MODULE

THE
CONTEMPORARY
WORLD

LANIE E. AVELINO, LPT, MA

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GE 102) lnea 2020 | 1
 THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
MODULE ONE

PRELIMINARIES

Module Title: MODULE ONE - DEFINING GLOBALIZATION

Course Title: The Contemporary World

Course Number: GE 102

Course Description:

This course introduces students to the contemporary world by examining the multifaceted phenomenon of
globalization. Using the various disciplines of the social sciences, it examines the economic, social, political,
technological, and other transformations that have created an increasing awareness of the interconnectedness of
peoples and places around the globe. To this end, the course provides an overview of the various debates in global
governance, development, and sustainability. Beyond exposing the student to the world outside the Philippines, it
seeks to inculcate a sense of global citizenship and global ethical responsibility. This course includes mandatory
topics on population education in the context of population and demography.

Total Learning Time: 5 weeks

Pre-requisites: N/A

OVERVIEW

The Contemporary World subject addresses different challenges that are not shared by other courses, because many
students think of globalization structures and processes as distant, abstract, and obscure. Therefore, teachers must
overcome these potentiality negative connotations. First challenge is the negative feelings towards the subjects of
students that can be magnified in classrooms where students represent a variety of ages, socioeconomic, ethnic,
cultural and linguistic backgrounds. To address these challenges, the contemporary world offers a readable and
practical guide that integrates contents with example, capturing the essence and elegance of theory in a
straightforward manner. In addition, this course takes an incremental approach in learning about globalization,
resulting in a thoughtful and appropriate learning pace. The second challenge relates to pre-conceived notions of
scholarship. Students may view scholarship as difficult or remote. This course demonstrates to students that they
already possess many of the characteristics of the scholar, such as curiosity and ambition. Students will be pleasantly
surprised to know that they operate according to many personal encounters with globalization every day. Once
students begin to revise their misconception about scholarship, society and globalization, they are in position to
understand the principles, concepts and theories in this course. A third challenge of teaching and learning
globalization is capturing the complexity of globalization in an approachable way without oversimplifying the
theories and ideas by providing a variety of engaging examples and applications reflecting a wide range of
classroom demographics.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

This course/module made a concerted effort to achieve the following learning outcomes. Help students to familiarize
the principles and central ideas of important globalization theories that they are likely to encounter in the social
science discipline. Demystify the concept of globalization and help students see the application of global structures
and processes in their everyday activity. Help students became more systematic and thoughtful critical thinkers.
Provide students with an overview and brief history of how globalization as an intellectual topic is developing. In
this course different definitions of globalization will be discussed. The task of conceptualizing reveals a variety of
perspectives. To understand further the concept, different metaphors will be used. These metaphors will also allow
an appreciation of earlier epochs before globalization and the present globalized world. The final lesson in this
chapter will be devoted to a general discussion of globalization theories.

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 INDICATIVE CONTENT

CHAPTER I - DEFINING GLOBALIZATION

 Lesson 1. The Task of Defining Globalization
 Lesson 2. Metaphors of Globalization
 Solid
 Liquid
 Flows
 Lesson 3. Globalization Theories
 Lesson 4. Dynamics of Local and Global Culture
 Lesson 5. The Globalization of Religion
 Lesson 6. Globalization and Regionalization
 Lesson 7. Origins and History of Globalization
 Hardwired
 Cycles
 Epoch
 Events
 Broader, more recent changes
 Lesson 8. Global Demography
 Lesson 9. Global Migration

DISSCUSSION

Lesson 1. The Task of Defining Globalization

Much has changed since time immemorial. Human beings have encountered many changes over the last century
especially in their social relationships and social structures. Of these changes, one can say that globalization is a
very important form of change, if not the most important. The reality of globalization makes us see ourselves as part
of what we refer to as the “global age”. The internet for example allows a person from the Philippines to know what
is happening to the rest of the world simply by browsing Google. The mass media also allows for connections
among people, communities, and countries all over the globe.

So what is globalization? This question is probably an easy one to answer. However, many scholars gave and tried
to formulate its definitions. This resulted in different, sometimes contradicting views about the concept. It cannot be
contained within a specific time frame, all people, and all situations. Aside from this, globalization encompasses a
multitude of process that involves in the economy, political systems and culture. Social structures, therefore are
directly affected by globalization.

