Small arms production and

transfers in Southeast Asia

t535'
A785'
7
02 .
 CANBERRA PAPERS ON
STRATEGY & DEFENCE NO. 146
Published in Australia at the Australian National University , 2002 .
© David Capie .
This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing private

for
the purposes

of
permitted under the Copyright Act part

no
study research criticism
or

as
review
,

,
by

may Inquiries should

be

reproduced any process without written permission

.
be

made the publisher

to

National Library
of

Australia
Cataloguing Publications entry
in
-
-

Capie David 1968

,

.,
H

-
.

Small arms production transfers Southeast Asia

in
&

ISBN 7315 5421

0

3
.

Arms control Asia Southeastern Firearms Asia

,

,
1

.2
-

-
.

Southeastern Australian National University Strategic

.
I.

Title Series Canberra

II

and Defence Studies Centre

:
(
.

.
.
on

papers strategy and defence 146

;

).

327 1740959
.

Series editor Kitty Eggerking

,
by

Cover design Emily Brissenden

by

Printed Panther Publishing and Printing

:by

Published and distributed

Strategic and Defence Studies Centre
Australian National University
ACT 0200 Australia
Tel 61 6125 9921
(0 (0
) )2
:
61

Fax 62480816
2
:

au

Email anu edu

@

sdsc
.

.
:
SMALL ARMS PRODUCTION AND TRANSFERS
IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

David Capie

Published by

Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Australian National University

2002
Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence are a series of mono
graph publications that arise out of the work of the Strategic and
Defence Studies Centre at the Australian National University . Previ
ous Canberra Papers have covered topics such as the relationship of
the superpowers , arms control at both the superpower and South
east Asian regional level, regional strategic relationships and major
aspects of Australian defence policy . For a list of Canberra Papers ,
please refer to the last pages of this volume .

Unless otherwise stated , publications of the Centre are presented

without endorsement as contributions to the public record and de
bate . Authors are responsible for their own analysis and conclusions .

SDSC Editorial Board

Professor Paul Dibb

Professor Desmond Ball

Professor David Horner

Mr Alan Dupont
Dr Coral Bell

Professor Anthony Milner

Professor Virginia Hooker
Professor Ross Babbage

Ms Kitty Eggerking
 Abstract
This work offers the first comprehensive study of small arms pro
duction and transfers, both licit and illicit , in Southeast Asia . It in

all
cludes detailed country studies of ten ASEAN states covering

,
national production inventories and holdings known imports and
,

,
exports societal problems with small arms and weaknesses exist

in
,

ing gun control legislation also summarises intra state conflicts

It

-
.

of
and addresses the sometimes considerable small arms holdings

-
as

non state actors such insurgent groups and private armies The

.
-

study concludes that Southeast Asia has serious problem with the
a
leakage legally owned weapons and with the illicit trafficking
of

of
-

small arms and light weapons Furthermore despite the growing

,
.

profile
of

international small arms issues ASEAN members have

,

's
been slow taking effective action combat illegal arms transfers
in

to

.
Author
David Capie
of
Post doctoral Research Fellow the Institute
at
is
a

-
at

the University
of

International Relations British Columbia Van

,

couver Canada He several articles and monographs

of

the author
is
,

security including
on

Asia Pacific most recently with Paul Evans

,

,
M
.
- -

of

The Asia Pacific Security Lexicon Institute Southeast Asian Studies

,
(

Singapore 2002
,

).
 Notes on Sources
Most of the research for this book was carried out between July
2000 and April 2001 . It is based on open source materials and inter
views in Cambodia , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore , Thailand and
Vietnam . Representatives of the Lao , Brunei and Philippines gov
ernments were also interviewed outside their respective countries . In
addition , the author carried out interviews with regional armsmanu
facturers , serving and former military personnel from ASEAN states ,
NGO representatives , academics , policy analysts , diplomats and
journalists .

Because of the sensitivity that surrounds arms production and

national security issues in many ASEAN states , a number of these
people preferred to speak off the record or for background only . In
accordance with their wishes they have not been identified here . Notes
for all these interviews are in the possession of the author . While not
'
identifying sources might leave some of the book s claims open to
dispute , the subject matter meant more conventional and transpar
ent methods were not possible . Wherever possible , corroboratory
evidence has also been used to support claims made by anonymous
sources .
 Acknowledgments
would like thank the New Zealand Public Advisory Commit
to
I

Disarmament and Arms Control PACDAC

on

tee for commission

)
ing the research would especially like
on

which this book based

is

I
.
express my thanks

of
the Chair the Committee Professor Ann
to

to

,
for
all

Trotter her support and enthusiasm

,

.
Any substantial research work cooperative venture and

is
a

a
large number people provided me with invaluable assistance dur
of

ing the researching and writing Many asked

of
this book remain

to
.
anonymous for variety the others special thanks

of
reasons but
of

,
a

are dueueto Mak Joon Nam who very generously shared his time and
to

knowledge Makmilitary
Joonry small arms and arms control issues with me
of

ana

Small
Ken

.
I
,
Amitav arms
Bot
am

also indebted Acharya Ken Boutin Chris Buxton Dan

to

re
all
Eaton Andrew Jenks and Matthias Maass who helped with
,

search and provided good company and places stay

on
research
to

trips Southeast Asia addition would like thank Owen

to

to
In

,
I
.

Greene John Head Edgar Janz Herman Kraft Kwa Chong Kuan
,

,
Steve Martin Yeshua Moser Puangsuwan and Rizal Sukma for shar
,

ing their insights the region Many thanks

on

small arms issues

in

the New Zealand Ministry For

of
are also due the officials from
to

eign Affairs and Trade MFAT and New Zealand Defence Force
(

NZDF who helped arrange interviews and provided me with as

(

sistance and suggestions

.

Asia Pacific Security CANCAPS

to on

The Canadian Consortium

(

provided funding allow me attend conference Ottawa

to

in

in
a

December 2000 discuss my work Denis Chouinard from the Cana

to

dian Department Foreign Affairs and International Trade DFAIT

of

was kind enough arrange for me observe the ASEAN Regional

to

Conventional Weapons Transfers and Small

on

Forum ARF Seminar

(

am

Arms Phnom Penh February 2001 also indebted Am

to
in

in

I
.

bassador Peggy Mason for her assistance support and encourage

,

ment Geneva Peter Bachelor very generously opened the Small

In

,
.

Arms Survey considerable resources me January 2001 letting

to

in

,
's
me rummage through the Survey 's library and files . Maria Haug also
kindly provided me with information about national country reports
of small arms exporters . I am very grateful to them both . At the
Department of Internal Affairs in Wellington , Ingrid Kamstra and
Dalpat Nana both provided unfailing logistical support and kept the
administrative side of the project running smoothly .
Finally , could not have completed this manuscript without Sally
I
Hill , whoread the final draft, offered many valuable suggestions and
heard more about guns than she ever expected or wanted . While the

all
report could not have been written without the help of the people
the text that follows are the sole
or

above any errors omissions

in
,

responsibility
of

the author
.

David Capie
 CONTENTS

Acronyms

1 . Introduction 1

2. Small Arms Production and Transfers in Southeast Asia

3. Illicit Arms Transfers in Southeast Asia

4. ASEAN Country Studies

Brunei -Darussalam
Cambodia
Indonesia
Lao People ' s Democratic Republic
Malaysia
Myanmar (Burma )
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Socialist Republic of Vietnam
5 . Meeting the Small Arms Challenge in Southeast Asia :
Policy Recommendations 103

Notes 112

Glossary 152

SDSC Publications 154

 ACRONYMS

ABMS Air -Burst Munition System

AEB Arms and Explosives Branch
AFP Armed Forces of the Philippines
AGL Automatic Grenade Launcher
ARF ASEAN Regional Forum
ARMSCOR Arms Corporation of the Philippines
for

ASEAN Association Southeast Asian Nations

AWPC Army Weapon Production Centre
BA Burma Arm
BCCI
of

Bank Credit and Commerce International

BRIMOB Indonesian Police Mobile Brigade
CFF Cambodian Freedom Fighters
CIS Chartered Industries Singapore
of

CNC Computer Numerically Controlled

of

CPSG Centre for the Prevention and Suppression Hired

Gunmen
CSCAP Council for Security Cooperation the Asia Pacific
in

DAMCOR Danao Arms Corporation

DKBA Democratic Karen Buddhist Army
DPRK Democratic Peoples Republic
of

Korea
EMEC Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Corps
European Union Curbing Small Arms
on

EU ASAC Assistance
-

's

Light Weapons Cambodia

in
&

FALINTIL Pro independence forces East Timor

in
-

FED Firearms and Explosives Division

FIPL Founders Industries Pte Limited
FN Fabrique Nationale
FVM Free Vietnam Movement
GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (Free Aceh Movement)
GL Grenade Launcher
GLC Government Linked Company
GPMG General Purpose Machine Gun
GSC Gunmen Suppression Centre
HE High Explosive
HK Heckler and Koch
HV High Velocity
IIRO International Islamic Relief Organisation
KA Karenni Army
KNLA Karen National Liberation Army
KNU Karen National Union
LAD Laser Aiming Device
LMG Light Machine
LPA Lao People 's Army
LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
LV Low Velocity
MA Myanmar Arm
MAA Military Assistance Agreement
MAP Military Assistance Program
MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front
MNLF Moro National Liberation Front
MPR Indonesian People 's Consultative Assembly
Tai

ΜΤΑ Mong Army

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
-

NPA New People Army

's

NSCN National Socialist Council Nagaland

of

PAOCTF Presidential Anti rganised Crime Task Force

of -O

PAVN People Army Vietnam

's 's

PLA People Liberation Army Manipur

of

PNP Philippines National Police

POF Pakistan Ordnance Factories
PULO Pattani United Liberation Organisation
RAW Research and Analysis Wing
RCAF Royal Cambodian Armed Forces
RPG Rocket - Propelled Grenade
RPM Rounds Per Minute
SAF Singapore Armed Forces
SAM Surface - to -Air Missile
SAR Singapore Assault Rifle
SAS Special Air Service
SAW Section Assault Weapon
SD Self Destruct
SIGINT Signals Intelligence
SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
SLORC State Law and Order Restoration Council
SME Syarikat Malaysia Explosives
SMEO SME Ordnance
SPDC State Peace and Development Council
SRDP Self -Reliant Defence Posture
SSA Shan State Army
ST Singapore Technologies
STC Singapore Technology Corporation
TMP Tactical Mission Pistol
TNI Indonesian Armed Forces
UI Unicorn International
ULNLF United Lao National Liberation Front
UNLFA United Liberation Front of Asom
UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
UWSA United Wa State
Army
of for

