1. What does Lexicology mean?

In general meaning the word “lexicology” created with two words which came to us from
Greek. “Lexis” means “word or phrase”. “Logos” means “learning”. Total means lexicology is
the study of words. It is a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary. Words play a huge
and important role in lexicology. because one of the main tasks of lexicology is the study and
study of the meaning of words. And also it studies polysemy, homonyms, synonyms,
antonyms and other relations between the meanings of words. It considers words in terms of
their meaning, origin, nature of use and stylistic meaning. It is important to know the
structure of the word while learning the language. In our daily life we use a large amount of
words while expressing our thoughts or simply communicating with the next person. They
are connected with each other and turn out to be a sentence that is understandable to all of
us. From here it depends on lexicology that we can use the meaning and form of words
correctly.

2. What are the types of Lexicology?

Lexic is an ancient word which came ftom greek "Lexiros" which means "dictionary" In
general meaning of this word created two words. That came to us from Greek. A word
lexic means phrase, word. all of us know that term logos means learnin something. Total
meaning which we got, that it studies word or vocabulary. It’s also one kind of linguistics. So,
lets talk about the types. We have five different types. First is general. This studies all of
languages. Second one is special. This type studies one of certain language. Next one is
historical. This type studies origin or root of the word. Also, it studies their development
and change. Fourth is a descriptive. This studies vocabulary a certain stage and its
development. The last stage is comparative. This final stage we will study relationships or
differences between dictionary of two languages.

3. What is understood by `semasiology`?

Semasiology is one of the way of lexicology. It studies meaning of the words. There is not
matter pronouncation. If you want to use word correctly, you must know word's meaning. In
this situation semasiology helps us. Every words have their own meaning. For instance, the
book we can use as a noun and verb. So the meaning is pages with text or buy something.
So semasiology helps us to understand word’s meaning. The main task is to find the answer
to the main question.

4. What does the concept 'polysemy' mean?

The words polysemy came to us from Greece. let's study what these words mean if we
translate. As we know the word poly means a lot or a plurality of something. Semy means
signs. Their translation already gives us key information. This means that there are
absolutelly different meaning of one and same word. Polyseme has ability. Its words having
a lot and multiple meanings.For instance, a word bright means shining of something or
intelligent. This kind of flower needs a bright sunshine. Some bright students take a part in
these competition. To understand what meaning give the word which got multiple meanings
you must understand what speaker said or context.

5. What is the semantic structure of a word?

First of all let define the word semantic. it is a one kind of linguistics. the main task of this is
the study of the meanings of given words or sentences. It helps to explain how given word or
sentences are understood by native speakers. let's talk about what is the semantic structure.
It is a term for organization. which is represent us the world's meaning. For instance, when
we make sentences in english language, we must the rule of semantic structure of it. The
rules like: first subject, then we put verb and at the end we put object.

6. What does homonymy mean?

In order to recognize the which means of this phrase which has a couple of meanings you
must
understand the context. The word homonymy created with two phrases which go there for us
from Greek. There are homos capability identical and onoma which potential name. If we
translate directly, we get equal name. So let me supply in reality definition of homonymy.
It’s relation between words. It capacity that the phrase same and equal sound structure and
spelling like twins. But the important one-of-a-kind is their meaning. For instance, the phrase
a ring has extra than one meaning. So let me supply some sentences with this word. When
you come ring the bell.
Marat sold a ring for his lady friend for her birthday. As you can see we used one word
in two unique situations. Also, we can see that, in the first sentence the phrase was

7. How are antonyms traditionally defined?- In every lexicology has three main elements.
There are synonym, homonym and antonym. So today we will talk about antonym. If word
has opposite meaning to another second word, we called it antonym. We can find opposite
word according their meaning. For instance: last year on September the weather was hot,
but this year the weather was cold. In this simple sentence antonym words are hot and cold.
We use antonyms to describe things and people. By the way we can give more information
in our speech or compare their size, weight, personality etc.

8. How are synonyms traditionally defined? - To find synonyms of some words we must tend
attention to word’s meaning. It's like putting together a puzzle, connect two or more matching
parts. If two different words give us similar meaning, we called synonyms. Sometimes word's
meaning not clearly. But they are still synonyms with nearly meaning. Let me give some
examples to understand it. The girl that I saw in the supermarket looks quite attractive. After
her journey she wrote his beautiful article about Amazon. In these two sentences we have
got two synonyms. First is a beautiful. Second is a attractive. They both meaning is looks
good. How I mentioned before some word meaning not exactly. For example, sleep and nap
have nearly meaning. Warm and hot. Hot is harder than worm, but there are still synonyms.

9. What is the meaning of the concept 'affixation'? - Affixation is processing of formation a

new word by adding derivative affixes to root of
word. By adding affixes, we can get a new word with new meaning. Also, adding affixes
to word can give us more grammatical information. And we can say affixation a
morphological process. Let’s give some examples to affixation process and their
usage. For instance, we can add affix ‘s’ to show for a lot of quantity of something.
Another example: Samal can’t go to party, because she dislikes a nosy place. In this
sentence the affix ‘dis’ show our disagreement. By using affixes we can add more
information.

10. What are productive affixes? - All we know function of affixes. We use affixes to create a
new word with new other
meaning. But sometimes affixes do not give us new meaning. In this way they give just
extra information. So these two way we called productive affixes and non-productive
affixes. Today we will talk about productive affixes. It is process when affixes add to
word to create new word. Productive affixes are ness, ify, ation, age etc. For instance:
when he joked about policeman, nobody didn’t lough because it was unfunny. The
word unfunny created by adding affix ‘un’. The original form of this word is positive
emotion. But when we add ‘un’ it became negative emotion.

11. What are non-productive affixes?

All we know affixe's function. We use affixes to make a new words with new other meaning.
But sometimes affixes do not give us new meaning. In this way they give just extra
information. So these two types are productive and non-productive affixes. If we add
non-productive affixes to the word the can not change their original meaning. For instance,
apple – apples. Affix ‘s’ didn’t change the meaning of the word. It shows quantity.
Play-playing, the affixes ‘ing’ shows us the time, also it c
12. What is understood by composition?
The word composition comes from the latin. It means put together. The way of making new
words by putting two stems or words to create a new word, we called composition. It is very
usefull in modern english. Because nowadays we have got a lot of new devices. Sometimes
we use composition to named a new device. For instance: Omar always loses his earphone
in public place. In this sentence the composition word is earphone. It’s created with two
words ear and phone. I will give some compositions: headache, breakfast, butterfly, aircraft,
grandson etc. we use it in differents science like biology, technology areas or just daily life.
13. What is understood by conversion?
Conversion is a vast time period that can be interpreted in many ways, however at its core, it
usually includes an exchange from one shape or country to another. Whether it is in the
context of marketing, religion, computing, physics, or sports, the idea of conversion entails
some shape of transformation or transition.
From a non-public perspective, I trust that conversion can additionally refer to the method of
altering one's very own beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. This can be a mindful choice, such as
finding out to undertake a more healthy lifestyle, or it can be a gradual shift in one's
worldview based totally on experiences and new information. In this sense, conversion can
be an effective device for non-public increase and development, as it permits us to destroy
free from limiting beliefs or patterns and discover new methods of questioning and being.
Overall, the thinking of conversion is a versatile and multifaceted one, with one of a kind
meanings and implications relying on the context in which it is used. Nonetheless, it
constantly includes some structure of trade or transformation, and as such, it can be a
precious and transformative method in many areas of our lives.

