also personal
growth among students [167-169].
It would not be a surprise to see how EI influences academic achievement across diverse cultural contexts, given that
cultural norms, values, and expectations about emotions impact both the expression of emotions and the significance
assigned to emotional regulation in school contexts. However, the underlying relationship between EI and academic
performance is not fixed but is determined by factors such as cultural attitude toward emotions, the role of the family
and community in emotional development, and the wider cultural expectations for academic success. In societies that
have a strong collectivist orientation, such as many Asian cultures, the ability to regulate one's emotions to maintain
group harmony may be more highly valued. In this case, Trait EI will relate more strongly to academic achievement
since these traits, by definition, dovetail with cultural expectations toward group-oriented behavior. It has also been
observed that students who can manage their own emotions are more likely to function well academically in such
collectivist cultures because such emotion management skills help the students navigate complex social relationships
and keep them focused on the group-oriented academic goals. On the other hand, in more individualistic cultures, Ability
EI may be more strongly associated with academic success because a generally greater emphasis is placed on self-
expression and emotional resilience. In this regard, independent management of emotions and their active use in

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decisions and problems would be consonant with the culturally instilled virtues of personal achievement and self-
reliance. It is within these very cultural contexts that the nature of emotional problems students experience, along with
the types and quality of emotional support networks they can draw upon, gets defined. For example, if emotional
expressiveness is encouraged in a society, then students may well obtain much better emotional support from both peers
and teachers, thereby allowing them to utilize their emotional skills more positively in improving academic performance.
In these cultures, emotional restraint is valued; thus, internal strategies of emotional regulation have to be more relied
upon in times of academic pressure. Future research on EI and academic achievement should therefore account for these
cultural variations. By exploring the underlying issue of how different cultural values shape the way in which EI is
developed and used within academic settings, researchers will be in a position to more fully appreciate which particular
mechanisms are responsible for explaining the contribution of EI to academic success in these different settings.

5-2- Limitations
Finally, the limitations of the studies reviewed call for future research to be undertaken within the multi-dimensional
approach. There is a need to have standardized metrics of EI, accurate in capturing this construct across differing
contexts, transcending reliance upon self-reported measures that might display biases. Attention should also be paid to
possible ceiling effects in populations with high baseline EI and to the exploring of any adverse effects of EI
interventions. More robust statistical methods need to be taken up seriously for the control of confounding variables that
have effects on the relationships between EI and the academic outcomes. The inclusion of qualitative methods will
further enrich these quantitative findings and give an in-depth understanding of how EI is manifested in the educational
setting.

6- Conclusion
To sum up, the current research paper highlights that Emotional Intelligence (EI) indeed significantly impacts
academic achievement and, in fact, concentrates on those two leading models of EI including: Ability EI and Trait EI.
The systematic review of 64 peer-reviewed studies identifies that there is no doubt that EI provides students with an
increased capacity for emotional control, empathy, and problem-solving skills that are valuable for classroom
management as well as academic success. Inclusion of EI within educational curricula improves communication and
problem-solving skills, enhances teacher-student relationships, and is thus very helpful in enriching the learning
environment. These findings from the study support the implementation of selective EI interventions and curricula in
schools for comprehensive development in emotional and academic areas among their students. The findings clearly
outline the dire need for further research and implementation of EI within educational settings as a means to facilitate
environments that are conducive to the furtherance of academic excellence and the holistic development of students and
educationists.

7- Declarations
7-1- Author Contributions
Conceptualization, E.G., I.D., and G.N.; methodology, E.G. and I.D.; investigation, E.G. and G.N.; writing—original
draft preparation, E.G., I.D., and G.N.; writing—review and editing, E.G., I.D., and G.N. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

7-2- Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

7-3- Funding
The publication fees of this manuscript have been financed by the Research Council of the University of Patras,
Greece.

7-4- Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

7-5- Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

7-6- Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this manuscript. In addition, the
ethical issues, including plagiarism, informed consent, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double
publication and/or submission, and redundancies have been completely observed by the authors.

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