WGWR Working Group Weapons Reduction

WORLD MPC Workers League Danao Multi urpose Cooperative
-

-P
 Introduction
Small arms and light weapons have been responsible for the overwhelming
number of deaths in armed conflicts since 1945 . For most of this time these
weapons were seen simply as the most basic pieces of military equipment ,
uncontroversial and , unlike weapons of mass destruction , largely unregulated .
However , in the late 1990s several factors have worked to bring them to the
attention of the international community . First , since the end of the Cold War
there has been a shift in the nature of armed conflict from inter -state to intra
state wars . In these conflicts most casualties have been caused by small arms
and light weapons — not large conventional systems . In Somalia , Rwanda ,
Sierra Leone and East Timor these casualties were also predominantly civil
ians , not combatants . Second , in response to these intra - state conflicts the
1990s also saw the expansion of multilateral peacekeeping and peace enforce
ment operations. During UN operations in Cambodia , Rwanda , Somalia , An
gola , Albania , Bosnia and East Timor , large stocks of uncontrolled small arms
presented asignificant threat to the security of peacekeepers . Finally , the de
velopment and spread of broader concepts of security during the 1990s helped
redefine the international security agenda . Traditional notions of ‘national
security ' that focused primarily on securing the interests of states at the ex
pense of individual rights or humanitarian concerns, began to be challenged
by new concepts . The growing acceptance of ideas like 'human security ' has
helped bring humanitarian issues to the attention of policymakers and offi
cials. Nowhere was this more apparent than in the successful campaign against
anti - personnel mines.
Together , these three factors have helped spur a burgeoning international
interest in the challenges posed by the proliferation and misuse of small arms
the

and light weapons . Encouraged by their success with Ottawa Convention

on

NGOs and groups from civil society have urged

of

Landmines coalitions
,

of

governments take action control the spread small arms These they
to

to

,
.

argue are the real instruments war responsible for more civilian deaths
of

in
,

',
“

conflict than weapons anti personnel mines and equally

or
of

mass destruction
,
.* -
of

need international regulation and controls

in

growing number controlling

of

states have also shown keen interest

in
A

the proliferation light weapons Some such Canada Japan and Norway
as
of

,
.

central part their foreign policy agen

of

have made small arms initiatives

a

Others have been more cautious but even many the states that op
of

das
,
.

posed the landmines ban see control the illegal trade

to
as

their interests
in

in
it

up

small arms weapons that often end anti gov

of

the hands criminals

or
in
,

insurgents Community West Afri

of

ernment October 1998 the Economic

In

,
.

ECOWAS signed the Exportation Importation

on

can States Moratorium

,
a
(

Light Weapons Likewise the Organisation

of

of

and Manufacture American

,
.
2 Small Arms in SE Asia

States (OAS ) has adopted an Inter - American Convention against the illicit
manufacturing and trafficking in firearms , ammunition and explosives .? To
try
and develop global response the problem the United Nations convened

to

,
a

all
major conference aspects

on
the illicit small arms trade New York

its
in

in
in a

July 2001

.
For all the increased interest the subject however most analysts admit

in

,
let
little known about the legal small arms trade alone illicit trafficking
is

too

.
Certainly comparison the trade larger conventional weapons small

to
in

in
,

,
arms have received negligible scrutiny While the availability

of
information

is
.
improving for example through the development the Geneva based pub

of
—

-
lication Small Arms Survey gathering information about small arms produc

an —
tion and transfers remains important empirical challenge This study seeks

.
the growing literature the subject by offering the

on
make contribution
to

to
a

first comprehensive study small arms production and transfers both licit
of

ten
all
provides detailed country studies

of
and illicit Southeast Asia
It
in
,

ASEAN states covering national inventories and holdings known imports

,

,
and exports societal problems with small arms and weaknesses existing

in
,

gun control legislation also summarises intra state conflicts and addresses
It

-
.

as
the sometimes considerable small arms holdings

of
non state actors such

-
insurgent groups and private armies
.

of
The book five chapters This introduction addresses some the key
is
in

.
by

of
as

as
definitional issues raised terms like small arms well the difficulty
'

'

distinguishing between the lawful and illicit small arms trade The second

.
chapter provides legal arms production and trade
an

introduction the
to

in
ASEAN region identifying the known producers and exporters small arms
of
,

The third chapter provides analysis

an

of
and ammunition ASEAN the
in

illicit transfers and production

of

problem Southeast Asia identifies the

in

It
.

key factors that are driving the illicit trade the region The fourth chapter

is
in

detailed country studies examining small arms issues all ten

of

collection
in
,
a

ASEAN member states

.

The study concludes that Southeast Asia has serious problem with the
a

legally owned weapons and with the illicit trafficking small arms
of

of

control
-

and light weapons Furthermore despite the recent flurry

at

international
of
,
.

tention ASEAN members have been slow taking effective action combat
to
in
,

's

illegal arms transfers The fifth section contains some policy suggestions that
.

decision makers ASEAN and regional institutions such the ASEAN Re

as
in

gional Forum might wish consider meet the small arms challenge
to
to

What are small arms

?

common parlance the term small arms describes weapons ranging from
In

'

'

clubs knives and machetes through light machine guns the government
to
,

In
.

and academic literature however the term has acquired has narrower
,

a
 Introduction 3

meaning . 'Small arms ' are generally considered to be weapons 'manufactured

to military specifications ' that are designed ' for personal use as opposed to
those requiring several people or a crew to operate and maintain .10 According
to a 1997 report by a United Nations Panel of Governmental Experts on Small

Arms, the category includes 'revolvers and self -loading pistols , rifles and car
bines, sub -machine guns, assault rifles and light machine guns' as well as the
ammunition they require. " Various hand - grenades and portable explosive
devices are also included . 12

While some analysts use a slightly broader definition , the UN Panel of

Experts ' approach has found wide acceptance among both governments and
non - governmental groups . 13 Accordingly , this monograph treats the panel' s
definition as authoritative . While focusing predominantly on small arms, how
ever , it also makes references to weapons systems that might be better classified
as light weapons rather than small arms per se ( for example , light mortars ,
general purpose machine guns and grenade launchers ) . Identifying transfers
of light weapons can provide a useful indicator of the scale of all arms smug
gling . Given that illegal consignments of weapons to insurgents and terrorists
usually include both small arms and light weapons it seems to make more
sense , where possible , to identify
all

the types arms seized rather than sim

of

,
of do

ply list the small arms otherwise would risk portraying less than
To

a
.

complete picture consignments and the sophistication smug

of
of

the size
gling operations
.

Legitimate and illicit transfers

'
'
‘

For the purposes this study

be
of

transfer understood transaction

to
is
,
or a

a
'

'

change control over any small arms and any

of

that results title

or
in
a

/
physical movement small arms from one jurisdiction another Such trans
to
of

'
fers include not only direct sales small arms but also exchanges barter
of

,
for

arrangements gifts thefts loss loans and transactions conducted foreign

,

,
or

aid credit
.

Determining what constitutes legitimate and illicit transfer more

an

is
a

a
'

'

of

complex and controversial issue According Govern

14

the UN Panel
to

's
.

mental Experts Small Arms the right export and import small
of
on

states
to
,

arms implicit the UN Charter recognition the right individual and

of

to
in
is

's

Apart from that however the Panel Experts was

an of
15

collective self defence

,

,
-

legitimate
on

agree what constituted opposed illicit trans

to

to
as

unable
a
fer

Their report noted that there are no globally agreed norms and standards
'

'
.

concerning small arms and rather vaguely defined illicit arms trafficking
of as

that international trade conventional arms which contrary laws

to

the
in

is
'

16

States and international law

or

'.
/

At the domestic level relatively simple distinguish between licit and

to
is
it

illicit transfers All states Southeast Asia distinguish between groups and
in
.
4 Small Arms in SE Asia

individuals who are lawfully entitled to possess small arms and those who are
not (even if in practice this distinction is sometimes ignored ) ."? Consequently ,
the transfer of small arms from a lawful possessor (for example , a member of the
military or the police ) to an unauthorised party or individual within the state
would clearly constitute an illegal transfer . The unlicensed or unauthorised
export of those weapons by a group or individual to another party outside the
state (whether a state or non- state actor ) would also be a criminal act .

But what about the situation where a state covertly transfers small arms to a
non - state actor country ? This would clearly be illegal in the jurisdic
in another
tion where the arms are imported , but the transaction ' s status at international
law is hotly disputed . In 1999 the Canadian government offered a draft treaty
to outlaw all transfers between states and non - state actors but this was vigor
ously opposed by the United States .18 The US argued that states should have
the right to supply arms to groups fighting oppressive regimes . For the moment
the situation is deadlocked and the status of transfers between a state and a
law

non - state actor at international remains murky

.
get around this impasse this report uses simple three part typology
To

to
,
a

. -
distinguish between different kinds small arms transfers The three types
of

clearly lawful transfers illicit transfers and

or
are black market
;

;
(1

(2

(3
:

-
)

)
grey market transfers
'

lawful transactions Keith Krause identifies

of

to of
terms three distinct sets
In

clients for small arms transfers from producer national arsenals transfers
a

(
:

military
or

the state forces police

non state actors both domestic and extra
. ),

(
's

by
national and foreign governments These transfers are regulated domes
19
)

laws and export import regulations the supplier and recipient states
tic

in

In
/

.
be
of

the case international transfers there also consensus that lawful

is

to

,
a
transfer cannot breach United Nations arms embargo
a

The key distinction between illicit black market and grey market sales
state actors Grey market transfers include secret and legally is
of

the involvement
.

questionable transfers from states non state actors another country against
to

in
-

the importing government They also include shipments made

of

the wishes
.

knowingly government domestic political allies militias and the like

to

from
,
a

, .
law

Often these transfers violate the export regulations the supplier state
in
or

by

but they are made possible through deals arranged intelligence services
active approval the state political leadership
or

