OBSERVATION

1. Definitions of concept
Observation is the systematic surveillance, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of
people’s behaviour (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2007). It involves collecting impressions of
the world using all of one’s senses, especially looking and listening, in a systematic and
purposeful way to learn about a phenomenon of interest (McKechnie, 2008). It involves the
researcher in watching, recording and analyzing events of interest (Blaxter, Hughes, & Tight,
2010). Observation is probably the most basic (not the simplest) way to collect data where the
researcher records what he or she observes (Matthews & Ross, 2010).

It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or

phenomenon as it takes place (Kumar, 2011). Observation is a planned, carefully and
thoughtfully selected method of data collection where a researcher can observe the elements
under study even without asking anything (Sahu, 2013). It is the full range of monitoring
behavioral and non-behavioral activities and conditions (including record analysis, physical
condition analysis, physical process analysis, nonverbal analysis, linguistic analysis, extra-
linguistic analysis, and spatial analysis) (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). It is the process that
researchers use to gather open-ended, firsthand information in qualitative research by observing
people and places at a research site (Creswell, 2012; Clark & Creswell, 2015).

The observation method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences. In a way, we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is
not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under
the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer
behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent,
may himself look at the watch. While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind
things like what should be observed, how the observations should be recorded or how the
accuracy of observation can be ensured?
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2. Types of observations
 Structured observation – An observation which is characterized by a careful definition
of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized
conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation.
 Unstructured observation – An observation which is to take place without these
characteristics to be thought of in advance.
 Participant observation – A kind of observation where the observer observes by making
himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience
what the members of the group experience.
 Non–participant observation - A kind of observation where the observer observes as a
detached agent or emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through
participation what others feel.
 Controlled observation - A kind of observation which takes place according to definite
pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedures.
 Uncontrolled observation - A kind of observation which takes place in the natural
setting.

3. Participant observation
Gill and Johnson (2002) develop a fourfold categorisation (Figure 1) of the role the participant
observer can adopt. The roles are: complete participant; complete observer; observer as
participant; and participant as observer. The first two of these roles, the complete participant and
the complete observer, involve you as the researcher in concealing your identity. This has the
significant advantage of your not conditioning the behaviour of the research subjects you are
studying. The second two, observer as participant and participant as observer, entail you
revealing your purpose to those with whom you are mixing in the research setting. Ethically, the
latter two roles are less problematic.

3.1 Complete participant

In this role, the researcher participates in the activities of the group in which he is performing
research, but does not reveal the true purpose to the group members (undercover participant).

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3.2 Complete observer
In this role, the researcher does not participate in the activities of the group in which he is
performing research, but does not reveal the true purpose to the group members (undercover
observer).

3.3 Observer as participant

In this role, the researcher does not participate in the activities of the group in which he is
performing research, but reveals the true purpose of the research to the group members
(announced observer).

3.4 Participant as observer

In this role, the researcher participates in the activities of the group in which he is performing
research and reveals the true purpose to the group members (announced participant).

Figure 1 : Summary of the roles of Participant Observation

4. Steps in participant observation

The steps in participant observation research have described the process for a research study
based on participant observation. The steps are:

4.1 Entering the field

The initial approach should guarantee confidentiality and privacy, emphasize that the
researcher’s interests are not confined to any one setting or group of people, and give a truthful

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but broad general summary of the research procedures and objectives, to reduce defensive or
self-conscious behavior.

4.2 Conduct in the field

A positive and non-threatening self-image must be maintained. Observers must emphasize
features they have in common with respondents and not require them to depart from their usual
behavior.

4.3 Recording data

Participant observation is concerned with the observation and recording of human activity. An
initial period of acclimatization is needed to ensure sufficient knowledge of what is being done
(where one should be, making sense of the activity). Note-taking is required, but may need to be
done when not in the field. Note-taking should include descriptions of people, events, and
conversations, as well as the observer’s actions, feelings, and working hypotheses. The setting
and timing are described in detail, with everything recorded that can possibly be. Triangulation is
needed by making use of more than one source of data collection, such as the addition of
documentation (e.g., diaries, minutes, letters, memos) and discussions with respondents (e.g.,
casual conversations through to tape-recorded interviews and surveys).

4.4 Analyzing data

The analysis is usually inductive:
a. Data are assembled into units or themes, which are then subsequently analysed for
patterns or relationships, often in connection with existing theories or with hypotheses
that have emerged during fieldwork;
b. The data are then re-assembled, providing an interpretation or explanation of a question
or particular problem;
c. The synthesis is then evaluated and critically examined and may be rejected or accepted
with modifications; and
d. The entire process may then be repeated to test further theoretical conceptions, or to
expand its generality.

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4.5 Leaving the field
When there are no major new insights being gained, participant observation should stop. Easing
off relationships without terminating them too abruptly is advised. Informants should be advised
of the results of the research.

5. Factors determining the choice of participant observer role

5.1 The purpose of the research

You should always be guided by the appropriateness of the method for your research question(s)
and objectives. A research question about developing an understanding of a phenomenon about
which the research subjects would be naturally defensive is one that lends itself to the complete
participant role. Discovering what it is like to be a participant on a particular training course is
more appropriate to the participant as observer role.

5.2 The time for research

Some of the roles covered above may be very time consuming. If you are really to develop a rich
and deep understanding of an organisational phenomenon, it will need much careful study. A
period of attachment to the organisation will often be necessary. However, many full-time
courses have placement opportunities that may be used for this purpose. In addition, most full-
time students now have part-time jobs, which provide wonderful opportunities to understand the
‘meanings’ that their fellow employees, for whom the work is their main occupation, attach to a
variety of organisational processes. What is needed is a creative perspective on what constitutes
research and research opportunities. The possibilities are endless.

5.3 The degree to which one feels suited to participant observation

Not everybody is suited to this type of research. Much of it relies on the building of relationships
with others. A certain amount of personal flexibility is also needed. As the participant observer,
you have to be ‘all things to all people’. Your own personality must be suppressed to a greater
extent. This is not something with which you may feel comfortable.

5.4 Organisational access

This may present a problem for some researchers. It is obviously a key issue.

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5.5 Ethical considerations
The degree to which you reveal your identity as the researcher will be dictated by ethical
considerations.

References
Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., & Tight, M. (2010). How to Research (4th ed.). New York: Open
University Press.

Clark, V. L., & Creswell, J. W. (2015). Understanding Research : A Consumer’s Guide (2nd
ed.). London, UK: Pearson Education, Inc.

Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2014). Business Research Methods (12th ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research : Planning, Conducting and Evaluating

Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education Inc.

Kumar, R. (2011). Research Methodology : A step-by-step guide for beginners (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications Inc.

Matthews, B., & Ross, L. (2010). Research Methods : A Practical Guide for the Social Sciences.
London: Pearson Education Limited.

McKechnie, L. E. (2008). Observation Research. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The Sage Encyclopedia

of Qualitative Research Methods (pp. 573 - 576). London: Sage Publications Inc.

Sahu, P. K. (2013). Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural Science,

Social Science and Other Related Fields. New Delhi: Springer.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research Methods for Business for Students
(4th ed.). London: Pearson Education Limited.

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