14. What is understood by reduplication?

Reduplication is a linguistic procedure that includes repeating a phrase or phase of a phrase
to create a new phrase or to add emphasis to the unique word. This phenomenon can be
discovered in many languages round the world and can take a variety of forms, such as full
reduplication, partial reduplication, or ablaut reduplication. Reduplication is frequently used
to point out plurality or repetition, as nicely as to structure diminutives or augmentatives.
Additionally, it can be used to specific intensity, emphasis, or different nuanced meanings.
Overall, reduplication is a captivating component of language that demonstrates the richness
and flexibility of human communication.
15. What is understood by back-formation?
We all know how to create new words by adding two different words or by copying same
word or root. But there is a way that we don't add anything to the word or root.
This process is back - formation.Usually, a suffix is ​added to the word, but in reverse
formation, a verb is formed from a noun, which means forming a new word, but vice versa. It
is the process of creating words in which suffixes
and prefixes are deleted from existing words. This word formation can be called the
reverse process. Because this process breaks the word into a simple form, I remove the
extra ones. For example, the word "destruct" comes from the fact that the affix "ion"
was deleted from the word "destruction".

16. What is understood by sound-imitation?

Imitation of sound is the sounds that surround us.
This is mainly when we want to tell someone about something that happened or something
through sound. For example, a dog barks, a cat meows or a bird sings. These everyday
things are very important if we pay attention to them. Because with that we can easily
understand the story
In everyday communication, sound-imitation is often used for humor or to convey a particular
message. For example, imitating the sound of a crying baby can signal that someone is
upset
or in distress, while imitating the sound of a car horn can indicate frustration or impatience

17. What is understood by sound interchange?

Sound exchange, also called phonetic transformation or phonemic change, is the
phenomenon of replacing a sound in a word with another sound in a certain morphological or
grammatical context. This can happen in many different languages ​and can be a normal
part of the language's grammar.
For example, in English, the plural morpheme "-s" is pronounced differently depending
on the final sound of the noun it is attached to. If the noun ends in a consonant, as in "cat,"
the plural "-s" is pronounced [s], as in "cats." When a noun ends in a vowel, like "dog," the
plural "-s" is pronounced [z], as in "dogs." An example of sound exchange based on voicing
the last sound of the head.
Another example of sound change can be seen in the past tense of English verbs.
Regular verbs form the past tense by adding "-ed" to the base form, but the pronunciation of
the "-ed" ending depends on the base form ending. If the lemma ends in a consonant, the
ending "-ed" is pronounced [t], as in "kissed". If the lemma ends in a vowel, the ending "-ed"
is pronounced [d], as in "embraced". Another example of sound exchange is based on
sounding the last sound of the head.
Phonology can be a complex and varied aspect of language and can play an important
role in the sound and meaning of words.
18. What is the meaning of the concept 'borrowing words'?
The concept of borrowing refers to the process of acquiring words in a language.
It enters the vocabulary from another language. This can be for a number of reasons,
such as filling vocabulary gaps for concepts or objects that have no equivalent in another
language, or expressing new or novel ideas or concepts.
 When a language borrows a word from another word, it may take it literally or adapt it to
the phonology and grammar of the language being borrowed. For example, although
English borrows many words from French, such as "restaurant", "déjà vu", "chaffer", these
words are adapted to English phonology and grammar. Similarly, Spanish borrowed many
words from Nahuatl, such as "chocolate," "tomato," and "aguacate," but these words were
adapted according to Spanish phonology and grammar.
Loanwords can occur between related or unrelated languages ​and can be a process
that occurs over time when languages ​come into contact with each other. This can be a
two-way process, where languages ​receive reciprocal words from each other. Common
word acquisition is an important aspect of language change and evolution, allowing us to
understand the cultural and historical connections between languages ​and communities.
19. How phraseological units are traditionally defined?
Traditionally, phraseological units have been classified into several types based on their
structure and meaning. Some common types of phraseological units include:
Idioms: These are fixed expressions that have a figurative or metaphorical meaning that
cannot be understood from the literal meanings of their component parts. Examples of
idioms in English include "kick the bucket," meaning to die, and "let the cat out of the bag,"
meaning to reveal a secret.
Collocations: These are pairs or groups of words that frequently occur together and have
become established as a conventional way of expressing a particular idea or concept.
Examples of collocations in English include "strong coffee," "heavy rain," and "make a
decision."
Proverbs: These are short expressions that express a general truth or piece of wisdom in a
memorable and concise way. Examples of proverbs in English include "honesty is the best
policy" and "you can't judge a book by its cover."
Phrasal verbs: These are multiword verbs that consist of a main verb and one or more
particles, such as "get up," "turn off," or "put on." Phrasal verbs often have a different
meaning than the individual words would suggest, and they can be difficult for non-native
speakers to master.
Overall, the traditional definition of phraseological units emphasizes their fixed and non
compositional nature, as well as their importance in everyday communication and discourse
20. What does a dialect mean?
For example, in each country there are several regions or states and in them people speak
differently. There are differences from grammar or pronunciation, vocabulary. This is called
dialect. The most interesting thing is that they do not understand each other. For example,
there are several dialects in English. British, American, Cockney, Australian, etc.
In the American dialect flip out means aggression, and in other dialects it means to turn over.
In the Cockney dialect, as far as I've heard, they don't pronounce the letter T in some words.
When I first heard this dialect, it is difficult to understand what is being said.
2 уровень

21. Define links Lexicology with other branches of Linguistics

Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a
language, including the structure, meaning, and use of words. As such, it is closely linked to
several other branches of linguistics, including:
Phonetics and phonology: Lexicology is closely linked to the study of the sound system of a
language, as the pronunciation of words can have a significant impact on their meaning and
use.
Morphology: Lexicology is also closely linked to the study of word structure and the ways in
which words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.
Syntax: Lexicology is linked to the study of sentence structure, as words must be arranged in
a specific order to convey meaning.
Semantics: Lexicology is closely linked to the study of meaning, as it is concerned with the
meanings of individual words and how they are combined to create larger units of meaning.
Pragmatics: Lexicology is linked to the study of language use in context, as it is concerned
with how words and phrases are used in social and cultural contexts. Overall, the study of
lexicology is an important aspect of linguistics, as it provides insights into the structure,
meaning, and use of the vocabulary of a language, and how it is related to other aspects of
language structure and use.
22. Identify the semantic structure of the word.
Semantic structure refers to the underlying organization and relationships of meaning within
a word. It is the way in which the various senses or meanings of a word are related to each
other.
The semantic structure of a word can include several components, including:

Core meaning: This is the most basic or central meaning of a word. It is the sense that is
most closely associated with the word and that forms the basis for its other meanings.
Extended meanings: These are additional senses or meanings of a word that are related to
its core meaning but that may be less central or more specialized. Figurative meanings:
These are non-literal or metaphorical senses of a word that are based on analogy or
comparison with other concepts or objects.
Collocational meanings: These are meanings that arise from the typical or frequent use of a
word in certain combinations or contexts.
Connotative meanings: These are associated meanings or implications that a word may
have beyond its literal meaning, such as emotional or cultural associations.
Overall, the semantic structure of a word is complex and multifaceted, and it can reveal
important insights into the ways in which meaning is organized and expressed within a
language.
23. Describe traditional classification of homonyms.
First of all, homonyms are divided into two types, they are: homophones and homographs.
To start with about homophones, they sound the identical however are written differently. For
example, too or two, night time or knight. At night time I woke up to the sound of thunder.
One of the knights was once killed through the enemies.
But homographs are written the identical way, however phrase in a different way in sound
and pronunciation . For example, Koreans make a bow when they say hello. He adjusted the
bow on his suit.
24. Explain the classification of synonyms.
Synonyms are phrases that have comparable meanings. They can be labeled into
extraordinary sorts primarily based on their relationship to every other.Let's look at these 3
types of synonyms:
First is absolute synonyms: These are phrases that have the equal that means in all contexts
and can be used interchangeably. For example, "happy" and "joyful" are absolute synonyms.
Second is contextual synonyms: These are phrases that have comparable meanings but are
used in unique contexts. For example, "sturdy" and "strong" are contextual synonyms due to
the fact they can be used in specific contexts to carry comparable meanings.
Last one is near synonyms: These are phrases that have comparable meanings however
with refined differences. For example, "big" and "large" are close to synonyms, however "big"
normally implies a measurement that is extraordinarily increased than "large."
The classification of synonyms consists of absolute synonyms, contextual synonyms, close
to synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, and heteronyms. Understanding the nuances of
these classifications can assist in deciding on the most excellent synonym in a given context.
25. Describe traditional classification of antonyms.
We all be aware of what antonyms are and can without problems locate them. You
additionally want to know
about the classification of antonyms. So there are three sorts of antonyms:
Relational Antonyms, Graded Antonyms, and Complementary Antonyms.
Relative antonyms they are accountable for the connection between two
opposites. Easy examples for this: hot-cold, back-front
Graded antonyms they signify the distinction between opposites. The most
common instance of which can be given: huge, big, small.
Complementary antonyms they do no longer matter, that is, there is really the
presence of two contrary units of words. For example, a female is a man, turn
off-turn on.
26. Identify the classification of Affixes.
As a ways as I understand there are two important classifications of affixes: prefixes and
suffixes.
There is some other kind of interface.
Usually prefixes are positioned earlier than the root. For example, dislike.
Now about suffixes, they are put after the root. The most essential aspect I suppose is not
to confuse the suffix and the ending. I can provide an instance of kindness right here is a
suffix.
Interfixes they do now not have their very own meaning.
27. Describe basic non-productive ways of Word-formation. -First of all, there are two ways
in English word formation. They are productive and unproductive. Now I want to explain
about unproductive ways. Unproductive word-formative words are also divided into two
types: vowel alternation and stress change. For example, there are many suffixes that are
used in unproductive word formation. I can give examples such as -ment=development or
-in, -im, -il. Here are some examples of which I can say incorrect, impossible
28. Identify the assimilation of borrowings. -To begin assimilation, this is a change in
loanwords. They change their grammatical, phonetic meaning. Also structural forms,
meaning and usage. Assimilation is necessary in order for borrowed words to adapt to the
rules of the language. About the degree of assimilation, they depend on time. That is, if one
borrowed word is used frequently in the host language, then assimilation will be fast. It also
depends on the purity of pronunciation.
29. Explain degrees of assimilation. -Approximately the degree of assimilation of borrowing
there are 3 degrees:
completely, somewhat and not absorbed at all.
So totally acclimatized, they comply all the rules of absorption. Such as,
morphological, syntactic and so on. In numerous cases, such words take an dynamic
portion in word arrangement.
Halfway here it is obvious by the title that digestion does not happen totally. For case,
words absorbed syntactically but not phonetically or bad habit versa. Indeed some of
the time it happens that one of the focuses of digestion were not fulfilled. For
illustration, in case semantic isn't absorbed. This implies that they indicate objects or
concepts from the dialect from which they came.
And most as of late, they are not assimilated at all. To this degree, you'll be able
include such words that are utilized in a conversational fashion, for case with outsiders
and so on.

30. Determine types of assimilation. - Assimilation is a process in which a sound or a group

of sounds changes to become more similar or identical to a neighboring sound or group of
sounds. There are three main types of assimilation:

1. Phonological/Phonetic Assimilation: This type of assimilation involves changes in the

sounds themselves. It occurs when a sound changes to become more similar to a
neighboring sound. For example, in English, the word "impossible" is pronounced with a
nasal /m/ sound at the beginning. When followed by a voiceless consonant like /p/, the /m/
sound changes to a voiceless nasal sound /n/ to match the place of articulation of the
following sound, and the word is pronounced as "impos'nble".

2. Lexical Assimilation: This type of assimilation occurs when a word borrows a sound or
group of sounds from another word that it is closely associated with. For example, the word
"hamburger" is a lexical borrowing from German, and the pronunciation of the word in
English has been assimilated to the English sound system.

3. Grammatical Assimilation: This type of assimilation involves changes in the grammatical

structure of words or phrases. For example, in English, the plural morpheme /s/ is
assimilated in pronunciation to the preceding consonant sound. So, the word "cats" is
pronounced with a voiceless /s/ sound when it follows a voiceless consonant, like /t/ in "cats"
vs /z/ in "dogs".