While grey
be of

with the tacit

'

.
bys

market transfers may sometimes private arms dealers

or

handled brokers
,

these are usually working

of

intelligence military agency

at

or

the behest
an

Unlike black market sales grey market transfers are almost always motivated
,
by

political objectives rather than profit

.

are

contrast black market and illicit sales

by

carried out private entities

In

whether individuals companies and lack the requisite authorisation

or

of
(

a
 Introduction 5

responsible official in the source or supplier state . They are illegal at domestic

law

are
and when they involve extra national shipments not supported

or
,

,
-
approved by the appropriate government authorities the exporting im

or
in
porting state Financial gain the principal motivation for black market sales

is
.

by.
can
include everything from the sale single weapons

of
These transactions
disgruntled soldiers well organised commercial transfers pariah em

or
to

to
bargoed governments They can involve sales local warlords criminals

or
to

,
.
insurgents as well supplies insurgents overseas

20
to

in
This three part typology recognises and evolving state

of
the uncertain
-

as
ternational law small arms flexible analytical
also offers

to
relates

It
of it

a
.
capturing the full range

of
framework capable arms transfers within ASEAN

.
see
as

we shall Southeast Asia today there significant legal trade

is
For

in
,
in

of a
small arms and light weapons but vast number weapons are also moved
,

a
illicit and grey market transfers
in

.
 Small Arms Production and Transfers in Southeast Asia
Small arms production Southeast Asia predates the emergence of the
in

modern system region . Prior to Indonesian independence , Dutch

of states in the

colonists ran several small arms companies around the Javanese city of
Bandung . In 1917 , the Philippines , still under US colonial rule , proposed leg
islation to build a factory to make arms and ammunition . But despite these
early efforts and plans , it was not until after World War II that modern arms
industries as we understand them today began to be created by Southeast Asia 's
new states . Since then much has changed . The diffusion of advanced technol
ogy has made modern military weapons easier to produce . The end of the Cold

for

all
War has likewise changed the incentives local production For these

.
changes however most states Southeast Asia are still trying find ways

to
to
in
,

meet their own basic defence needs .

of
This chapter provides legal small arms

of
broad overview the state
a

production Southeast Asia today identifies regional producers small

of
in

It
.
of

arms and ammunition the types weapons they manufacture and the rationales
,

underpinning local production

of
also addresses the sensitive issue small
It
.

arms transfers and sales who selling what whom What drives the export
to
is

?
:
of

small arms and ammunition While more detailed answers these ques

to
?

tions are provided the ten country studies that follow this chapter de

is
in

general introduction the lawful production and trade ,

as

signed
to

serve
to

in
a

small arms ASEAN

in

Production ASEAN
in

arms and light weapons required

by

The basic small modern military

a

infantry weapon sually some

of
an

force include standard automatic rifle

a

(u

kind light machine gun light mortars and grenade launchers

as

well the
as
),

ammunition needed for the operation these weapons The technology

of

to
.

produce these weapons systems not complicated and widely diffused

is

is

More than the developing world produce their own small arms
25

countries
in

."

Of the ten ASEANmember states five are currently producing weapons

,
of

Experts definition small arms They are

of

that fall under the UN Panel

'

Indonesia Myanmar the Philippines Singapore and Thailand Two other

,

as

states Malaysia and Vietnam are not believed produce any weapons
to
,

such but have produced small arms the past Malaysia manufactured rifles
in
,

until state owned arms producer closed

its

recently February 2001 when

as

as

down continues manufacture ammunition apparently pro

to
It

Vietnam
.

assault rifle during the war with the United States and currently has
an

duced
are

refurbish arms producing weapons that

as

the ability
as

good
to

new
,

.
up

acquire weapons production

its

Vietnam has also stepped efforts

to
 Small Arms Production & Transfers 7

technologies and may seek to produce

its
own arms again the future Three

in

.
ASEAN states Laos Cambodia and Brunei are non producers Accord

—
,

.
by
their respective gov

all
ing available information including statements

to

,
ernment officials they do not produce small arms ammunition spare parts

or
,

.
What do they produce

?
Six regional states manufacture their own spare parts and

or
small calibre

/
ammunition Typically this ammunition includes 9mm 56mm and 62mm

,
5

7
.

.
rounds with the mix depending the type and calibre the weapons used

on

of
,
by

their respective police and armed forces production varies but

of
The scale

,
, .
Singapore Myanmar Malaysia Indonesia Thailand and the Philippines each
,

,
has the capability produce tens millions rounds annually All

six
of

of
are
to

.
be

believed self sufficient small calibre ammunition although some

to

in

in
,
of -

cases for example Malaysia they are not producing anywhere near capac

to
,
(

)
ity

due lack demand Little known about Vietnam ammunition

to

is
a

's
.

supply Informed sources Hanoi suggest that Vietnam does not produce

to its
in
.

own small arms ammunition but rather relies imports Recent attempts

on
,

for
acquire arms production technologies from abroad may allow ammunition
production the present time
be
the future but this cannot

at
confirmed
in

.
Seven ASEAN states have some time manufactured automatic rifles As
at

.
has been the case throughout the developing world this manufacturing typi
,
cally began with licensed production arranged through foreign supplier

.3
a
During the 1970s and early 1980s Singapore and the Philippines manufac
the M16A1 assault rifle under licence from the American
of

tured models com

pany Colt Thailand has produced two Heckler and Koch rifles the HK33

,
.

assembled from parts and the HK21E which produced under

li
which
it

it
,

cence Both Malaysia and the Philippines also licensed produced Heckler
,

,
.

and Koch weapons and until recently Malaysia was also manufacturing the
Austrian Steyr AUG rifle Indonesia produced the Italian BM59 rifle and Model
.

submachine gun under licence from Beretta and later made the Belgian FN
12

FNC rifle under licence from Fabrique Nationale Vietnam has also produced
.
56
of
its

own copy the Chinese Type assault rifle itself copy the AK47
of
a
(

called the 50M

K
-

Today only three ASEAN states produce assault rifles Singapore manu
,

indigenously esigned SAR manufac

SS its

21

factures Indonesia continues

to
;
of -d

FNC and Myanmar produces two 56mm

-2 FN

ture the variant the

;
1
,

5
a
-

. -

rifles designated MA and MA All these weapons and their capabilities

,

-1

are discussed detail Chapter

in

in

4
.)

Singapore and Myanmar also produce their own light machine guns LMG
).
its (

Singapore Technologies 56mm Ultimax 100 often praised for light

is
5

-
.
'

weight and low recoil important part the Singapore Armed Forces
of
an
It
is

, '
.

of

SAF inventory and has been exported number foreign markets

to
a
(

)
8 Small Arms in SE Asia

including several in Asia and the Pacific . Myanmar 's new range of indig
enous weapons also includes a light machine gun designated MA - 3, although
details are sketchy . One possibility is that it is simply a version of the 5 . 56mm
EMERK - 1 assault rifle with a heavier barrel . Malaysia recently halted produc
tion of the Steyr AUG ,which could fulfil a LMG role . Neither Thailand nor the
Philippines is producing rifles or LMGs at present .

At least six
ASEAN states have the capacity make their own mortar tubes

to
and mortar ammunition even they are not currently manufacturing these

if

In
products Singapore Malaysia Myanmar Thailand the Philippines and
,

,
.

donesia each produces range 60mm and 81mm mortar bombs All five are

of
a

.
produce have until recently range grenades

of
known
or
also These
to

.
(

)
include hand grenades velocity

to as
and low rifle launched grenades such the

,
-
be

type that can M203 grenade launcher attached

an

an
fired from American
M16 Some states also make high velocity HV 40mm grenades for use with
.

)
automatic grenade launchers Both Singapore and Indonesia produce auto

an
.

matic grenade launcher Indonesia makes the Singaporean CIS 40mm AGL
(
.

under licence from Singapore Technologies not known whether Vietnam

It
is
has the ability produce own mortars and mortar bombs .)
its
to

.
Why produce
?

by
by are

for

There several rationales the production small arms ASEAN of

for

states but far the most important the desire greater autonomy deter
is

in
,

mining their own national security affairs

As

Bilveer Singh and Kwa Chong

.

integral part

of
coun
an

Kuan note Defence industrialisation has become

,

a
“

An

as as
try defence capability indigenous defence industry perceived is
'.4
's

strengthening national defence capabilities enhancing political autonomy

,
of

well being symbolic

as

greater national sovereignty

.

All ASEAN members want reduce their dependence outside arms

on
to

suppliers Many regional states have complained about delays acquiring

in
.

spare parts from producers developed long waits before pur

or

the world
in

chases are approved under the US Foreign Military Sales FMS program
.
's

They also fear that foreign suppliers may not prove reliable
of

time crisis for

in
a
by

political reasons that supplies might

be

an

halted international arms

or
,

for

boycott
already reality Myanmar military regime
or

embargo This
is

,
a
.

