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Methods of Navigation Human beings are born Navigators Animals are also Navigators - Migrating Birds, Migrating Wild Geese, Migrating Whales, Etc. We Navigate by - Land, Air, Water The age of flight has change our perspective Aviation Technology, Together with our instinct to explore have made navigation a distinct human art - Combining Science and Intuition - Combining Skill and Commonsense - Combining Audacity and Perseverance Ancient sailors who demonstrated these traits were called Navigators (Those who set the course of the ship-navies) Air Navigation - The art of determining geographic positions and maintaining the desired direction of air craft relative to the earths surface. Fixing a position - Determining you location with respect to the earths surface Fix - This is made wherever two or more lines of position (LOPs) cross. Determining LOPs and Fixes is the heart of all navigational problems. With this information it is possible to calculate the headings you must follow in order to arrive at your destination. 5 Methods of Navigation 1. Pilotage - most basic of all VFR navigation - means look out the cockpit window and see with your eyes where you are. - the use of fixed visual references on the ground or sea by means of sight or radar to guide oneself to a destination, sometimes with the help of a map or nautical chart. 2. Dead Reckoning (DR) - The process of estimating one's current position based upon a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time, andcourse. - While traditional methods of dead reckoning are no longer considered primary means of navigation, modern inertial navigation systems, which also depend upon dead reckoning, are very widely used. Disadvantage: -Since new positions are calculated solely from previous positions, the errors of the process are cumulative, so the error in the position fix grows with time. -Dead Reckoning, from Deductive Reckoning (or Dead) is using some simple tools and math to figure out a few valuable parameters on our flight -Navigators using Dead Reckoning take factors about the aircraft: Altitude, airspeed, heading, fuel burn rate, compass deviation -Combine these with factors related to the environment such as: Wind, speed, direction, air temperature, magnetic variation -From these computations the pilot is able to calculate how long it will take to reach each waypoint flying a course corrected for the predicted winds aloft and the local magnetic deviation. 3. Radio Navigation (RNAV) - Also called radionavigation is the application of radio frequencies to determining a position on the Earth. - Like radiolocation, it is a type of radiodetermination.

The basic principles are measurements from/to electric beacons, especially: 1. directions, e.g. by bearing, radio phases or interferometry, 2. distances, e.g. ranging by measurement of travel times, 3. partly also velocity, e.g. by means of radio Doppler shift. 4. Celestial Navigation - also known as astronavigation - a position fixing technique that was devised to help sailors cross the featureless oceans without having to rely on dead reckoning to enable them to strike land. Celestial navigation uses angular measurements (sights) between common celestial objects or to the horizon. - The Sun and the horizon are most often measured. - Skilled navigators can use the Moon, planets or one of 57 navigational stars whose coordinates are tabulated in nautical almanacs. 5. Inertial Navigation -Navigation aid that uses a computer, motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. Fundamental Methods of Navigation 1. Pilotage 2. Dead Reckoning Celestial Navigation (OLDEST) Inertial Navigation (NEWEST) Longitude and Latitude - A Navigators frame of reference The Earth is A spinning Sphere Advantage: The Axis of the rotation provides fixed reference points (NORTH and SOUTH Poles) a. Lines of Longitude - Straight lines from pole to pole (Also Called MERIDIANS) b. Lines of Latitude - Divides the meridian Evenly (Also Called PARALLELS) - They do not converge at any point (Unlike the Meridians) - They form a Grid (Pattern of inter sections) with the line of longitude Prime Meridian - The first Meridian running north and south through Greenwich England All other meridians are positioned either in the east or to west of the primary meridian. Equator - The line that bisects the earth into northern or southern hemispheres All other parallels are identified by their position either north or south of the equator. 0 0 - Numbered in angular degrees from 0 at the equator to 90 at the poles, both south and north. Geographic Coordinate System - Consists of the lines of longitude and lines of latitude Relationships: 1 Degree = 60 ARC Min. 1 ARC Min. = 60 ARC Sec. 1 Min. of latitude (Marked Vertically) = 1 Nautical Mile 1 Min. of longitude = 1 Nautical Mile (Equator only) Most Practical air Navigation involves 1. Pilotage 2. Dead Reckoning 3. Radio Navigation