31. Explain causes of borrowing.

The reasons why a word is borrowed by a language may be different. Firstly, the word is
often borrowed together with the object that is designated by this word, because there is no
corresponding concept in the culture of this country, and there is no corresponding word in
the lexical system to denote this concept. In this case, lexical units are borrowed to fill the
gap in the language system that arises when a new concept appears that needs linguistic
expression.
Factors influencing the process of borrowing Anglicisms: development
computer technologies and social networks (popular among young people),
modern music and club culture and the film industry, mass media and
television, the use of terms in various fields of professional activity, the development of fast
food chains, imitation of the lifestyle
of American and English youth.
Another reason for borrowing Anglicisms is the tendency to replace the Russian descriptive

phrase with a single word. For example, second-hand replaces the turnover "used clothes",
inauguration — the inauguration ceremony of the president of the country, showroom - an
exhibition hall for displaying samples of goods, teenager — teenager (boy or girl) from 13 to
18 years, quiz — radio or TV game of questions and answers, sniper — instead of
"marksman", motel — instead of "hotel for motorists".
32. Identify the classification of phraseological units.
Phraseological units can be classified based on different criteria, but one possible method to
classify that units are according to their internal structure and sense or meaning. In this
classification, there are three main types of phraseological units:

Idioms: Idioms are fixed expressions with a figurative meaning that cannot be deduced from
the literal meaning of their component words. Examples of idioms include "kick the bucket,"
which means to die, also one popular proverb nowadays is "break a leg," that convey the
meaning of an expression of good luck in something.

Proverbs: Proverbs statements are popular nuggets of judgment or wisdom of an individual.

Proverbs are little, short, customary, traditional sayings that express a general truth or piece
of wisdom. They often use metaphorical language to convey their message. Some models of
proverbs adds "time heals all wounds" and "actions speak louder than words." . “A bird in
hand is worth two in the bush.” That means - Certainty of having something in hand is higher
than mere likelihood of having even greater things.

Collocations:Collocations are word combinations that are commonly used together and have
a meaning that is different from the sum of their individual meanings. Examples of
collocations include "make a decision," "take a shower," and "heavy rain."

Actually I know that other types of phraseological units can also be distinguished, such as
phrasal verbs, compound words, and fixed expressions, among others.But this three types
are main and important in their classification.
33. Describe ways of forming phraseological units.
Phraseological gadgets are multi-word expressions that have a constant which means that
can't be inferred from the meanings of their person words. These devices can be shaped in a
range of ways, together with via collocations (word mixtures that many times take place
together), idioms (fixed expressions with a figurative meaning), proverbs (short, pithy
sayings that specific a ethical lesson), binomials (pairs of phrases that are used together),
and phrasal verbs (combinations of a verb and one or greater particles). By appreciation the
methods in which phraseological gadgets are formed, we can acquire a deeper grasp of the
complexities and subtleties of language, and how it displays the culture, history, and values
of a specific linguistic community.

34. Determine semantic classification of phraseological units.

Phraseological devices can be categorised semantically primarily based on their which
means and the relationship between their thing parts. Some frequent semantic
classifications of phraseological gadgets include:
1. Metaphorical: These devices use a metaphorical relationship between their aspect
components to create a new meaning, such as "break a leg" or "a chip on your shoulder."
2. Metonymic: These gadgets use a metonymic relationship between their issue components
to create a new meaning, such as "the crown" to refer to the monarchy or "the bottle" to refer
to alcohol.
3. Proverbial: These gadgets specific a regular reality or ethical lesson, such as "you reap
what you sow" or "actions talk louder than words."
4. Collocational: These devices are fashioned via the customary collocation of unique words,
such as "strong coffee" or "heavy rain."
Overall, appreciation the semantic classification of phraseological gadgets can assist us to
higher apprehend the relationship between their factor components and the underlying
meanings of these expressions.

35. Describe the main variants of the English language.

American is the best-known variety of English outside the UK.American and British English
are different but they are similar there are some words that are different in these languages
​but mean the same thing. and many languages ​that differ from British English but still mean
the same thing and are spelled similarly in different languages. Sometimes the words are
similar, sometimes not. There are also lexical differences and the meaning is slightly
different. The most famous of course: Americans say backyard instead of garden,
underground instead of subway, line instead of queuing, elevator - lift movie - film and fall -
autumn English is one of the two official languages ​of Canada, along with French. English
Canada is closest to America. Most of the words are spoken in American or English. But
there are some typical ones Canadian pronunciation options. For example, about is
pronounced like a boat or aboot. simple general, Australian pronunciation is more similar to
English than American Australia differs from both options. They have gotten used to
swallowing all the vowels and syllables many abbreviations were formed as a result.: the
banana - nana Afternoon - Arvo good morning good morning

36. Identify the classification of composition.

Therefore, the distribution of information in the classes is determined in two main ways
classify the sentences according to their internal structure and group the sentences it
depends on the definition of the work they do. Classification of internal structural clauses
According to the basic evidence, a word belongs to a class of words that refer toBased on
information, this word is classified as above (the main word, the main element; Head of
English [hed]). So the part of speech is a noun, but it's also a noun for example: the noun
"book" is the base of the noun participle "a very nice book" and "It's great" is what they hope
for. Different relationships can be created between a vertex and its relatives based on it In
connection with these questions, two main types of dependencies are distinguished, which
are alternative and completion.

37. Describe types of English dictionaries.

In lexicography, there are a huge number of dictionaries, all of them are divided according to
different characteristics, such as:
The main type of dictionaries are alphabetic monolingual explanatory dictionaries of different
volumes, showing the meaning, usage, grammatical and phonetic features of words. These
dictionaries appear at a certain level of development of the linguistic culture of the people,
when, on the one hand, there begins to be a need for a general normalizing description of
the vocabulary of the language, and on the other, the language is sufficiently developed to
provide lexicographers with the means for such a description.
There is a basic opposition of dictionaries – linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries. The
main difference between the two types of dictionaries is as follows. Encyclopedias aim to
describe the denotation of words – the facts of reality. In linguistic dictionaries, on the
contrary, the main attention is paid to the word itself, although it is impossible to do without
some information about the denotations themselves.
General dictionaries are opposed by special dictionaries, in which either the range of words
involved is limited, or they are considered from some special point of view.
Terminology dictionaries explain the terms of a particular specialty.
Dictionaries of foreign words are addressed to the general reader, they cover vocabulary
perceived as borrowed.

Dialect dictionaries include words that are not present in the literary language, but are found
in dialects of this language.
Phraseological dictionaries are devoted to stable phrases. There are philological dictionaries
in which the vocabulary is limited to a certain circle of text.
All the dictionaries listed above belong to synchronous dictionaries, they are opposed by
diachronic dictionaries. Etymological dictionaries, which explain the origin of words, have a
long tradition.
38. Determine main characteristics of idioms.
An idiom or phraseological unit is a combination of words that are inseparable from regular
speech cycles, usually understood figuratively. The meaning of the whole expression is not
determined by the meaning of the words that make it up. If you are not familiar with
phraseological units, it is difficult to guess their meaning and it is difficult to understand the
words they contain.