's

informal arms embargo from some major suppliers

an

which has faced the

in

European Union and the United States since the late 1980s Indonesia also
.
an

found itself under arms embargo after violence erupted East Timor
in

in
by

September 1999 Even states not immediately threatened embargo are con
.

cerned maintain their autonomy arms acquisitions For example Singa

to

in

,
.

deeply rooted sense insecurity comparatively young small state

as

pore
of

,
a
's

by

surrounded larger potential adversaries has given strong desire avoid

to
it
a
for

As

dependence foreign suppliers basic military equipment

on

its

former
.
 Small Arms Production & Transfers 9

Foreign Minister .
S Rajaretnam warned the UN General Assembly in 1976 :

the
it a measure of dependency part

of
The flow of arms carries with on the

the
arms not unlike that prevailing under old imperial

on

of
client the seller

of
system The massive flow arms the third world confronts with new

to

it

a
..
.

all
danger

of

of
on
first drain the economies third world countries

;
is
,

,
It

is a
.
but even more important the fact that dependence

of
creates new form

it

a
to on

the great powers which can exploit the third world dependence

on
them

, ,

's
manipulate them engineer conflicts between them and

as
use them

to

to
,
proxies their competition for influence and dominance
in

.
This primary objective preserving national autonomy

of
reflected the

in
is
of

types small arms products being made the region While state can

in

a
.

its
arms embargo already has sufficient weapons national
an

survive

it
if

in
inventory cannot fight without the ability ammunition sup

its
replenish

to
,
it
ply

and provide spare parts from local source Not surprisingly then most

,
a

.
ASEAN producers make their own ammunition and spares

.
Economic incentives

Economic incentives represent another particularly important reason for

local production Domestic manufacturing ASEAN

on
often based the

is
in
.

expectation that will reduce the cost weapons Manufacturing small arms
of
it

be
can

locally theory also save hard currency that would otherwise

at

least
,

,
in

spent imports important secondary factor the devel

on

an

This has been

in
,

,
if
.

opment Myanmar defence industries and also influenced Malaysia

of

it

's
its s'

decision produce own ammunition after acquired M16 rifles

to

it

.
producing weapons and ammunition locally creates jobs espe
Second
,

,
of

cially for the less skilled the acquisition the weapons

of
These offset the cost
.

and doubtless have political appeal Historically most ASEAN states have
,
.

the part
of
on

had mixed economies which there little reluctance the state

in

is

play Calling small

an

active role the industrial sector and labour market

to

in

arms companies strategic industries Indonesia has helps make what are
as
',

,
'

essentially large state subsidies more palatable

.

reality however many indigenous

of

the alleged economic benefits

of
In

production prove illusory ready local

be

small arms Unless there

to

often
is
a
.

supply making
of

the raw materials needed for arms and ammunition

is
,
it

some imports Even where comparative

of

hard avoid the cost state has

to

a
.

of

advantage with lower labour costs the expense importing raw materials like
,

be

brass rods and primers for ammunition means local production can often
more expensive than buying products
on

the open market For example offi

,
.

cials from Malaysia state owned arms company SME admit that because
of
's

their dependence raw materials imported from Europe their ammunition

on

per cent more than similar products available

20

on

costs between and the

5
10 Small Arms in SE Asia

the
market. This is also true

for
weapons particularly since the end

of
Cold

,
as
large quantities

of
War small arms from the former Soviet Union and East

,
ern Bloc states have flooded what was already buyer market

's

.
Reconciling desire for national autonomy with the need balance the

to
a

for
books has caused dilemma some regional policymakers the case the

of
In
a

.
most basic defence goods such ammunition most states ASEAN have

as

so
in
,
far opted for autonomy over economic imperatives the regional

of
the wake

In
.
economic crisis however there are
, signs that the balance might be shifting

fu 's .
Malaysia producer

its
decision close national small arms and Indonesia
to
's

recent decision acquire Chinese made mortar bombs and possibly the
to

in
,
-

(
ture infantry weapons suggests that economic rationality might play greater
,

a
)

part decisions about indigenous small arms production

10
the future
in

in

.
Technology transfer for

addition the desire autonomy and economic incentives another

In

to

,
important rationale for local production technology transfer persistent
is

A
.
many ASEAN states when dealing with arms manufacturers
of

demand the

in
developed world that suppliers transfer not just the arms but also the tech
is

,
nology and knowledge required produce and maintain them Singapore
to

's
."
this almost from the moment they were
on

defenceindustries have insisted

According recent history Singapore Technologies the company
of

created
to

,
a
.

adopted the principle that every licensed production contract must include
'

technology transfer and the appropriate training packages

12
'.
As well increasing the defence technology base technology transfer

of
as

,
the

possibility developing new dual use and civilian products As Singh

of

fers
-

and Kwa note the establishment .

of

an
domestic arms industry may give
,

impetus technological progress the country

of

13
scientific research and the
to

'.
the region can afford arms manufacturer that does not
an
to

Few states have

in

as

make other products

an

well Indonesia Pindad PT advertises extensive

's
.

range commercial products including generators casting products auto

of

motive and aircraft components Singapore defence industries also stress

14
.

's

the large quantity non defence products and services they offer including
of

,
-

aircraft and automotive production servicing and repair While small arms
,

production offers fewer opportunities for commercial technology transfer than

,
for

can

example military aircraft vehicle production those benefits that

be
or
,

,
for
or

had provide another incentive justification pursuing local production

over imports
.

Exports

As was noted above when proposals for indigenous small arms produc
,

for

tion are debated the desire national security autonomy often runs into
,

Many ASEAN states often with modest

of

questions economic rationality

,
.
 Small Arms Production & Transfers 11

standing armies , cannot justify the expense involved the creation of an indig
enous small arms industry for such small production runs. One solution ,
however , that allows for both the preservation of state autonomy and a degree
of cost management is to pursue export sales .
While there are several rationales for the transfer of small arms from ASEAN
producer states , the primary motivation for such transfers is commercial . Arms
sales generate revenue and the income raised by exports helps offset the initial
investment made by the producer state in local manufacturing capacity

its

.
directed into new production future research efforts
be
Revenue can also

to re

or
,
-
into military budgets cover budgetary shortfalls

.
Second exporting weapons allows for longer production runs which lower
,

,
the per unit cost weapons and also keep facilities and employees working
of

of It
.
advantage permitting have surge capacity
of

time

to
also has the state

in
a

a
'
‘
national emergency conflict
or

.
the export small arms can also provide producer state with po
of

Third
,

a
tential non economic benefits These include the opportunity supply allies

to

,
-

acquire influence with neighbour potentially important regional state

or

or
to

.
low

Singapore profile but high volume arms trade with Myanmar moti

of is
-

-
no 's

by

vated small part strategic calculations about the future role Burma
in

15

and China Southeast Asia

in

as
Similar notions also inform extra regional suppliers such China and the
-

important supplier
of
an

United States The US small arms Southeast Asia

to
is

,
.

an are

by

and while today these transfers mostly dictated commercial rather than
geostrategic interests retains interest maintaining links with former
it
,

in

at
purchasers military arms
of
its

For evidence one only needs look the

to
' .

at

enormous number weapons gifted bargain basement prices

or
of

sold

to
'

allies like Thailand and the Philippines Likewise China also using small
is
,
.
try

the region
its

arms transfers enhance own influence Transfers

to

to

to
in

.
by

Laos and Myanmar have been motivated some important non economic
-

interests including China general desire establish greater role South

to

in
,

a
's

east Asian politics and the more specific objective acquiring signals intelli
of

gence posts southern Laos and the Andaman Sea More recently India
in

's
.

concerns about growing Chinese influence Southeast Asia have also led
in

it
to

offer small arms and assistance states like Myanmar and Vietnam
to

this respect indigenous manufacturing

of

can offer ASEAN weapons

In

states some major advantages over licensed production Under licensing agree
.

ments with suppliers the developed world states are sometimes limited
in

is in
,

export opportunities pursue Sometime this

of

terms the they are allowed

to

for commercial reasons For example Colt did not permit Singapore export
to
,
.

locally made M16 other than for post production period for fear
its

limited
,
a
-

that Singapore might exploit comparative advantage

its

labour costs sell

to
in

product cheaper price Heckler and Koch likewise did not permit
at

quality
a

.
12 Small Arms in SE Asia

the export of weapons produced under licence in Thailand . 16 But sometimes

these limitations are imposed to give the licensing state some control over where

up
weapons end
its Sweden for example requires that Singapore get con

its
,

,
.
sent before transferring the 84mm rockets that Chartered Industries makes un
the early

an
der licence from Forenade Fabriksverken This became issue

in
."
reports Singapore Myanmar

18
1990s after there were had sold the rockets

to

.
Who exports
?
Of

the ASEAN states currently producing small arms

six
are known

byto
,
the past Of these Singapore

or
have exported either arms ammunition

in

is
,
.
far the most important Indeed Singapore Technologies the only manufac

is
,
.

turer Southeast Asia genuinely able compete the international small

in
to
in

arms market Singapore has exported arms almost since the creation

of
its
.

the late 1960s As well selling ammunition throughout

as
defence industries
in

Southeast Asia and internationally has also been successful , .

selling some
it

in
weapons mostly the developing world
its
of

markets has sold M16

to

It
SR in
,

.
Myanmar Papua
SR

Model 614S SAR

80

88

88A assault rifles

to
and
, ),

, ,

,
(

New Guinea Slovenia the Solomon Islands Sri Lanka and Thai
Somalia
,

,
land Singapore Ultimax light machine gun by Croatia Slovenia Fiji
is used

,
's
.

Papua New Guinea Philippines the Solomon Islands and Zimbabwe

19
the
,

.
According Singapore Technologies the CIS 40mm GL grenade launcher has
to

,
its

been sold around the world and 40mm Automatic Grenade Launcher

is
',
'

Grenades for 40mm AGL have been sold

20

made under licence Indonesia

in

to
.

Indonesia and Sweden

to

its

Malaysia has also sold some weapons the past although not nearly
of

in

,
as

Singapore
on

the same scale hence the recent closure its state owned
of
(

-
producer SME Technologies According company officials small consign
to

,
.)
of

Steyr AUG assault rifle were sold resumably for

its

ments Pakistan
to

(p

reshipment and few dozen Steyr Tactical Mission Pistols TMPs were sold
a
)

the Philippines Malaysia has sold ammunition the open market again
on
to

,
.

with mixed success Past clients include Nigeria New Zealand and private
,
.

buyers the United States

in

arms producer Pindad PT produces

of

Indonesia wide variety conven

,

a
's

tional weapons systems which offers for sale does not appear have
to
It
it

exported another state although the company

SS

rifles
its

of

series keen
to

is
,
-1

develop export market While there are rumours that Pindad rifles have
an
to

the

been transferred rebel groups fighting along Thai Burma border this
to

,
-
be

its

cannot confirmed Pindad has had little more luck with ammunition
,
in a
.

which has sold various states Southeast Asia apparently including

to

,
it

it

Thailand According industry reports however recent years Pindad has

to

in
,

,
.

found the competition from Singapore extremely tough

.
 Small Arms Production & Transfers 13

Thailand , the Philippines and Vietnam have also sold quantities of arms to
the region . According to officials of Thailand ' s Army Weapon ' s Production
Centre , 2 per cent of total output between 1998 and 2000 was exported

its

' , in to
Malaysia and Singapore presumably for export The Philippines gun

re
,

'
-

.
dustry also sells arms and ammunition largest private producer ARMSCOR

Its

,
.
products The Philippines

22
more than

its
claims have sold countries
to

to

.
state arms producer Government Arsenal tried break into exports during

to
,

,
restrictions under Filipino law

of
the 1980s but was unable do

to

so
because

It
,

.
recently expressed renewed desire pursue foreign sales following changes

to
a
the law
in

the American arms seized when

has exported defeated the US

it

it
Vietnam
Vietnamese regime these weapons went

of
backed South Transfers

to
1975

in

.
Cuba and from there Central America and communist rebels fighting
to

to

in
(

)
the Philippines Today there are reports that Vietnam continues sell stocks

to
,
.