Over the years, globalization has gained many connotations pertaining to progress, development and integration. On
the other hand, some view globalization as a positive phenomenon. For instance, Swedish Journalist Thomas
Larsson, saw globalization as “the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It
also pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit
with somebody on one side of the world”. On the other hand, some see it as occurring through and with regression,
colonialism, and destabilization. In the mid of 1990’s, Martin Khor, the former president of the third world network
in Malaysia, once regarded globalization as colonization.

Since its first appearance in the Webster Dictionary in 1961, many opinions about globalization have flourished. The
literature on the definition of globalization could be classified as either (1) broad and inclusive, (2) narrow and
exclusive. Ohmae offered in 1992 stated that “globalization means the onset of a border less world, this is an
example of a broad and inclusive type of definition. If one uses such, it can include a variety of issues that deal with
overcoming traditional boundaries. However, it does not shed light on the implications of globalization due to its
vagueness. Narrow and exclusive definitions are better justified but can be limiting, in the sense that their
application adhere to only particular definitions. Robert Cox’s definition of globalization suits to narrow and
exclusive “The characteristics of globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the new
international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new competitive environment
that accelerates these process and the internationalizing of the state. No matter how one classifies a definition of
globalization, the concept is complex and multifaceted as the definitions deal with either economic, political or
social dimensions. Kumar (2003) took on a different argument about the issue. To him, the debate about what can be
done about globalization and what it is are similar, it is a useless task.

A more recent definition was given by Ritzer (2015), globalization is a trans-planetary process or a set of processes
involving increasingly liquidity and the growing multidirectional flows of people, objects, places, and information as
well as the structures they encounter and create barriers. Although things flow easily in a global world, hindrances

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or structural blocks are also present. These blocks could slow down one’s activity in another country or could even
limit the places a person can visit.

So, why do we need to study and understand globalization?

First, the perspective of the person who defines globalization shapes its definition. The overview of definitions
implies that globalization is many things to many different people. Arjun Appadurai said, “globalization is a world
of things that have different speeds, axes, points of origin and termination, and varied relationships to institutional
structures in different regions, nations or societies. In more recent studies, Al-Rhodan (2006) wrote that definitions
suggest the perspective of the author on the origins and the geopolitical implications of globalization. It is a starting
point that will guide the rest of any discussions. In effect, ones definition and perspective could determine concrete
steps in addressing the issues of globalization. For example, if one sees globalization as positive, the person can say
that it is unifying force. On the other hand, if it is deemed as creating greater inequalities among nations,
globalization is negatively treated.

Second, to paraphrase, the sociologist Cesare Poppi: Globalization is the debate and the debate is - it has
globalization. One become part and parcel of the other. The literature stemming from the debate on globalization has
grown in the last decade beyond any individual’s capability of extracting a workable definition of the concept. In the
sense, the meaning of the concept is self-evident, in another, it is vague and obscure as it reaches the wide and
constantly shifting. Perhaps, more than any other concept, globalization is the debate about it.

Third, globalization is a reality. It is changing as human society develops. It has happened before and is still
happening today. We should expect it to continue to happen in the future. The future of globalization is more
difficult to predict. What we could expect in the coming years is what has happened over the past 50 years and that
is the fluidity and complexity of globalization as a concept, which made more debates, discussions, and definitions
than agreement on it.

Overall, globalization is a concept that is not easy to define because in reality, globalization has shifting nature. It is
complex, multifaceted, and can be influenced by the people who define it. Moreover, the issues and concerns
involving globalization have a wide range-from the individual to society, from small communities to nations and
states, and from the benefits we can gain from it to the costs it could carry. Nevertheless, the task of defining
globalization should stimulate more discussion about it. More importantly, the fact that we experience globalization
should give one interest of engaging in the study of it.

Note: ***See attached sheets (PPT)***

Lesson 2. Metaphors of Globalization

In order for us to better understand the concept of globalization, we will utilize metaphors. Metaphors make use of
one term to help us better understand another term. In our case, the state matter -solid and liquid- will be used. In
addition, other related concepts that are included in the definition such as structures and flows will be elaborated.