For example: to be in the same boat. Literally it means: "to be in the same boat," but the
meaning of the idiom is different: "to be in the same situation, to experience the same
difficulties."
Whatever their classification, idioms are an interesting area to study. When you hear a new
idiom, the images that these words carry usually appear in your mind's eye. This will help
you remember the correct phrase. Sometimes "literal" descriptions of idioms make the
picture quite bizarre. That's why dictionaries and textbooks of idioms are often illustrated with
rather funny and distorted pictures.
1. The idiom is translated literally. To give the green light.
In both languages, the expression means "to give permission", the literal translation is the
exact equivalent. But this is rare.
2. You can choose an equivalent to the idiom.
When pigs fly. — When the cancer on the mountain whistles; after the rain on Thursday.
Both options correspond exactly to the meaning of the expression "when pigs will fly": never.
3. It is impossible or difficult to find an equivalent for an idiom.

There are idioms to which it is difficult to find an analogue. A classic example is

Khrushchev's "Kuzkin's Mother". In 1959, Khrushchev told Nixon: "We have funds at our
disposal that will have grave consequences for you. We'll show you Kuzkin's mother!"
Translator Viktor Sukhodrev was not at a loss and translated the expression allegorically:
"We'll show you what's what" (we'll show you what is what).
39. Explain types of Homonymy.
All homonyms are conditionally divided into 5 groups:
Absolute homonyms are words that are written and sound the same, that is, spelling and
transcription are completely identical. The difference lies only in the semantic meaning.
Homographs — homograph words in English are written the same way, but read differently.
Homophones — such words are also called "heteronyms", they have the same sound with
different spelling.
Oronyms —paronyms. Such words have similarities in spelling and sound.
Capitonyns are words whose main difference is the spelling of the first letter (lowercase or
uppercase). At the same time, the presence or absence of a capital letter in a word has a
direct impact on its meaning.
Depending on which part of speech homonyms are, they are further classified into the
following types:
Grammatical — have a certain general meaning, but at the same time refer to different parts
of speech;
Lexical — characterized by the same grammatical parameters, but have obvious lexical
differences. That is, lexical homonyms refer to one part of speech, but their semantic load is
different
Lexico-grammatical — words belonging to this group have different lexical and grammatical
parameters, but from a formal point of view there is a certain similarity between them
40. Describe the difference between synonyms and antonyms.
Antonyms are whole generality which contains words with the same meaning and identity. Th
eir places to find druthers for another one, according to given environment. Antonyms gener
ally have different spelling and soy
For case, beautiful- suitable-handsome/ hard- delicate/ smart-cleveretc.
Synonyms are generality wich correspond of words with contrary meaning. This words also u
sed a lot in different surrounds for chancing contrary meaning to given words. For illustration,
cold-hot/ kind-cruel/ analogous-differentetc.
So we formerly defined Synonyms and Antonyms. The difference is In their places in alphab
et and vocabulary, Synonyms for contraries and Antonyms for analogous identical words. We
also can define words and classify them to the antonyms if refers to opposites, or
synonyms if it contains similarities in words
3 уровень
Практические задания

1. Divide the following words into their constituent morphemes by placing a plus sign (+)
between the morphemes, and indicate for each morpheme whether it is bound or free:

Cleaning lady, anti-skidding device, mushroom, nationhood, deputise, derailments,

predestination and internationalization.

cleaning lady,moreover anti-skidding device, moreover mushroom, moreover nationhood,

moreover deputise, moreover derailments. Let's start
predestination and internationalization.
in my opinion,Cleaning + lady
In my opinion Cleaning: free morpheme
I think that Lady: free morpheme
in my opinion,Anti + skid + ding + device
I think that Anti: bound morpheme
I think that Skid: free morpheme
Ding: bound morpheme
I think that Device: free morpheme
in my opinion,Mush + room
Mush: free morpheme
I think that Room: free morpheme
i think it is ,Nation + hood
I think that Nation: free morpheme
I think that Hood: bound morpheme
i think,Deput + ise
I think that Deput: free morpheme
I think that Ise: bound morpheme
i think, Derail + ment + s
I think that Derail: free morpheme
I think that Ment: bound morpheme
I think that S: bound morpheme (plural marker)
in my opinion,Pre + destin + ation
I think that Pre: bound morpheme
I think that Destin: free morpheme
I think that Ation: bound morpheme
As far as i know, Inter + nation + al + ize + ation
I think that Inter: bound morpheme
I think that Nation: free morpheme
I think that Al: bound morpheme
I think that Ize: bound morpheme
I think that Ation: bound morpheme

2. Choose the correct homonym given below.

Julia lives in Manchester. She is tall and slim, with long blonde (hair/her). Julita is student
and (hair/her) husband Edward is personnel manager.
Julita is studying English at City College. When she has finished her (coarse/course) she
wants to do a business degree at university.
Julita and Edward are both Polish. (It/It’s) been (two/too) years now since they came to the
UK. They have (bean/been) married (for/four) ten years and they have three children; two
boys and one girl. Their son Mark is (ate/eight) years old and their daughter Ewa is (for/four).
Their other son Jersy is (too/two) years old and goes to a (crash/crèche).
The flat they live in at moment is (too/two) small, so they have applied for a mortgage to
(by/buy) a house.
Julita and Edward both love animals and they have (too/two) cats and a dog. Their dog
Snoopy is a puppy that they bought from an (ad/add) in the paper. Snoopy is (quiet/quite)
naughty and often (choose/chews) the furniture! When they move to a bigger (plaice/place),
they plan to (by/buy) another dog to keep him company.

Julia lives in Manchester. She's altitudinous and slim, with long golden hair. Julita is pupil
and her
hubby Edward is personnel director.
Julita is studying English at City College. When she has finished her course she wants to do
a
business degree at university.
Julita and Edward are both Polish. It’s been two times now since they came to the UK. They
have been married for ten times and they've three children; two boys and one girl. Their
son Mark is eight times old and their son Ewa is four. Their other son Jersy is two times
old and goes to a crash.
The flat they live in at moment is too small, so they've applied for a mortgage to buy a
house.
Julita and Edward both love creatures and they've two pussycats and a canine. Their canine
Snoopy is a
puppy dog that they bought from an announcement in the paper. Snoopy is relatively
mischievous and frequently chews the
cabinetwork! When they move to a bigger place, they plan to buy another canine to keep him
company.