Coordinates - Places where Meridians and Parallels cross Geographic Coordinate System - The complete network of intersecting longitudinal and latitudinal

Great and Small Circles Grid Patterns - Sets of circles - Some are running N and S, Converging at the poles of equal size. - Some are running E and W, parallel to each other and diminishing in size from largest at the equator to the smallest at the poles. Great Circle - The circles whose planes run through the center of the earth. - They have special significance to a navigator. ARC of the great circle - Represents the shortest distance between any two points of the earth surface connected by the ARC. Small Circle - Circles that do not pass at the center of the earth A Circle is a great circle when its plane passes through the center of the earth All Meridians are great circle The only parallel that is a great circle is the equator All other parallel is are small circles Rhumbline - Lines drawn on the surface of the sphere that is the arc of a small circle - Not the most efficient Navigational Course Time Zones - We Synchronize are local time with the sun 0 - Have been established very 15 degrees around the earth - The exact boundaries between the time zones are established locally, for economic and political purposes Daylight Saving Time - The local is advanced one hour in the spring Standard Time - Local time is set back to original during fall Greenwich Mean Time (zulu time) - The time in Greenwich, England which has established as international standard time for navigational and weather reporting purposes - Eliminates the ambiguity about time.

The 24 Hour Clock - Converting local time to Zulu can be confusing especially if it is 1:00am or 1:00pm - Sets midnight as the start of the day (000) 2. Flight Rules a. Visual Flight Rules (VFR) - a set of regulations which allow a pilot to operate an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. -specifically the weather must be better than basic VFR weather minimums, as specified in the rules of relevant aviation authority VFR rules require a pilot to be able a. to see outside the cockpit b. to control the aircraft's attitude c. to navigate, and avoid obstacles and other aircraft -Pilots flying under VFR assume responsibility for their separation from all other aircraft and are generally not assigned routes or altitudes by air traffic control. -Near busier airports, and while operating within certain types of airspace, VFR aircraft are required to have a transponder to help identify the aircraft on radar. -Governing agencies establish specific requirements for VFR flight, including minimum visibility, and distance from clouds, to ensure that aircraft operating under VFR are visible from enough distance to ensure safety. b. Instrument flight rules (IFR) -if the weather is worse than VFR minimum, pilots are required to use Instrument Flight Rules -rules and regulations established by FAA to govern flight under conditions in which flight by outside visual reference is not safe. -IFR flight depends upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight deck and navigation is accomplished by reference to electronic signals. -IFR is also a term use by pilots and controllers to indicate the type of flight plan an aircraft is flying, such as an IFR or VFR flight plan. -Instrument flight rules permit an aircraft to operate in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), which have nuch lower weather minimums than VFR -Procedures and training are significantly more complex as a pilot must demonstrate competency in conducting an entire cross-country flight in IMC conditions, while controlling the aircraft by reference to instruments. -As compared to VFR flight, instrument pilots must evaluate weather, create a very delayed flight plan around specific instrument departure, en route, and arrival procedures and dispatch the flight. Aeronautical Charts -show the relationship between the geographical coordinate system and the details of the earths surface. 3 Aeronautical Charts Designed for VFR Navigation 1. VFR Terminal Area Charts large Scale Charts (1:250,000 roughly 4 statute miles to inch) -with details around a busy air terminal 2. Sectional Charts commonly used scale (1:500,000 roughly 8 statute miles to an inch) 3. World Aeronautical Charts (WACs) smaller scale charts (1:1,000,000 roughly 16 statute miles to an inch) -preferred by pilots who fly higher-performance airplanes

The information about these charts is grouped into 3 categories. 1. Topographical Data -data describing the features of the earths surface, both natural and man-made. 2. Aeronautical Data -these are information about airports, radio navigation aids, communications and air space. 3. The Legend -explains all the symbols and colors used on the chart.