Note: ***See attached sheets (PPT)***

Lesson 3. Globalization Theories

In this lesson we will have a glimpse of the important theories on globalization. We will analyze globalization
culturally, economically, and politically in this module. In the meantime, it would be helpful to assert that the
theories see globalization as a process that increases either homogeneity or heterogeneity. Homogeneity refers to the
increasing sameness in the world as cultural inputs, economic factors, and political orientations of societies expand
to create common practices, same economies and similar forms of government. Homogeneity in culture is often
linked to cultural imperialism. This means a given culture influences other cultures. For example, the dominant
religion in our country is Christianity, which was brought to us by the Spaniards. Global economic crises are also
products of homogeneity, for instance Stiglitz (2002) blamed the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for its one-
size-fits all approach which treats every country in the world as the same. On the other hand

Heterogeneity pertains to the creation of various cultural practices, new economies, and political groups because of
the interaction of elements from different societies in the world. Heterogeneity refers to the differences because of
either lasting differences or of the hybrids or combinations of cultures that can be produced through the different
trans-planetary processes. Contrary to cultural imperialism, heterogeneity in culture is associated with cultural
hybridization. A more specific concept is glocalization where global forces interact with local factors or a specific
geographic area, the glocal is being produced. Although homogeneity and heterogeneity gives us idea about the
effects of globalization, the picture is not yet complete. The theories about globalization will be clarified as we look
closer at each of them.

Note: ***See attached sheets (PPT)***

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Lesson 4. Dynamics of Globalization (Local and Global Culture)

Global flows of culture tend to move more easily around the globe than even before, especially through non-material
digital forms. There are three perspectives on global cultural flow. These are differentialism, hybridization and
convergence.

Note: ***See attached sheets (PPT)***

Lesson 5. The Globalization of Religion

Globalization has played a tremendous role in providing a context for current revival and the resurgence of religion.
Today most religion are not relegated to the countries where they began. Religions have in fact, spread and scatter
on a global scale. Globalization provide religions a fertile milieu to spread and thrive. Accelerated globalization of
recent times has enabled co-religionist across the planet to have greater direct contact with one another. Global
communications, global organization, global finance and the like have allowed ideas of Muslims and the universal
Christian church to be given concrete shape as never before.

Information technologies, transportation means, and the media are deemed important means on which religionist
rely on the dissemination of their religious ideas. For instance, countless websites that provide information about
religions have been created. This makes pieces of information and explanations about different religions ready at the
disposal of any person regardless of his or her geographical location. In addition, the internet allows people to
contact each other worldwide and therefore hold forums and debates that allow religious ideas to spread.

Furthermore, media also play an important role in the dissemination of religious ideas. In this respect, a lot of
television channels, radio stations, and print media are founded solely for advocating religions. Modern
transportation has also contributed considerably to the emergence, revivalism and fortification of religion. In this
respect, Turner (2007) cited the case of revivalism in Asia which is related to the improvement in transportation that
has allowed many Muslims to travel to Mecca, and return with reformist ideas. Modern technology, therefore has
helped religions of different forms, such as fundamentalist. Orthodox, or modernist to cross geographical boundaries
and be present everywhere.

Globalization has also allowed religion or faith to gain considerable significance and importance as a non-territorial
touchstone of identity. Being a source of identity and pride, religion has always been promoted by its practitioners
so that it could reach the level of globality and be embraced by as many people as possible. Muslims for instance,
aspire to establish the Islamic Ummah, a community of believers. By paving the way for religions to come in contact
with each other and providing a context for their flourishing and thriving, globalization has brought such religious to
a circle of competition and conflicts. Such conflicts among the world exhibits a solid proof confirming the erosion
and the failure of hybridization. Globalization as stated in the above excerpt, makes religions more conscious of
themselves as being “world religions” reinforcing their respective specific identities. These identities are
strengthened by globalization and cannot, in a way, intermingle or hybridize. Since religions have distinct internal
structures, their connections to different cultures and their rituals and beliefs contradict. For instance, Islam and
Christianity are mostly incompatible with each other. These religions cannot be hybridized or homogenized even if
they often come in contact.

Though religion is strengthened and fortified by globalization, it represents a challenge to globalization’s

hybridizing effects. Religion seeks to assert its identity in the light of globalization. As a result, different religious
identities come to the fore and assert themselves. At the same time as being pursued through global channels,
assertions of religious identity have, like nationalist strivings, often also been partly a defensive reaction to
globalization. On the other hand, it can be said that the anti-rationalist qualities ascribed to religion can be the
characteristics of fundamentalist and extremist forms of religion. We cannot consider religion as purely anti-
rationalist since many religious people reconcile reason and faith and make moderate trends within their religions.
The challenges of globalization to religion link automatically to the challenges of religion to globalization. In other
words, while religion takes caution against the norms and the values related to globalization, it challenges the latter
since religion does not approve its hybridizing effects.