Vietnam war surplus The Hanoi based General Import xport Van Xuan
of

'
-
.

-E
Corporation VAXUCO Ministry Defence owned company that deals

of

in
is
a
', '
(

spare parts which are reputed include small arms addition Vietnam
to

In

,
‘

.
supplied arms and ammunition the communist regime established Cam
to

in
it
its

bodia after invasion has also provided close ally Laos with

its
late 1978
It
in

. .

some weapons and ammunition

Finally the only one the ASEAN small arms producers not known
of

to to
,

or

have exported arms ammunition Myanmar small arms production

Its
is

date has been driven by

its

own considerable domestic demand There have

.
weapons sales
no

transfers and while one 1998

or
of

been recorded instances

,
report suggested that the government had the long term goal exporting ord
of
-

exchange support this

no

nance and small arms earn foreign evidence

to

to
,
21

claim was offered

.

Future trends

Small arms production Asia has developed significantly over

Southeast
in

the past three decades Previously

regional states were wholly dependent
all
,
.

the supply small arms from producers Today

on

of

the developed world

in

at
,
.

produce
six
- of

least five the ten ASEAN states can their own arms and are more
or

less self sufficient small calibre ammunition and ordnance Singapore

in

has become major player the international arms market and now licenses
in

,
a

own weapons But while modern military small arms

its

the production
of

production ASEAN has come long way comparatively short time

in

in

,
a

questions remain about

its

future
.

While too little still known about the economics small arms production
of
is

region likely producing small arms and ammunition

lo

the seems that

in

,
it

cally rather than buying economically rational

on

the open market not

an
is
14 Small Arms in SE Asia

for
most ASEAN states The flood

of
choice former Soviet and Eastern Bloc

-
.
small arms onto the world market and the need import raw materials for

to
ammunition production makes extremely difficult for Southeast Asian prod

it
ucts cannot compete internationally price Tough competition within ASEAN

on

.
for
has further reduced the opportunities revenue generation through exports

.
only those producers offering range

of
Under such conditions advanced

a
products competitive prices and with
at supply and marketing

an
established
structure will prosper only one producer

In
Southeast Asia there this

is

in
,
.
class Singapore Technologies As Malaysia SME Technologies found out
,

's
.
recently failure develop export markets can lead closure
to

to
,

.
be

remains seen what the economics small arms production will

of
It

to
for

be
no
mean other regional producers There will doubt continue pressure

to
.

of
governments non
on

ASEAN sustain local arms industries for variety

to

a
economic reasons particular national autonomy some cases corruption

In
in
,

, ,
.
be

may also sustaining government subsidies Certainly

as

as
factor long
in
a

.
challenges

or
states believe they are facing serious internal external security
then they are likely maintain their own production capabilities But
to

.
should these challenges be overcome quasi democratic states like thein
,

-
Philippines and Indonesia may become more difficult persuade the
it

to
public that the symbolic value highly subsidised arms industry
of

is
a

worth the cost While closures not likely occur national

of

cascade

to
is

,
a
.

producers Philippines Indonesia and Thailand may

be
states like the
in

forced
,

their production focusing perhaps exclusively the manufac

on
consolidate
to

and spares possible therefore that the closure

of

of
ture ammunition
It
of is

,
.

Malaysia SME and the decision the Indonesian military buy mortar
to
's

own national producer Pindad PT

its

ordnance from China rather than from

,

,
may be signs things
of

come
to

.
 Illicit Small Arms Transfers In Southeast Asia

the
and production

of

of
This chapter introduces problem the illicit transfer
small arms Southeast Asia three parts First identifies the five key

,
in

in
is
It

it
.

.
that drive the proliferation small arms and light weapons South

of
factors

in
both the supply and demand side Second
on
east Asia outlines the various

it
of ,

,
.
sources illegal weapons including leakage large commercial sales and grey

,
market transfers notes the major supply routes through the region and dis
It
.
cusses the supply small arms into Southeast Asia from extra egional actors
of

of .
-r
the challenge small arms smuggling represents for some
on
Third touches
,
it

the weaker members of ASEAN

.
There are some methodological noted before making

be
caveats that need

to
claims about the shape and size illicit arms transfers region like South

of

in
a
By

in
east Asia very nature the illicit arms trade secretive and actors
its

is
.

the sale and movement illegal weapons are reluctant

of
volved talk

to

to
in

For equally obvious reasons the users small arms such

as
of
researchers rebel
.

do
groups are cautious about identifying their suppliers nor they typically

,
or
their acquisitions
of

maintain records inventories therefore difficult

to
is
It
.
measure and describe precisely the regional trade illicit small arms Re

in

.
ported seizures arrests provide clues but illegal drugs pro
or

the trade
if

in
,

vides any parallel these are likely just the

tip

the iceberg
of
however

It
,

, is,

,
.
possible identify broad trends supply and demand
of

the chain note the

in
to

to
types weapons being moved and the various motivations that lead illicit
of

to
,

arms transfers This limited but important objective particularly given the
is

,
a
.

well established link between illegal weapons movements and violent conflict
-

.
Factors driving the trade

Five factors determine the shape

of

illicit arms transfers Southeast Asia

in

.
of

First the large number intra state conflicts the region and the concomitant
,

in
-
for

need illegally sourced weapons among non state actors Second the region
,
-

military small
of

home several post conflict states where large numbers

to
is

light weapons long

be

arms and can easily obtained Third Southeast Asia

,

's
.

po

maritime and continental frontiers are extremely difficult monitor and

to

lice The fourth and related point that the region home significant
is

to
is
.

a
of

number weak states These are political entities that lack the capacity
to
'

'.

effectively control their borders and interdict arms traffickers and other
transnational criminal activities Such states also often store national invento
.

legally owned small arms insecure and poorly managed facilities

of

ries
in

making theft loss and consequently smuggling possible Many also lack ad
,

equate domestic gun control legislation and enforcement Fifth despite the
,
.
for

absence overt inter state conflict the region more than two decades and
of

in
-

the welcome development regional institutions suspicions and mistrust

of

,
16 Small Arms in SE Asia

persist in many parts of Southeast Asia . While the Cold War practice of sup
plying weapons to insurgents in neighbouring countries has largely been
delegitimised as an instrument of national policy , some recent instances reveal
that it has not disappeared completely . In summary, in Southeast Asia today
there is a significant demand for weapons , a ready supply , and many states
lack the capacity to police what are often long and porous borders . The combi
nation makes an ideal environment for illicit arms transfers .

The demand : intra - state conflict

for
While Southeast Asia has not seen a major inter - state conflict more than
years large number be fought
20

intra state conflicts continue the

of

to

in
,
a

-
region Of these the most bloody are Aceh Maluku and Kalimantan

in

in
,

,
.

Indonesia Mindanao the southern Philippines and along Myanmar

in

in
,

's
borders with Thailand India and Bangladesh Other low ntensity conflicts
, ,

-i
are simmering Laos Vietnam Cambodia and West Papua The intra state
in

-
.
these conflicts supports the regional proliferation illegal small
of

of
nature
arms for two reasons
.

First while inter state warfare typically fought with heavy conventional
is
,

-
as

weapons such artillery aircraft and tanks intra state conflicts small arms
,

, ,
in

-
are the weapons They are light affordable easily concealed and
of

choice

,
.

transported highly durable and simple maintain They are easy

an
use
to

to
,

(
important factor for what are often untrained irregular forces and extremely

)
For example assault rifle like the Chinese Norinco Type copy
an

56
lethal
, ,

(a
.

ubiquitous
of

of

the Russian AK47 which zones conflict the region has

is

in

in

,
)

600 rounds per minute Small arms are also better suited
of

of

rate the

to
fire
a

.
by

military tactics employed insurgent groups typically terrorist attacks guer

,

re
rilla operations and ambushes Consequently rebel forces throughout the
.

up

gion maintain inventories that are often exclusively made

of

small arms and

light weapons pistols submachine guns sniper rifles assault rifles grenade
,

,
:

launchers light machine guns and light mortars Some also reportedly have
,

anti tank weapons and surface air missiles SAMs

to

access
to

).
(
-
-
-

states can easily procure these weapons

while the legal interna
on

Second
,

tional market generally more difficult for non state actors obtain weap
to
is
it
,

ons through licit channels Some simply lack the resources buy new
or
to

even
.

of

used modern military equipment With the end the Cold War most
of

the
.
for

ideological rationales supporting regional insurgent groups have vanished

the

once generous patrons like the United States has also dis
of

and largesse
-
the

the

appeared Groups like Karen rebels fighting along Thai Burma border
.

have complained that their supplies arms and ammunition are low and they
of

lack the resources needed replenish stocks For such groups getting arms
to

and ammunition cheaply crucial They can only afford used sometimes near
is

obsolescent small arms weapons that can be most easily obtained illegally
,

.
)
 Illicit Arms Transfers 17

On the other hand , there are several non - state actors in the region for whom
money is not a problem . The most prominent of these at present are the Abu
Sayyaf group in the Southern Philippines and the pro - Yangon United Wa State
Army (UWSA ) in Myanmar. Abu Sayyaf successfully traded hostages for sev
eral million dollars in ransom in 2000 and the UWSA has reportedly made
large profits through drug production and sales , particularly the trafficking of
methamphetamines into Thailand . But even for these comparatively wealthy
groups, it is difficult to find willing sellers on the legal international arms
market . There is an emerging norm , shared by some important supplier states ,
that states should not sell weapons into zones of intra - state conflict .? This
obstacle forces even well - funded insurgent groups to turn to the illicit weapons
market instead . There , brokers and arms dealers can obtain and supply sig
nificant quantities of used military hardware at an affordable price and , more
importantly , with no questions asked .