3. Read the sentences in which the polysemantic word simple is used.Give all the
lexico-semantic variants constituting the semantic structure of this word.
I. The book tries to give simple explanations of some very complex scientific ideas.
2. Sally likes clothes that are simple but elegant.
3. The simple fact is that he wants a divorce.
4.Archaeologists found several simple tools at the site. A knife is a simple tool.
5. Her grandparents were simple people who never had much money. I'm just a simple
farmer.
6. You may be joking but she's simple enough to believe you.
7. I'm afraid old Jack is a bit simple.
The lexico-semantic variants constituting the semantic structure of the word “simple” in the
given sentences are:

1. Easy to understand, not complicated or complex

2. Plain or unadorned in style, not ornate or complex
3. Undeniable, basic or fundamental
4. Basic, unsophisticated, or uncomplicated
5. Humble or unsophisticated, not wealthy or sophisticated 6. Naïve or gullible
7. Mentally deficient or intellectually disabled

4. Classify the given words into:

I) homonyms proper;
2) homophones;
3) homographs.
Give meanings o f these words.

Made (adj) — maid (n); row- (n) — row (n); week (n) — weak (adj);
seal (n) — seal (n); tear (v) — tear (n); bread (n) — bred (adj);
band (n) — band (n); sum (n) — some (pron); fall (n) — fall (v);
wind (n) — wind (v); base (n) — base (v ); desert (v ) — desert (n);
hare (n) — hair (n); sewer (n) — sewer (n); com (n) — com (n).
1) homonyms proper;
band (n) -a group of musician - band (n) - hair steaming rubber seal (n) -a warm-blooded
fish-eating anima - seal (n) - close fall (n) the act of falling - fall (v); autumn com (n) - com
(n);
base (n) the bottom or lowest part- base (v) use as a basis for; found on
2) homophones;
Made (adj)the 2,3 form of the verb"make"- maid (n) a girl which is not married bread (n) type
of food - bred (adj); past tense of the verb 'breed' sum (n) a quantity of money - some (pron);
quantity;several week (n) 7 days - weak (adj; opposite of the"strong" hare (n)an animal- hair
(n); it is a fur which growing on the skin
3) homographs
row- (n)line of things or people- row (n) noisy quarrel tear (v) to pull apart by force- tear (n);
single drop of fluid from eyes sewer (n) surface water - sewer (n) creator clothes wind (n) air
in motion - wind (v) smell, feel
desert (v ) to go away- desert (n) place where is not water

5. Fill in the blanks choosing the right word.

1. Out of ... out of mind (cite , site. sigh t). 2. Do not look a gift ... in the mouth {horse,
hoarse). 3. It never rains, but it ... (pours, paws).4. No ... without sweat (sweet, suite). 5. Do
not run with the ... and hunt with the hounds (hair. hare). 6. All is ... in love and war (fare,fair
). 7. Fame is chiefly a matter of ... at the right moment (die , dye).8. When two people ride
the .... one must ride behind (hoarse . horse)
1) Out of sight, out of mind.
2) Do not look a gift horse in the mouth.
3) It never rains, but it pours.
4) No sweat without sweat.
5) Do not run with the hare and hunt with the hounds.
6) All is fair in love and war.
7) Fame is chiefly a matter of dyeing at the right moment.
8) When two people ride the horse, one must ride behind

6. Give antonyms to the following words. Group them into antonyms of the same root (a) and
antonyms of different roots (b).

Happy (adj). careful (adj). dwarf (adj). obedience (n ). criticism (n).

above (a d v). regular (adj). asleep (adj), back (adv). polite (ad j).
triumph (n), hope (n). artistic (adj). appear (v), prewar (adj), far (adv).
logical (adj), love (n). known (adj).

a) Antonyms of the same root:

Happy: unhappy
Careful: careless
Obedience: disobedience
Known: unknown
Regular: irregular
Artistic: unartistic/inept
Appear: disappear
Logical: illogical

(b) Antonyms of different roots:

Dwarf: giant/tall
 Criticism: praise/compliment
Above: below/under
Asleep: awake
Back: front
Polite: impolite/rude
Triumph: defeat/failure
Hope: despair
Prewar: postwar
Far: near/close
Love: hate
7. Segment the following words into morphemes. Define (a) the semantic types and (b) the
structural types of morphemes constituting the given words.

M o d e l: aimless
The word aimless can be segmented into two morphemes: aim - less.
a) semantically aim - is a root-morpheme; -less is an affix.
b) structurally aim - is a free morpheme; -less is a bound morpheme

Postman, shorten, destabilize, sympathy, fruitfulness, maltreatment, disaffected, overrule,

photographic, half-eaten, theory, rent-free.

M o d e l: aimless
The word aimless can be segmented into two morphemes: aim - less
. a) semantically aim - is a root-morpheme; -less is an affix.
b) structurally aim - is a free morpheme; -less is a bound morpheme
Postman: post - man
a) semantically post- is a root-morpheme; -man is a bound morpheme.
b) structurally post- is a free morpheme; -man is a bound morpheme.
Shorten: short - en
a) semantically short- is a root-morpheme; -en is an affix .
b) structurally short- is a free morpheme; -en is a bound morpheme
. Destabilize: de- stabil - ize
a) semantically de- is a prefix; stabil- is a root-morpheme; -ize is a suffix
b) structurally de- is a bound morpheme; stabil- is a free morpheme; -ize is a bound
morpheme.
Sympathy: sym- path –y
a) semantically sym- is a prefix; path- is a root-morpheme; -y is a suffix.
b) structurally sym- is a bound morpheme; path- is a free morpheme; -y is a bound
morpheme.
Fruitfulness: fruit- ful -ness
a) semantically fruit- is a root-morpheme; ful- is a bound morpheme; -ness is a bound
morpheme.
b) structurally fruit- is a free morpheme; ful- is a bound morpheme; -ness is a bound
morpheme.
Maltreatment: maltreat - ment
a) semantically maltreat- is a root-morpheme; -ment is a bound morpheme
. b) structurally maltreat- is a free morpheme; -ment is a bound morpheme.
Disaffected: dis- affect -ed
a) semantically dis- is a prefix; affect- is a root-morpheme; -ed is a suffix
. b) structurally dis- is a bound morpheme; affect- is a free morpheme; -ed is a bound
morpheme.
Overrule: over- rule
a) semantically over- is a prefix; rule- is a root-morpheme.
b) structurally over- is a bound morpheme; rule- is a free morpheme.
Photographic: photo- graph -ic
a) semantically photo- is a prefix; graph- is a root-morpheme; -ic is a suffix.
b) structurally photo- is a bound morpheme; graph- is a free morpheme; -ic is a bound
morpheme.
Half-eaten: half- eat -en
a) semantically half- is a prefix; eat- is a root-morpheme; -en is a suffix
. b) structurally half- is a bound morpheme; eat- is a free morpheme; -en is a bound
morpheme.
Theory: theor- y
a) semantically theor- is a root-morpheme; -y is a bound morpheme.
b) structurally theor- is a free morpheme; -y is a bound morpheme.
Rent-free: rent- free
a) semantically rent- is a root-morpheme; -free is a bound morpheme.
b) structurally rent- is a free morpheme; -free is a bound morpheme.