Note: ***See attached sheets (PPT)***

Lesson 6. Globalization and Regionalization

The process of globalization and Regionalization reemerged during the 1980s and heightened after the end of Cold
War in 1990s. At first it seems that these two processes are contradicting - the very nature of globalization is by
defining global, while Regionalization is naturally regional.

The Regionalization of the world system and economic activity undermines the potential benefits coming out from a
liberalized global economy. This is because regional organization prefer regional partners over the rest. Regional
organization respond to the states attempt to reduce the perceived negative effects of globalization therefore
regionalism is a sort of counter-globalization. In 2007 survey, majority of Europeans consider that globalization

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brings negative effects to their societies. Many policy makers and scholars think that globalization must be regulated
and managed. It is important however to consider the gradual development of inter-regional relations such as
ASEAN and EU. Regionalization is one part of the world that encourages elsewhere - whether by imitation, or by
defensive reaction. In fact, Regionalization and the development of inter-regionalism would indeed be a global in
nature. Regional development is one part of the world that have affected and fueled regionalism elsewhere.
Therefore, regionalism is intimately linked to globalization since it is part of it and builds on it.

Globalization going back to when humans first put a boat into the sea, we can understand that globalization is the
increased flows of goods, services, capital, people and information across borders. The main concern of
Regionalization is economic security that ensures peace and stability. On the contrary it is also believed that culture
and identity guides Regionalization, because culture and identity are civilization. Nevertheless, economic motivation
are probably the main motivation behind contemporary Regionalization, by entering in regional organization, Asian
states may regain some control over flows of capital and enhance their bargaining power against transnational
economic actors or investors from transnational corporations. Domestic companies may benefit from belonging to a
regional market big enough to allow them scale economies while still being protected from global competition. In
other words, regional organizations allow national companies the opportunity to succeed in a protected but big
enough market in a way that they would otherwise fail if exposed to global competition.

Lesson 7. Origins and History of Globalization

The previous lesson answered the question “What is globalization?” The next question is “Where did it started?”
Well it is not easy to answer because there are different views about this. One scholar adheres to the perspective
that the major points of the beginning of globalization started after the second World War. Nevertheless, it would
mean no harm to look at the five different perspectives regarding the origins of globalization.

 Hardwired - It is because of our basic human need that makes our lives better that made globalization
possible. Therefore, one can trace the beginning of globalization from our ancestors in Africa who walked
out from the said continent in the last Ice Age. This long journey finally led them to all known continents
today. It is the commerce, religion, politics and warfare are the urges of people toward a better life. These
are respectively connected to four aspects of globalization, trade, missionary works, adventures and
conquest.

 Cycles - Globalization is a long-term cyclical process and thus, finding its origin will be a daunting task.
What is important is the cycles that globalization has gone through. This point of globalization will soon
disappear and reappear.

 Epoch - These are the waves of globalization. The difference of epoch to cycle is that it does not treat
epoch as returning. The following the sequential occurring of epochs:
 Globalization of religion (4th to 17th centuries)
 European colonial conquest ( late 15th century)
 Intra-European wars ( late 18th to 19th century)
 Heyday of European Imperialism (mid-19th century to 1918)
 Post-world war II period
 Post-cold war period

 Events - Specific events are also considered as part of the fourth view in explaining the origin of
globalization. For example, Roman conquest centuries before Christ were the origin of globalization. It
was said also that it was during the thirteenth century when the rampage of the armies of Genghis Khan
into Eastern Europe. It is also claimed that the beginning of globalization was brought by the voyages of
discovery - Christopher Columbus’s discovery of America in 1942, Vasco de Gama in Cape of good hope
in 1498, and Ferdinand Magellan’s completed circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. However, the recent
years could also be regarded as the beginnings of globalization with reference to specific technological
advances in transportation and communication, like that of the first transatlantic telephone cable (1956),
the first transatlantic television broadcasts (1962), the founding of the modern internet(1988), the terrorist
attacks on the Twin Tower in New York (2001). Certainly, with this view, more and more specific events
will characterize not just the origin of globalization but also more of history.

 Broader, More Recent Changes - points three notable changes as the origin of globalization that we know
today.
 The emergence of the United States as the global power (Post-World War II)
 The emergence of multinational corporation (MNCs)
 The demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War.