The supply : post -conflict states

Ifthe prevalence of intra - state conflict sustains a demand for small arms,
the

ubiquity military weapons parts ready

of
Southeast Asia offers
of

then
in

a
As

supply Krause has noted unlike the trade conventional weapons much

in

,
'
.

the trade small arms and light weapons concerns existing stockpiles not
of

in

new production This certainly the case Southeast Asia where most
in

,
is
in 8
'.

small arms used violent struggles are recycled weapons from former con
flicts
.

small arms and light

no

While authoritative figures vast number

of
exist
,
a

weapons continue circulate several ASEAN states Vietnam and Cambo

to

in

dia inherited some two million

of
firearms and 150 000 tonnes ammunition
,

after the US withdrawal 1975 Even after government crackdown there are
in

,
a
.
be

still believed between 500 and one million military style weapons
to

000
,

circulating Cambodia alone The Philippines

another highly weaponised
in

is
.

society with between 600 000 and 700 000 guns registered with the Philip
,

as

pines National Police PNP unregistered

10

of

Estimates the number

to
).
(

arms circulation vary wildly ranging from 270 000 600 000 weapons
11
to
in

Philippines Center for Transnational Crime report citing the PNP Fire
,
A

's
up

arms and Explosives Division FED comes with figure closer 350 000
to
-re ,

,
,
a
‘ (

dividing the total into 189 766 weapons

un

registered 156 firearms that

,

',

,
,
2
-
157

860 weapons simply designated

as

12

are losť and loose addition

In
,

,
‘

'.
“

unlike Cambodia the Philippines has own major gun industry and
its

own
its
,

annual output continues add these totals

to

to

There are three important channels through which these weapons are
di

verted the illicit arms circuit First there leakage where weapons are sold
to

is
,
.

'
‘

stolen from legitimately held inventories

or

stockpiles Second there are

or

,
.

small arms and light weapons

of

various commercially motivated sales

to
18 Small Arms in SE Asia

unauthorised actors. These can vary from just a few weapons , to consignments
of modern weapons and ammunition worth tens of millions of dollars . Third ,

are
there grey market politically motivated transfers non state actors which

to
,

,
-
occur with the knowledge and approval the exporting government

of

.
Leakage

for
the most important sources weapons any insurgent group has
of

of
One
always been opponents and Southeast Asia today
its
no exception Rebel

is

.
forces rely heavily small armsthat they either capture from security forces
on

in
combat that they buy from disaffected corrupt soldiers that they steal from

or

or
,

poorly guarded government arsenals Incidents involving this kind illegal

of
.
leakage from national inventories and stockpiles plague Southeast Asia

.
Cambodia leakage problem the worst the region European Union
is

in

A
's

.
the

funded program for collection and destruction surplus weapons EU

of

(
ASAC has documented the poor quality

of
storage facilities for the thousands
)

weapons throughout the country Often large numbers

of of

confiscated housed

.
weapons taken from demobilised soldiers and armed civilians are stored

in
or

unlocked sheds police stations poorly guarded depots Once there they

13
,

,
.
for

make tempting target poorly paid military personnel seeking supple

to
a

ment their wages

.

addition small scale leakage widely known Cambodia that

to

it
is
In

in
,
-

corrupt elements the armed forces and police directly supply weapons

to
in

criminal gangs and arms dealers April 1999 government sub decree
an

While

-
, .

has made gun possession illegal sources say illegal arms are still easy buy

to

.
Phnom Penh infamous Tuk Thla market which once openly displayed mili
,
's
of for

tary hardware sale now only overtly sells uniforms and equipment but

a
complete range military products still available Vendors take potential
is

buyers locations away from the market where weapons are available for
to

inspection and purchase According informed sources Phnom Penh most

to

in

,
.
of

through military warehouses

.14

the arms sold Tuk Thla come from

Leakage has also been serious problem Indonesia During the recent
in
a

violence Maluku many military weapons were stolen from overrun police
in

stations and military armouries For example just one attack police
on
in
,

a
.

station Tantui July 2000 823 military style rifles were stolen Of these 115
in

in

.
of

were later recovered but more than 700 the weapons apparently remain
in
,

more recent fighting

.15

circulation central Kalimantan smaller numbers

In

in

military weapons were also stolen from security forces Sampit

of
of

.16

the town
in

On Java there have been accusations that weapons and explosives have gone
,

missing from the country sole arms producer PT Pindad These captured the
,
's

headlines 2000 when was revealed that the explosives used bomb
in

in
it

found outside the Attorney General office Jakarta were from Pindad
in
's

's
-

Bandung factory
."
 Illicit Arms Transfers 19

Indonesia is also an example of another kind of illegal transfer , the deliber

ate arming of combatants by security personnel . According to reports , the Indo
nesian military (TNI) has provided local Muslim forces in Maluku with mili
tary weapons while the Indonesian police (BRIMOB ) provided small arms to
'
the territory s Christian forces . A similar practice took place in East Timor
before the United Nations intervention in September 1999 . In Aceh the TNI has
had to face the reality that many of own soldiers are selling their weapons

its

to
GAM
18
rebels .
insurgent groups openly admit that their most impor
the Philippines
In

the
are
weapons the Philippines AFP and

as of
the Armed Forces
of

tant sources

, (
)
Philippines National Police PNP As well weapons stolen lost cap

19

or
(

).
tured during combat rebel groups have also been known raid AFP arms

to
,

depots municipal armouries and have even seized small arms from civilian
,

competitors shooting competitions the endemic prob

.20
addition there

In

,
in

is
by

corruption law enforcement and security personnel Sep

of

lem raid

in
A
.
ten

tember 2000 netted men Bulacan and Nueva Ecija provinces along with
in

various assault rifles grenade launchers machine guns mortars explosives

,

,
and ammunition that were destined for unspecified rebel group

an

in
,

be
According the police most the weapons could only
Mindanao found of
to

',
.

)
the government armory
21
in

'.
's
the

the
less developed
of

But problem leakage not just limited region

is

to

's
states The issue was highlighted Malaysia July 2000 when large cache
in

in

a
.

military weapons was stolen from army camp near Grik

of

an

Perak state

let in

.
Fifteen men dressed military uniformspersuaded sentries them into the

to
in

camp and seized more than one hundred M16 and Steyr AUG rifles machine

of ,
guns grenade launchers mortar shells and thousands ammuni
of

rounds
,

After five day standoff during which two hostages were killed the
22

tion
,

,
a

-
.

for
group surrendered The Malaysian government quickly laid the blame the
.
the

religious cult known Ma unah Brotherhood

Al
at

as
of

of
raid door Inner
a

'

(“

investigation also implicated several Malaysian army soldiers

an

Power but
')

the

sympathetic group
23
to

While the Grik incident grabbed the headlines the robbery was not unprec
,

edented Four Steyr AUG automatic rifles were stolen from another army camp
.

Kamaunting Perak July 1999 These weapons ended up

of
24

the hands
in

in

in
,

gang bandits which the press quickly tagged the Steyr Gang The group
of
a

'

'.

carried out number banks and finance companies

of

on

armed robberies
,
a

by

before four members were shot dead police and the weapons were recov
Several group members including the alleged mastermind were proven
.25

ered
,

have links the Malaysian Army

26
to

to

surplus weapons
of

Sales
for

While leakage the principal source illegal arms transfers rebel groups
to
is

fighting throughout Southeast Asia there also large and well organised
,

is

-
20 Small Arms in SE Asia

commercially motivated trade in illicit weapons . A network of brokers and

arms dealers in Singapore , Malaysia , Cambodia and Thailand play an impor
tant role in the organisation and movement of arms shipments to a wide range
of clients . Unsurprisingly , the main smuggling routes in the region are closely
linked to ongoing areas of conflict , particularly Sri Lanka , Aceh , the Southern
Philippines , as well as Northeastern Indian states and the various Burmese
insurgents fighting along the Thai and Bangladesh borders .

The most important source of weapons for the region ' s many intra - state
conflicts is Indochina , particularly Cambodia . Vietnam and Laos are impor
tant transit states for weapons from southern China, and Thailand has become
an important centre for the illegal brokering and ‘ facilitation ' of small arms
transfers , but Cambodia is especially important as a supplier . The vast number
of weapons remaining there after the civil war means it acts as a kind of weap
ons supermarket for arms dealers and brokers searching for low cost military
hardware . These individuals are aided in their business by corrupt officials
and military personnel , both in Cambodia and across the border in Thailand .
Once illegal weapons enter Thailand , they can be supplied to domestic crimi
nal actors , or shipped by sea or over land to markets in Burma , Sri Lanka , or
Indonesia . According to one writer , these kind of dealers fall into two camps.
First , there are the small time operators who often work alone, buying weapons
in Cambodia and reselling them in Bangkok to gangs , Burmese rebels or even to
criminal organisations in Taiwan and Hong Kong . 27 These sales are not insig
nificant but represent the '
tip

the iceberg illicit arms sales

of

of

28
The second

'.
of

themost lucrative are large transfers

of
kind transaction conventional arms
,

from Cambodia China and Vietnam smuggled with the tacit permis
southern
,

sion and sometimes active participation Cambodian and Thai military per
of

sonnel and politicians These include everything from assault rifles surface

to
.

Many the weapons leave Cambodia via southern ports

of

air missiles
29
to

Kompong Som Sihanoukville and move along the coastline island

as

such ,
(

of of

hopping Rayong and Pattaya the Gulf Thailand One senior Thai
to

80 in

military officer has estimated that per cent the weapons smuggled
of
out
by

30

Cambodia move sea

.