8. Define which words have been combined to form the following computer terms. Give their
meanings.

Netiquette, emoticon, netizen, technophobe.

1. Netiquette: "Net" is brief for internet, and "etiquette" refers to the normal social
norms and customs of conduct in society. So, netiquette is a aggregate of these two
words, and it refers to the set of guidelines or recommendations for ideal conduct and
communication
when interacting with others on-line or on the internet.
2. Emoticon: "Emotion" + "Icon" - an emoticon is a aggregate of letters, numbers, and/or
symbols that signify a facial expression or emotion. It is generally used in electronic
communication to carry the writer's tone or mood.
3. Netizen: "Net" (short for internet) + "citizen" - a netizen is a character who actively
participates in on-line communities or things to do on the internet. It can additionally refer to
someone
who advocates for net freedom or who works to enhance on-line society
4. Technophobe: "Techno" (short for technology) + "phobia" (fear) - a technophobe is a
person who has an aversion or concern of new technology, or who is resistant to using
technology in their each day existence
9. Distribute the given words formed by means of the polysemantic suffix -ship according to
three meanings o f this suffix into three corresponding groups: I ) skills or ability; 2) position
or occupation; 3) relationship or connection between people

Workmanship, comradeship, musicianship, chairmanship, friendship, professorship,

showmanship, lectureship, kinship, sportsmanship, acquaintanceship, studentship,
salesmanship, doctorship. partnership.
) Skills or ability:
Workmanship
Musicianship
Showmanship
Sportsmanship
Salesmanship
II) Position or occupation:
Chairmanship
Professorship
Lectureship
Doctorship
Partnership
III) Relationship or connection between people:
Comradeship
Friendship
Kinship
Acquaintanceship
Studentship

10. Classify suffixes forming the given nouns according to their generalizing meaning into
three groups: 1) suffixes denoting people of different professions or of different kinds of
activity; 2) suffixes denoting collectivity or collection of; 3) suffixes denoting diminutivencss.

Membership, assistant, lecturette. trainee, sisterhood, actress, piglet, painter, machinery,

aunty, yuppiedom , historian, duckling, finery, scientist, babykins. readership, supervisor,
nightie, aristocracy

Classify suffixes forming the given nouns according to their generalizing meaning
into three groups: 1) suffixes denoting people of different professions or of different
kinds of activity; 2) suffixes denoting collectivity or collection of; 3) suffixes denoting
diminutivencss.
1.Suffixes denoting people of different professions or of different kinds of activity:
Assistant
Actress
Painter
Historian
Scientist
Supervisor
2.Suffixes denoting collectivity or collection of:
Membership
Sisterhood
Machinery
Aristocracy
Readership

11. Combine the prefixes in the box with the appropriate derivational base from the list.

​ dis-. il-, non-, ir-. un-, im-, in-, dc-, a

Legal. relevant, mature, regulate, moral, ability, payment, happy, responsible, patient,
stabilize, honour, smoker, learn, formally, typical, logical, rational, possible, classify,
agreement, verbal, lock, practical, dependently, mystify, resistible, sensual, literate,
obedience, academic, tie. adequately, septic, clean.
Illegal
irrelevant
immature
deregulate
immoral
inability
nonpayment
unhappy
irresponsible
impatient
destabilize
dishonor
non-smoker
unlearn
informally
atypical
illogical
irrational
impossible
de/reclassify
disagreement
non-verbal
unlock
impractical
independently
demystify
irresistible
consensual
illiterate
disobedience
nonacademic
untie
inadequately
aseptic
unclean

12. Choose one of the compound words from the box to fill in the gaps in the sentences
given below.

to keyboard, a shareholder, a breakdown, awestruck, to blackball,

a plantswoman, an argy-bargy, lowbrow, pea-souper, a bodyguard,
a go-getter, a scatterbrain

1. Today's ... forced drivers to slow down that caused an enormous traffic congestion. 2. All
the data then has to be .... 3. You are getting on my nerves. I won't discuss this matter with
such a ... as you are. 4. She moved to London after the ... of her marriage. 5. Fred has been
working as a ... for the last few years. 6. He has to leave the club as all its members... him.
7. Her aunt is a ... of a big prosperous company.8 .I can't stand many ... programmes
showed on TV every day. 9. She
has a reputation as a real .... 10. We sat in ... silence hearing the truth at last. 11. We didn't
know how to plant these bushes and asked a ... to consult us. 12. We became unintentional
witnesses of a bit ... between actors and their director.

1 .Today's pea-souper forced drivers to slow down that caused an enormous traffic
congestion.
2 .All the data then has to be keyboarded.
3. You are getting on my nerves. I won't discuss this matter with such a lowbrow as you are.
4.She moved to London after the breakdown of her marriage.
5 Fred has been working as a bodyguard for the last few years
6 He has to leave the club as all its members blackballed him.
7 Her aunt is a shareholder of a big prosperous company
8. I can't stand many scatterbrain programmes showed on TV every day.
9 She has a reputation as a real go-getter.
10 We sat in awestruck silence hearing the truth at last.
11 We didn't know how to plant these bushes and asked a plantswoman to consult us
12 We became unintentional witnesses of a bit of argy-bargy between actors and their
director

13. Give the plural form of the nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek
Many English nouns are derived from Latin and Greek, and their plural form can always be
traced back to the original language. While there are some established policies for
pluralizing these nouns, there are also many exceptions and violations. Here are some
examples:
1. "Virus" (singular) becomes "viruses" (plural).

2. "Crisis" (singular) becomes "crises" (plural).

3. "Datum" (singular) becomes "data" (plural).

4. "Analysis" (singular) becomes "analysis" (plural).

5. "Octopus" (singular) becomes "eight" or "octopus" (plural).

As mentioned above, there are many exceptions to these patterns, and it's always great to
consult a dictionary or fashion reference for specific situations. In addition, some Latin and
Greek nouns have become so integrated into English that they have acquired everyday
English plurals (eg, "stadia" or "indices" as an alternative to "indices").

14. State the meaning of the following Scottish words borrowed from different languages.
Here are the meanings of some Scottish phrases that have been borrowed from exceptional
languages:

Haggis - a regular Scottish dish made from sheep's heart, liver, and lungs, combined with
oats and spices and cooked in a sheep's stomach. The phrase "haggis" in all likelihood
comes from the Old English phrase "haguse," which referred to a dish made from offal.

Ceilidh - a social gathering, regularly involving common Scottish track and dancing. The
phrase "ceilidh" comes from the Gaelic phrase "céilí," which skill "gathering" or "social visit."

Whisky - a kind of distilled alcoholic beverage made from malted grain, usually barley. The
phrase "whisky" comes from the Gaelic phrase "uisge," which skill "water."