Through its dominant military and economic power after WWII, the United States was able to outrun Germany and
Japan in terms of industry. Before MNCs came into being, their roots were from their countries of origin during the
18th to early 19th century. US, Germany and Great Britain had in their homeland great corporations which the world
knows today. However, they did not remain there as far as their production and market are concerned. For example,

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Ford and General Motors originated in US but in the 20 th century, they exported more and opened factories to other
countries.

Note: ***See attached sheets (PPT)***

Lesson 8. Global Demography

Demography - defined as the statistical study of human populations especially with reference to size and density
distribution and vital statistics. Demographic transition is a singular historical period during which mortality and
fertility rates decline from high to low levels in a particular country or region. The broad outlines of the transition
are similar in countries around the world, but the pace and timing of the transition have varied considerably. The
transition started in the mid or late 1700s in Europe. During those times. Death rates and fertility began to decline.
High to low fertility happened 200 years in France and 100 years in the United States. In other parts of the world,
the transition began later. It was only in the 20 th century that mortality decline in Africa and Asia, with the
exemption of Japan. According to Maddison (2001), life expectancy in India was only 24 years in the early 20 th
century while the same life expectancy occurred in China in 1929-1931. Fertility declines in Asia did not begin until
the 1950s and so on. In the case of Japan, it was until 1930s that total fertility rate did not drop below five births per
woman. This resulted in rapid population growth after the second World War, affecting the age structure of Asia
and the developing world. Specifically, the baby boom in the developing world was caused by the decline of infant
and child mortality rates. The west, on the other hand, experienced baby boom that resulted from rising birth rates.

A remarkable effect of the demographic transition is the enormous gap in life expectancy that emerged between
Japan and the West on the one hand and the rest of the world on the other. By 1820, the life expectancy at birth of
Japan and the West was 12 years greater than that of other countries. It increased by 2 years by 1900. Although there
was an improvement in life expectancy all throughout the world in 1900-1950, the gap had reached 22 years. In
1999, the gap declined 14 years. These differences in time of transition affected the global population. During 19 th
century, Europe and the West had an increased in share in the World’s population, from 22.0% - 33.0%, while Asia
and Oceania’s contribution dropped from 69.0% - 56.7%. India and China suffered from economic stagnation and
decline during that time.

In terms of the age structure, the overall trend in Japan and the West was downward until 1950. Their dependency
ratio was close to 0.5. Although temporary, when the baby boom after the second World War occurred. Japan’s
dependency ratio, however increased between 1888 and 1920. Its dependency ratio was higher than the West
between 1920 and the early 1950s. It dropped in 1970 and later since its precipitous decline in childbearing during
the 1950s and low fertility rates in recent years. The developing countries like India and the Philippines had higher
dependency ratios that the West in 1990. A great increase in dependency ratio was caused by the decline in infant
and child mortality and high levels of fertility, with its peak around 1970. Dependency ratio started to disappears
because there is a decline in global birth rate. Furthermore, the gap in fertility between the west and the less
developed countries became smaller by the 21st century. Over the next 50 years, the cases of dependency ratios of
these two areas in the world will be reversed. The aging of populations will cause a rise in dependency ratio, starting
in the West.

Lesson 9. Global Migration

The nuances of the movements of people around the world can be seen through the categories of migrants,
vagabonds and tourists. Vagabonds are the on the move because they have to be, they are not faring well in their
home countries and are forced to move in the hope that their circumstances will improve. Tourists, on the other
hand, are on the move because they want to be and they can afford it. Refugees are vagabonds forced to flee their
home countries due to safety concern. Asylum seekers are refugees who seek to remain in the country to which they
flee. Those who migrate to find work are involved in labor migration. Labor migration is driven by “Push” factors
like lack of employment opportunities in home countries and also “Pull” factors like work available elsewhere.

Migration is traditionally governed by push factors such as political persecution, economic depression, war, and
famine in the home country or by pull factors such as favorable immigration policy, a labor shortage and similarity
of language and culture in the country destination. Another factor that exerts significant influence is global factors
that facilitates easy access to information about the country of destination. Many countries face issues of illegal
migration. The United States faces major influx of illegal immigrants from Mexico and other Central American
states. A fence is being constructed on the US-Mexico border to control this flow of people. However, its efficacy is
questioned and it is thought that it will only lead illegal immigrants to adopt more dangerous methods to gain entry.
In addition, tighter borders have also had the effect of “locking in” people who might otherwise have left the
country. The term “diaspora” has been increasingly used to describe migrant communities. Diasporization and
globalization are closely interconnected and the expansion of the latter will lead to an increase in the former. Today
there exists “virtual Diaspors” which utilize technology such as internet to maintain the community network.