These larger weapons consignments are usually destined for organised

insurgents and not criminal gangs They have reached regional
of

number
a
.

rebel forces including the Tamil Tigers LTTE Burmese and Lao rebels and
,

),
(

organisations operating
31

India northeastern states Burmese rebels like

in

's

by

the Shan State Army SSA and Karen National Union KNU are supplied
(

land through Thailand with the porous Thai Cambodian and Thai Myanmar
,

borders making these transfers relatively easy accomplish Thai military

32
of to

officials have been implicated the shipment weapons and ammunition

to
in

the border and corrupt individual soldiers are known play role the
to

in
,

August Royal
of

movement weapons the rebels Thai military

to

In

1998
a
.

officer was arrested Bangkok when police found 600 000 rounds
of

Czech
in

,
33
an

ammunition and M16 his home

in

.
 Illicit Arms Transfers 21

According to intelligence sources, the most important areas of activity for

arms smugglers using sea routes are islands off the coast of Phuket , as well as
the southern provinces of Ranong and Satun .34 Cambodian - sourced weapons

for
the Tamil Tigers are shipped from
weapons depots near Phuket

on
destined
speedboats

of

35
trawlers and are transferred off the coast Sri Lanka With

to

.
000 vessels fishing Thai waters and large number

of
small

10
more than

a
islands where weapons can transshipped effective interdiction

of be
extremely

is
,
difficult complicity military smuggling operations
36

The the Burmese

in
.

also impedes law enforcement efforts At one time the LTTE occupied base

on
a
.
Myanmar through understanding with several generals

an
Twante Island
in

Yangon reports the Moyaza

37

The Tatmadaw has also been linked

in

to
in

Sri
pirate group which has been implicated small arms smuggling

38
Lanka

to
in
,

.
The scale this trade difficult quantify but seizures alone suggest very

to
of

,
is

large numbers weapons are being moved

of

an
one incident March 1999

In

in

,
.

of
armed trawler carrying weapons destined

10
an

estimated million worth

$
for the LTTE was sunk joint operation between the Indian and Sri Lankan
in
a

May
of

February 1998 two fishing vessels carrying 146 and

39

45
navies and
In

,
.

machine guns respectively were impounded by Thai authorities subse

A
. .
quent investigation revealed that the boats were linked the LTTE

40
March

In
to
1997 the Thai Navy seized ship reportedly destined for Sri Lankan waters
,

carrying M16s mortar tubes M79 ammunition RPGs 62mm and 56mm
,

,
7

In 5
.

.
ammunition anti tank rockets and chemicals for bomb production

41
March
,

.
1996 Bangladeshi authorities seized 600 assault rifles and large quantity

of
a
explosives
on

trawler off Cox Bazaar

a

.
's

The second major pipeline for Cambodian weapons through southern

is

According
of

an
Thailand and from there across the Strait Malacca Aceh
to

to
,

magazine investigative report

on

Indonesian the Aceh Merdeka movement the

,
's

group largely armed with Chinese made replicas Soviet weapons and
of
is

-
42

M16 A1s These are believed have come from two sources the Indonesian
to

:
-

military and smugglers moving weapons from Indochina Informed sources

.
as
its

identify Penang with large Acehnese population important transit

an
,

point the process According officials based Aceh weapons are trans
to
in

in

,
.

ported across the Straits small boats often being retransferred

of

Malacca
in

,
at

again sea before reaching their final destinations Sumatra places like
in

in
,

Padang Tanjung
of
43

Lhokseumawe Balai and Peureulak The size the boats

,

sea by Malaysian
or
at

used makes interdiction Indonesian naval and marine

forces extremely difficult
.

illegal weapons are smuggled

of

addition Cambodia large numbers

to
In

,
the

out Philippines various purchasers major problem controlling

of

to

is
A
.

illegal production the country particularly Danao City and

of

the south
in

in
,

at

Mandaue City Cebu where there are more than 3000 gunsmiths
44

work
in

.
are

addition Danao two major licensed arms makers there many illegal
or In

to

,
's

quasi egal producers manufacturing paltik homemade weapons While

or

.
'

'
-l
Small Arms in SE Asia

many paltik weapons are literally hand -made — often crafted from pipes , steel
bars, even old car parts — there is growing evidence that some producers are
now making high quality , made- to -order military - style small arms as well .45
Buyers for Filipino weapons include local crime organisations and rebels , as
well as Taiwanese and Japanese crime syndicates . 46 In what is a highly organ
ised process , agents collect finished products from a variety of small producers
and consolidate the weapons on pre- designated bodegas for shipment to Japan .
Important exit points include Batangas , Ilocos Sur and other northern parts of the
country . In the southern Philippines , gunrunners are especially active in Agusan ,
Misamis , Surigao, Sulu , Basilan , Tawitwai and Zamboanga provinces .48
There are also reports that Filipino weapons have been smuggled to Mus
lim

forcesthe Malukus January 2000 the Indonesian newspaper Suara

In
in

,
.
helicopter had airlifted shipment weapons

of
Merdeka reported claims that
a

a
the Philippines Ambon with the tacit approval

of
from Davao island the

to
in

TNI No evidence was provided support this allegation which was strongly
to

,
.

by

the Indonesian military Perhaps more representative

49
denied the scale

of
.

was the Indonesian Navy

of

smuggling interception what was de

of
the

's
traditional vessel from the Philippines January 2001 The
as

scribed

in
a
'

.
vessel was apparently destined for the Malukus carrying six guns and 454
bullets The guns were World War vintage
50
II
.

Extra egional suppliers

-r

Extra regional suppliers provided most the weapons used

, of

conflicts

in

in
-

Southeast Asia during the Cold War China Thailand and Singapore and the
.
all

or

US supplied
plied trans shipped weapons the opposition factions fighting
to
or

also
-
((

transs
US also funded and supplied anti government forces
and

Cambodia and the

in

in
,

funded
-

likewise provided huge quantities

hue
Laos until the mid 1980s The Soviet Union supkewise
its -

provided
cheap arms regional allies Vietnam and Phnom Penh while
of

While these
to

in

these
.

geopolitical rationales largely disappeared with the end the Cold War
of

at
,
least one set international ideological linkages remains important today
of

:
Islamic fundamentalism
.

the past there have been persistent reports connecting groups

In

Iran
,
in

Lebanon Pakistan Sudan and Libya Islamic insurgent groups the South
to

in
,

ern Philippines and Aceh the Abu Sayyaf and the Aceh Merdeka
of
51

Members
.

movements who were trained Libya and Tripoli reportedly facilitated the
in
,

the MILF
of

transfer large numbers Pakistani made HK33s and MP5s

of

to

in
-

the southern Philippines More recently the Saudi terrorist Osama Bin Laden
52

,
.

has also been linked Filipino rebels including the MILF and Abu Sayyaf
to

Bin Laden brother law Mohammed Jamal Kalifa lived the country for
in

in
,

,
's

-
-

several years and was active establishing welfare organisations which are
in

alleged have transferred funds radical groups According former

to

to

to
a
.

member Abu Sayyaf the International Islamic Relief Organisation IIRO

of

is
,

)
 Illicit Arms Transfers 23

one important conduit for channeling funds from Bin Laden to Abu Sayyaf . A
Philippines government intelligence report stated that the IIRO is ' utilised by

the
for
foreign extremists as a pipeline through which funding local extremists

sic
are being coursed through

53
)'
.
(
While Libya North Korea Sudan and Iran are also frequently

as
states such

,
state sponsored terrorism

to re
mentioned discussions other actors

of
the

in

in
,
-
gion have also been involved politically motivated transfers weapons

of
in

-
insurgents and non state actors fighting within Southeast Asia While sending

.
arms rebels neighbouring states has declined since the Cold War has
to

it
in

,
not disappeared entirely The Thai and Myanmar governments have traded

.
accusations that the other involved actively supporting various rebel fac

in
is
tions along their border Thailand has even admitted that supporting sabo

is
it
.
tage operations against the United Wa State Army inside Burmese territory

.
Malaysia continues tacitly permitting the shipment
be

of
arms

of
accused
to

in to
Aceh and the southern Philippines

of
54
The extent official involvement

.
those cases difficult gauge but one recent example involving extra
to
is

in
,
regional transfers the motivations and risks associated with grey market arms
,

shipments are clearly illustrated

.

Grey market transfers

February and May 1998 India armed forces and coast guard carried out
In

's

two operations against gun running activities off the Andaman and Nicobar
islands Operations Leech and Poorab were ostensibly aimed against Thai

,
.

'

'

'

Cambodian and Burmese arms smugglers believed shipping weapons be

to

to
Sri

insurgents Myanmar The joint operation

55
Northeast India Lanka and
in

was major success with the interception several boatloads arms gun
of

of
,

A
a

.
six

Landfall Island during the February operation left smugglers dead

on

battle

,
by
large quantity small arms and lightweapons seized
of
74

arrested and the

In a

Indian Navy late May navy and coast guard vessels intercepted another
,
.

two trawlers off Port Blair the Burma Bangladesh border Upon
en

route
to

.
sighting the ships the trawlers were scuttled and their Thai crews jumped
,
as

overboard As well arms ammunition and explosives the boats were carry
,

,
.

kilograms
56

Burma
of

ing
50

heroin from
.
be

What appeared very successful anti smuggling operation soon be

to

gan get more complicated however when Indian Defence Secretary Ajit
to

Kumar issued instructions the military exercise the utmost restraint

to

in to

in
'

pursuing combined operations

57

the area the future Kumar told the three

in

service chiefs that they received any military intelligence about arms traffick
if

ing through the Andaman Sea Cox Bazaar Bangladesh they should take
to

in

,
's

precipitate action without least first getting government permission

no

at

.
'

'

The instructions provoked outrage from the chiefs and were ultimately with
controversy quite different picture
of

drawn but the that followed the

in
,

,
a

smuggling operations began emerge

to

.
24 Small Arms in SE Asia

During an investigation by the Central Bureau of Intelligence (CBI) it be

came apparent that the weapons seized by the navy were actually purchased
in Cambodia with the connivance of India ' s external security service , the Re
search and Analysis Wing (RAW ) . They were part of a series of shipments ,
some of which had previously come through the Thai port of Ranong to be
landed on Wyakaung Beach between Cox ' s Bazaar in Bangladesh and Bur
ma' s Arakan province . The weapons were destined

for
Burmese rebels Arakan

in
They were part

of
and Chin Province secret Indian operation support the

to
a
.
attempt offset growing Chinese influence the military regime
an

on
rebels
in

to
Yangon cold display realpolitik the arms transfers were fact part

of

of
In
in

in
,
a
.

dual track approach which India was also offering assault rifles elec
in

,
a

tronic warfare equipment radar and communications technology the Bur

to
,
mese government
.58

go
Intelligence officials said some the intercepted arms were intended

of

to
groups preventing the transfer weapons

of
rebel whose help they wanted
to to

in
Indian insurgent groups like the National Socialist Council Nagaland

of
the
NSCN the United Liberation Front of Asom ULFA and People Libera
),
(

's
Army Manipur PLA
of

of
tion But news the transfers infuriated the Indian
).
(

army which argued that large proportion these very weapons were find
of
,

ing their way back across the border the very separatist groups they were
to

fighting selling surplus weapons

59

The Burmese rebels were believed be

to

to
:

the Indian secessionists

.

challenge for weak states

A

for

Adding the problems demand small arms and plentiful supply

to

of
a

the fact that many ASEAN members are weak states They lack the capacity
is

perform many
of

the most basic tasks necessary secure their borders and

to

to

prevent illicit arms transfers Thanks the vagaries post colonial boundary
of
to

-
.

setting the political geography challenge

of

Southeast Asia would make this

,

for even the best resourced governments The financially strapped Indonesian
.

government for example responsible for policing close

17

000 islands
to
is
,

area equal the equator Burma and Thai

km an

that stretch across one sixth

of
to

.
-

long border much which thick jungle isolated from

of

land share
is

500
or ,

,
2
a

major towns roads The frontiers between Burma Thailand Cambodia and
,

,
.