Tartan - a special sample of interlocking stripes and blocks, frequently related with Scottish
clans. The phrase "tartan" probable comes from the French phrase "tiretaine," which referred
to a kind of woolen cloth.

Bothy - a small, simple shelter, frequently used by using farm employees or hikers. The
phrase "bothy" comes from the Gaelic phrase "bothan," which capability "hut" or "small
house."

These phrases are a testomony to the cultural influences and linguistic records of Scotland,
and reveal the approaches in which language can evolve and exchange over time thru
contact with different languages and cultures.

15. Choose the correct phraseological unit from the box to fill in the gaps in the sentences
below.

dark horse, to work like a dog, sour grapes, to lord it over, Achilles
heel, to put one's cards on the table, red tape, to see somebody in
the flesh, fat cats, around the clock
 that it felt a bit strange when I finally.... 10. He ... all day to finish the wall papering.I.
Workers are losing their jobs while the ... who run the company are getting richer. 2. Stuart's
getting married? He’s a ... — I never even knew he had a girlfriend. 3. He was a gifted
businessman, but greed was his.... 4. If I criticize her book, people will think it's just.... 5.
There’s so much ... involved in getting a visa. 6. Doctors and nurses worked ... to help the
people injured in the train crash. 7. She thought it was time ... and tell him that she had no
intention of marrying him. 8. He likes ... the more junior staff in the office. 9 .I knew his face
so well from the photographs
I. Workers are losing their jobs while the ... who run the company are getting richer. 2.
Stuart's getting married? He’s a ... — I never even knew he had a girlfriend. 3. He was a
gifted businessman, but greed was his.... 4. If I criticize her book, people will think it's just....
5. There’s so much ... involved in getting a visa. 6. Doctors and nurses worked ... to help the
people injured in the train crash. 7. She thought it was time ... and tell him that she had no
intention of marrying him. 8. He likes ... the more junior staff in the office. 9 .I knew his face
so well from the photographs that it felt a bit strange when I finally.... 10. He ... all day to
finish the wall papering.
1 fat cats
2 dark horse
3 Achilles heel
4 sour grapes
5 red tape
6 around the clock
7 to put one's cards on the table 8 to lord it over
9 saw somebody in the flesh
10 worked like a dog

16. State which of the italicized units are phraseologisms and which are free
word-combination?.. Give proof of your answer.

I. He asked to warm a glass of juice but they left it rather cold on the table. 2. Instrumental
music, oddly enough, left me rather cold.3. Where do you think you lost your purse. 4. I
couldn't stand that noise any longer I lost my temper. 5. Have a look at the reverse side of
the coat. 6. The reverse side of the medal that we'll have to do it ourselves. 7. Keep the
butter in the refrigerator. 8. Keep the eye on the child. 9. He threw some cold water on his
face to wake up. 10. I didn't expect that he would throw cold water upon our project. 11. The
tourists left the beaten track and saw a lot of interesting places. 12. The author leaves the
beaten track and offers a new treatment of the subject.

1 Free word-combination (no specific meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words)
2 Phraseologism (the meaning of "left me rather cold" is figurative and cannot be deduced
from the literal meanings of the individual words)
3 Free word-combination (no specific meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words)
4 Phraseologism (the meaning of "lost my temper" is figurative and cannot be deduced from
the literal meanings of the individual words)
5 Free word-combination (no specific meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words)

6 Phraseologism (the meaning of "reverse side of the medal" is figurative and cannot be
deduced from the literal meanings of the individual words
7 Free word-combination (no specific meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words) 8
Free word-combination (no specific meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words) 9 Free
word-combination (no specific meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words) 10
Phraseologism (the meaning of "throw cold water upon" is figurative and cannot be deduced
from the literal meanings of the individual words)
11 Phraseologism (the meaning of "beaten track" is figurative and cannot be deduced from
the literal meanings of the individual words)
12 Phraseologism (the meaning of "leave the beaten track" is figurative and cannot be
deduced from the literal meanings of the individual words)

17. Distribute the words from the given series into three groups: a) words used in American
English; b) words used in British English; c) words used in Australian English.

1) lollies — candy — sweets; 2) form — grade — year; 3) subway/metro — railway station —

underground; 4 ) the cinema — the movies —the pictures; 5) letterbox — postbox —
mailbox; 6) sneakers —trainers — runners; 7) sidewalk — footpath — pavement.

1) American English: candy, grade, subway/metro, the movie, mailbox, sneakers, sidewalk.
2) British English: sweets, form, railway station, the cinema, postbox, trainers, pavement
3) Australian English: lollies, year, underground, the picture, letterbox, runners, footpath

18. Fill in the proper word.

1. true/truthful
This play is based on a ________ story.
I believe her: I think, she is a __________ person.
2. childish/childlike
You can’t have everything you want: don’t be so __________.
She has a _____________ quality, a sort of innocence, which I like.
3. young/youthful
Our teacher is full of ____________ enthusiasm for her subject.
Enjoy yourself while you are still ___________
4. uneatable/inedible
This meat is so tough that I find it ______________.
Some of the ___________ varieties of fungus are poisonous.
5. unreadable/illegible
The inscription was ____________, but I recognized it as Latin.
War and Peace may be a good novel, but I find it ______________.
6. historic/historical
“Ladies and gentlemen, this is a ______________ monument.
The library contains a copy of Magna Carta and other __________documents.
1 This play is based on a true story.I believe her: I think, she is a truthful person.
2 You can’t have everything you want: don’t be so childish. She has a childlike quality, a
sort of innocence, which I like.
3 Our teacher is full of youthful enthusiasm for her subject.Enjoy yourself while you are still
young.
4 This meat is so tough that I find it uneatable Some of the inedible varieties of fungus are
poisonous.
5 The inscription was illegible, but I recognized it as Latin.War and Peace may be a good
novel, but I find it unreadable.
6. “Ladies and gentlemen, this is a historic monument.The library contains a copy of Magna
Carta and other historical documents.

19. The following sentences sound a bit harsh. What euphemisms could you use to say the
same thing but in a softer, less direct way? In some cases, more than one answer is
possible.

The job offer sounds great, but I was hoping for better pay.-

Poor children are more at risk to drop out of high school.-

Karl is the fat man who sits next to Angela in Accounting.-

Ответ:
- The job offer is very good, but I would like to get paid more.
- it is a little difficult for children from low - income families to finish high school
.
- Carl is a big guy who sits next to Angela from accounting

20. Form antonyms from the words given below by adding the appropriate prefix.

in- un- im- dis-

___frequently,
___loyal,
___comfort,
___specific,
___real,
___probably,
___available,
___assemble,
___suitable,
___proper,
___fit,
___occupied,
___order,
___distinguished
infrequently, disloyal, uncomfortable, unspecific, unreal, improbable, unavailable,
disassemble, unsuitable, improper, unfit, unoccupied, disorder, undistinguishe