FOOD SAFETY
HANDBOOK
FOOD SAFETY
HANDBOOK
RONALD H. SCHMIDT
and
GARY E. RODRICK
A JOHN WILEY & SONS PUBLICATION
Copyright (” 2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken. New Jersey
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Printed in the United States of America
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CONTENTS
Preface xi
PART I CHARACTERIZATION OF FOOD SAFETY
AND RISKS 1
Edited by Joan Rose
1 DEFINITION OF FOOD SAFETY 3
Robert (Skip) A. Seward I/
2 CHARACTERIZATION OF FOOD HAZARDS 11
Robert (Skip) A. Seward /I
3 RISK ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS FOR CHEMICAL AND
MICROBIAL HAZARDS 19
Margaret E. Coleman and Harry M. Marks
4 DOSE-RESPONSE MODELING FOR MICROBIAL RISK 47
Chuck Haas
5 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT OF MICROBIAL FOOD
HAZARDS 59
Richard C. Whifing
V
Vi CONTENTS
6 EXPOSURE AND DOSE-RESPONSE MODELING FOR
FOOD CHEMICAL RISK ASSESSMENT 73
Carl K. Winter
7 ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF FOODBORNE
HAZARDS 89
Tanya Roberts, Jean Buzby, and Erik Lichtenberg
PART I1 FOOD HAZARDS: BIOLOGICAL 125
Edited by LeeAnne Jackson
8 PREVALENCE OF FOODBOURNE PATHOGENS 127
LeeAnne Jackson
9 PHYSIOLOGY AND SURVIVAL OF FOODBOURNE
PATHOGENS IN VARIOUS FOOD SYSTEMS 137
G.E. Rodrick and R.H. Schmidt
10 CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS IN
FOODS 157
R. Todd Bacon and John N. Sofos
11 CONTEMPORARY MONITORING METHODS 197
Jinru Chen
PART Ill FOOD HAZARDS: CHEMICAL AND
PHYSICAL 21 1
Edited by Austin R. Long and G. William Chase
12 HAZARDS FROM NATURAL ORIGINS 213
John J. Specchio
13 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL HAZARDS PRODUCED
DURING FOOD PROCESSING, STORAGE, AND
PREPARATION 233
Heidi Rupp
14 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH NUTRIENT
FORTIFICATION 265
Anne Porada Reid
CONTENTS vii
15 MONITORING CHEMICAL HAZARDS: REGULATORY
INFORMATION 277
Daphne Santiago
16 HAZARDS RESULTING FROM ENVIRONMENTAL,
INDUSTRIAL, AND AGRICULTURAL CONTAMINANTS 291
Sneh D. Bhandari
PART IV SYSTEMS FOR FOOD SAFETY
SURVEILLANCE AND RISK PREVENTION 323
Edited by Keith R. Schneider
17 IMPLEMENTATION OF FSlS REGULATORY PROGRAMS
FOR PATHOGEN REDUCTION 325
Pat Sfolfa
18 ADVANCES IN FOOD SANITATION: USE OF
INTERVENTION STRATEGIES 337
Judy W. Arnold
19 USE OF SURVEILLANCE NETWORKS 353
Craig W. Hedberg
20 HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT
(HACCP) 363
Debby Newslow
PART V FOOD SAFETY OPERATIONS IN FOOD
PROCESSING, HANDLING, AND
DISTRIBUTlON 381
Edited by Barry G. Swanson
21 FOOD PLANT SANITATION 383
Henry C. Carsberg
22 FOOD SAFETY CONTROL SYSTEMS IN FOOD
PROCESSING 403
Joellen M. Feirtag and Madeline Velazquez
23 FOOD SAFETY AND !NNOVATIVE FOOD PACKAGING 41 1
Michael L. Rooney
Viii CONTENTS
24 SAFE HANDLING OF FRESH-CUT PRODUCE AND
SALADS 425
Dawn L. Hentges
25 GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES: PREREQUISITES
FOR FOOD SAFETY 443
Barry G. Swanson
PART VI FOOD SAFETY IN RETAIL FOODS 453
Edited by Ronald H. Schmidt and Gary E. Rodrick
26 COMMERCIAL FOOD SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS: THE
PRINCIPLES OF MODERN FOOD HYGIENE 455
Roy Costa
27 INSTITUTIONAL FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS 523
Ruby P. Puckett
28 FOOD SERVICE AT TEMPORARY EVENTS AND CASUAL
PUBLIC GATHERINGS 549
Donna L. Scott and Robert Gravani
PART VII DIET, HEALTH, AND FOOD SAFETY 57 1
Edited by Mary K. Schmidl
29 MEDICAL FOODS 573
Mary K. Schmidl and Theodore P. Labuza
30 FOOD FORTIFICATION 607
R. Elaine Turner
31 SPORTS NUTRITION 627
Joanne L. Slavin
32 DtETARY SUPPLEMENTS 641
Cathy L. Bartels and Sarah J. Miller
33 FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND NUTRACEUTICALS 673
Ronald H. Schmidt and R. Elaine Turner
CONTENTS iX
PART Vlll WORLD-WIDE FOOD SAFETY ISSUES 689
Edited by Sara E. Valdes Martinez
34 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR
STANDARDIZATION IS0 9000 AND RELATED
STANDARDS 691
John G. Surak
35 IMPACT OF FOOD SAFETY ON WORLD TRADE ISSUES 725
Erik Lichtenberg
36 UNITED STATES IMPORT/EXPORT REGULATION AND
CERTIFICATION 741
Rebeca Lopez-Garcia
37 EUROPEAN UNION REGULATIONS WITH AN EMPHASIS
ON GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS 759
J. Ralph Blanchfield
38 FAO/WHO FOOD STANDARDS PROGRAM: CODEX
ALIMENTARIUS 793
Eduardo R. Mendez and John R. Lupien
Index 801
PREFACE
Food safety legislation and regulations have long been impacted by a variety
of factors, including socioeconomic, consumer, political, and legal issues. With
regard to food safety issues and concerns, certain parallels can be drawn
between the beginning and close of the 20th century. At the start of the 20th
century, several food safety issues were brought to the public’s attention.