Note: ***See attached sheets (PPT)***

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 ACTIVITY

Activity 1. The World Made Closer

We discuss the different definitions of globalization. In this global age that we live in, globalization gained various
views from many authors and scholars. In turn, these diverse definition can affect how one can appreciate
globalization as a process. Furthermore, we analyzed globalization through conceptual metaphors such as solids,
liquids and flows. In this activity, you are to see the actual application of globalization on the different aspects of
daily life such as politics, music, sports, film, celebrity and disaster.

A. Answer the following questions:

a. Enumerate at least three of the most recent songs you have listened. Where did they originate? Identify the
nationality of the writer and/or artist for each music.
b. What gadgets or devices do you usually use to listen to music?
c. Where were these gadgets or devices made? Where is the company based?
d. How did you access these music? Did you purchase them online or listen to them through YouTube, Spotify, and
other music channels?

B. Using a visual representation, create your generalizations and discus what is globalization?

Activity 2. What do Writers Think about Globalization?

Look for and read three newspaper opinion editorials discussing globalization. You may use local or international
op-eds. Write a 50 word summary for each op-ed. Identify whether they subscribe to a particular definition
discussed in class or they have a new definition. Also, identify whether they are broad and inclusive or narrow and
exclusive.

Activity 3. How an OFW View the World?

There are various reasons why people leave their country of origin. Their stories could provide a concrete
understanding of how globalization affects themselves, their families and other country.

A. Find a former or a current OFW to be interviewed. Your respondent’s name should not be revealed in class to
protect the person’s identity and ensure anonymity.
B. Use the following guide questions (you made add additional questions):
a) How long have you stayed abroad?
b) What are the purposes for your stay there?
c) What were your most unforgettable experiences there? How will you describe them, good or bad?
d) How will you compare the Philippines with other countries?
e) Do you want to go back abroad or other countries in the future? Why or Why not?
C. Put into writings the results of your interview and your personal insights about your respondent’s experience.

EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT

Answer Comprehensively.

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using (A) broad and inclusive definitions and (B) narrow and
exclusive definitions of globalization?
2. What do you think is the importance of globalization?
3. Do you agree with the idea that the contemporary world is characterized by high liquidity? Why or why not?
4. Are societies in the world becoming more similar (homogeneous) or more different (heterogeneous)?
5. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of homogenization of culture? How about hetero
genization?
6. Which of the aforementioned views/theories of globalization you find most appealing? Why?
7. What do you think is the effect of a high dependency ratio in developed countries? In developing countries?
8. Has globalization facilitated or obstructed greater labor migration?

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 ADDITIONAL READINGS

 Capitalist World Economy

 Clash of Civilization
 Demographic Transition
 Drive to Technological Maturity
 Environmental Movement
 Global Economic Resistance
 Glocalization
 Greenhouse Gases
 Modernization Theory
 Sustainable Development Goals

REFERENCES

Aldama, P.K.R. (2018). The Contemporary World. First Edition. Rex Book Store.

Albrow, M. (1996). The Global Age. Cambridge: Polity

Al-Rhodan, N.R.F. (2006). Definitions of Globalization: A Comprehensive Overview and A Proposed Definition.
Geneva Center for Security Policy.

Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: University of

Minnnesota Press.

Bauman, Z. (1998). Globalization: The human Consequences. New York: Columbia University Press.

Cohen, D. (2006). Globalization and its Enemies. MA:MIT Pres.

Gilpin, R. (2001). Global Political Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Kritz, M. (2008). International Migration. In Ritzer, G. (ed.) Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology Online. Malden,
MA: Blackwell.

Mansfield, E. & Milner, H. (1999). The New Wave of Regionalism. International Organization. 00208183, Summer
99, 53, (3).

Moses, J.W. (2006). International Migration: Globalization’s Last Frontier. London: Zed Books.

Stiglitz, J. E. (2002). Globalization and its Discontents. New York: W.W. Norton and Co.

Turner, B. S. ( 2007). The Futures of Globalization. In Ritzer, G. (ed.) Blackwell Companion to Globalization.
Malden, MA: Blackwell.

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