Atrocious sanitation problems in the meat industry, highlighted in Upton Sin-
clair’s novel The Jungle, had a major influence on the passage of the landmark
legislation, the Federal Meat Inspection Act (1906). Likewise, fairly wide-spread
food adulteration with the addition of inappropriate chemical substances, and
the marketing of a variety of fraudulent and potentially dangerous elixirs, con-
coctions, and other formulations, led to passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act
(1906).
We are now in the 21st century and, food safety issues have as high a prior-
ity and significance as they did over 100 years ago.” Public concerns have
arisen regarding high-profile food-borne illness outbreaks due to contamination
of food with certain pathogens (e.g., Salmonellu, Escherichiu coli 0 1 57:H7,
Listeriu monocytogmes, and others) which have serious acute impact and
potential chronic long-term complications in the ever-increasing high-risk
population segment (e.g., elderly, children, immuno-compromised). In addition,
food-borne illness outbreaks are occurring in foods previously not considered
high risk (e.g., fruit juices, fresh produce, deli meats). In response to these food-
borne pathogen issues, a presidential budgetary initiative was instituted in 1997
to put a multi-agency food safety strategy in place. This National Food Safety
Initiative includes a nationwide early warning system for food-borne illness,
expanded food safety research, risk assessment, training and education pro-
xi
Xii PREFACE
grams, and enhanced food establishment inspection systems. Pathogen issues
have also resulted in endorsement and implementation of comprehensive pre-
vention and intervention strategies, such as the Hazard Analysis Critical Con-
trol Point (HACCP) system, by the regulatory and industrial communities.
Another parallel can be drawn to earlier times. Society today, like that of
the early 19OOs, is strongly interested in attaining certain therapeutic and health
benefits through special foods (e.g., nutraceuticals and functional foods), and,
once again, the line between foods and pharmaceuticals has become blurred.
The trend to market these products has created certain labeling concerns with
regard to health claims, as well as safety and efficacy concerns.
As the world has gotten smaller through increased communication, travel,
immigration, and trade, there are current concerns regarding the safety of food
products throughout the world. Global consumer concerns regarding geneti-
cally modified foods and ingredients, as well as potential chemical residues in
foods, have had a major impact on current and future legislation, as well as
world trade.
The intent of this book is to define and categorize the real and perceived
safety issues surrounding food, to provide scientifically non-biased perspectives
on these issues, and to provide assistance to the reader in understanding these
issues. While the primary professional audience for the book includes food
technologists and scientists in the industry and regulatory sector, the book
should provide useful information for many other audiences.
Part 1 focuses on general descriptions of potential food safety hazards and
provides in-depth background into risk assessment and epidemiology. Potential
food hazards are characterized in Part 11, where biological hazards are dis-
cussed, and in Part Ill, which addresses chemical and physical hazards.
Control systems and intervention strategies for reducing risk or preventing
food hazards are presented in Part IV, V and VI. The emphasis of Part IV is on
regulatory surveillance and industry programs including Hazard Analysis Crit-
ical Control Point (HACCP) systems. Food safety intervention in food pro-
cessing, handling and distribution are addressed in Part V, while the focus of
Part Vl is on the retail foods sector. Diet, health and safety issues are charac-
terized in Part VTI, with emphasis on food fortification, dietary supplements,
and functional foods.
Finally, Part VIII addresses world-wide food safety issues through discus-
sion of Codex Alimentarius Cotiztnission ( C A C ) , the European Union per-
spectives on genetic modification, and other globally accepted food standards.
The topics within each chapter are divided into sections called units. To
provide continuity across the book, these units have been generally organized
according to the following structure: Introduction and Definition of Issues.
Background and Historical Sigiil'fcance, ScientGc Basis and Iiizplic~rtions,
Regulatory, Industrial, and International Iniplications, and Current and Future
Iniplica tions.
This project was a highly ambitious project and the co-editors would like to
acknowledge the many people who provided valuable input and assistance and