Laos are often poorly marked and some cases formal border demarcation
is
in

still taking place The border region between Indonesian Irian Jaya West Papua
.

in )

and Papua New Guinea the least accessible territory anywhere

of

some
is

the world
.

the

Likewise maritime borders between East Malaysia the Philippines and

,

Indonesia are also unclear and some senses highly artificial These geo
in

graphic factors are complicated by people who have traditionally lived and
off
on

of

of

worked both sides the border For example fishermen the coast
,
.

go

Sabah frequently armed protect themselves against pirates come and

to

,
 Illicit Arms Transfers 25

between Malaysia and the Philippines with little regard for immigration for
malities . Even where there are clearer maritime boundaries , for a state like
Thailand to police the 10, 000 fishing vessels that work waters each year

its

is
difficult say the least

to

.
Refugees and illegal immigrants further complicate matters There are

in
.
250 000 illegal Filipino immigrants living
of
excess Sabah and the Thai

in
,
refugee camps for people who have

of
Burma border also has large number

a
fled the conflict inside Myanmar

of
Likewise there sizeable number Lao

is
, ,

a
. .
refugees northeastern Thailand For many trip across the Mekong Laos

In to
in

a
regular occurrence not something that requires official sanction
is

such

are ,
a

.
conditions refugees often able move back and forth between states

to

in
,

,
some cases moving arms supplies with them

or

.
Weak states also lack strong institutions and the lack professionalism

of
,
among some regional customs military and law enforcement personnel an

is
of ,
other important component the regional trade illicit small arms Some

in

.
states simply have idea about how many arms are legally held
no

their

in
records are kept

all
they are often incomplete

or
at
national inventories out
If

,
.

the actual weapons stored

no
of

date and bear resemblance armouries and

to

in
depots Police and military personnel find easy sign weapons out and

to

,
or it
.

often take them home for personal protection use Once outside the armoury

,
.
the possibility theft loss the illegal sale the weapon becomes much
or
of

of
,

of
greater Low wages also help fuel corruption and facilitate the movement
.

arms especially Cambodia but most ASEAN states there are

so

This
in

in
is

,
.

clear instances where military and police officials have been implicated the

in
or

weapons
of

theft sale
.

are
law

Even where enforcement and security personnel committed seiz

to
ing smuggled arms and supported by their governments they are often under
,
of

equipped meet the challenge The sheer size Indonesian territorial waters
to

comparatively small navy and marine corps can never hope or

its

means
ganise more than selective blockades around areas conflict The dispatch to
of

of of
.

marines and naval units stop the flow

in
to

to

4000 Aceh 2000 did little

weapons into the province 2001 financial constraints forced the scaling
In

,
.

exercise by the Indonesian navy

of

Eastern Fleet designed

an

back interdict
to
's

weapons smuggling Ambon and Irian Jaya

60
to

Conclusion
by

The above analysis suggests that the challenge posed illicit small arms
extraordinarily complex
of

Southeast Asia First the sources illicit arms

is
in

,
.
of

are diverse both terms states and sources within states Cambodia one
in

is
,

.
of

the biggest suppliers insurgent groups and terrorists but

of

small arms
to

,
as

large quantities also move from China Vietnam and Myanmar well
as

states
,

outside the region Singapore and Thailand are important transit points the
in
.

brokering and movement

of

small arms
.
26 Small Arms in SE Asia

The most important single source within states is leakage : from individual
soldiers , state arsenals and military holdings. The scale of leakage differs
around the region , but it occurs in some form in almost every ASEAN state .
Illegal production and the diversion of legal transfers are other sources , al
though generally speaking , an analysis of illicit trafficking in ASEAN seems to
confirm Krause ' s argument that most weapons involved in these transfers are
recycled rather than new .

Second , while
the arms themselves are also varied , a core group of weapons
involved in illegal transfers can be identified . These reflect both the demands
of insurgent groups and criminals , as well as the most commonly available
arms . The most common items are rifles , particularly variants of the Soviet
AK47 assault rifle like the Chinese Type 56 . American M16s and AR15s are
also ubiquitous , along with older Soviet weapons like the SKS , and World War
era

II American Mls and carbines and M14 automatics Light machine guns
,

.
are
and grenade launchers like the American M203 and M79 also common

.
Perhaps the least well understood area

of
the illicit arms trade Southeast

in
Asia concerns transfers ammunition Unlike simple small arms reliable
of

,
.
military ammunition cannot be easily made by non state actors Mass produc

.
primitive factories but requires raw materials sophisti
be

tion cannot done

in

,
cated industrial equipment and particular environmental conditions Fight

.
ing forces need large quantities ammunition and while leakage represents
of

all
seems unlikely that theft and small scale sales meet

of
one obvious source
it
,

the demand Presumably therefore some states and private producers are mak
.

ing large quantities ammunition that are passing directly into unauthorised
of

hands although quite how this occurs not clear does however present
It
is
,

,
.

one possible avenue for international control matter that will be discussed

in
,
a

the final chapter

.

wide variety the buying selling brokering

of

Third actors involved

is
,

in

,
a

and transportation illegal small arms They range from small time operators
of

who buy and sell just few weapons professional arms dealers and brokers
to
,

,
a

corrupt police security and military personnel well the intelligence

as

as
to

agencies who mastermind grey market transfers non state actors Consum
to
'

illicit small arms likewise range from individual criminals crime syn
of

ers
to
,

dicates private armies and assorted terrorist and insurgent groups The
to
,

motivations behind these transfers are equally complex They include finan
.

cial gain and political objectives but there

no

simple way
to

often distin
,

is

guish between them

.

for by

Finally the methods and routes used smugglers while patterned often
,

involve territory that extremely difficult secure This problem

is
of to

states
is

a
.
by

the part
on
of

exacerbated lack most ASEAN

state capacity members
a

.
's
for

also highlights the need broad and substantive regional cooperation the
if
It

challenge presented by illicit small arms transfers be met

to
is

.
 ASEAN Country Studies

Brunei -Darussalam

Interviews with officials from the Brunei Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Feb
does not produce

its
ruary 2001 confirmed that Brunei -Darussalam own small
or

its
arms ammunition Brunei defence needs are instead met through close

's
.'
relationship with the United Kingdom and other external suppliers Accord

.
ing figures released part the US State Department program trans

as

of

of
to

's
parency arms shipments between 1990 and 1999 the US exported 2082
on

,
as
military rifles well

as
unspecified machine guns

30
Brunei
to

.?
armed forces are equipped with widely used military

; of
Brunei number

a
. 's

FN
small arms These include the Belgian 9mm pistol 62mm Heckler and

35

7
:

.
Koch G3 and the 56mm M16A1 assault rifles 9mm Sterling and 56mm Colt

;
5

5
.

.
XM177 sub machine guns heavy barrelled M16A1 light machine gun
;

;
a
FN -

heavy machine guns and US M203 40mm -

HK21A1 MAG and SIG 710
,

;
-3

its
grenade launchers

be

of
The M16A1 rifle considered near the end life

to
is
.

span and seems likely the Royal Brunei Armed Forces will seek upgrade

its
to
it

infantry weapons some stage the future

at

in

ammunition produc

or
While Brunei does not have any kind small arms
of

small arms and light weapons

of

tion capability has financed the movement

it
,

the past decade Most notably was widely reported that the Sultanate
in

it
,
.

of
helped bankroll the purchase and delivery several shipments
of

small arms
Bosnian Muslim forces during the civil war the former Yugoslavia Bru
to

in

.
nei funds long with those from Saudi Arabia Pakistan Iran Sudan Malay
,

,
's

(a

and Turkey were handled through the Austrian bank accounts

sia

group
of
,

a
)

the Third World Relief Agency the earliest reported transfers

of

called One
.

involved 120 tons assault rifles ammunition and mortars shipped from
of

Sudan Bosnia via Slovenia Iran and Turkey were apparently the
to

1993
in

.5

transit points another deal which reportedly also had support and assist
in

ance from the Malaysian government and tacit approval from the United States
.6

Cambodia

military
small arms continue
of

vast number circulate Cambodia

to

in
A

.
by

Most are left over from war and were originally supplied
the civil wide
a
of

range the civil war Cambodia has gone from

of

countries Since the end

.

of

being net recipient the biggest supplier surplus small arms

of

arms the
to

to
a

region Cambodian arms have been smuggled Thailand Indonesia Burma

to

,
, .

India Indonesia the Philippines Sri Lanka and other states Despite export
,

ing many these weapons gun violence and crime remains major problem
of

Cambodian society
in

.
28 Small Arms in SE Asia

History

During the Cold War vast numbers of small arms from the United States ,
China, Cuba , France, Thailand , Singapore , Viet
the former Czechoslovakia ,
nam and the Soviet Union poured into Cambodia . It is impossible to quantify
just how many weapons were transferred to the various military factions ( in
cluding the Khmer Rouge ) but statistics compiled by the United Nations Tran
sitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC ) in 1993 estimated that the opposi
tion factions alone possessed 320 ,443 light weapons and 80 . 7 million rounds
of ammunition . According to a report by one Cambodian NGO , even that
number was too low , as it represented fewer than one weapon per opposition
soldier .8 A 1994 government survey estimated that there were 900 ,000 unreg
istered guns in the hands of the population . Another survey of 15 ,000 Phnom
Penh homes in December 1998 found two out of three admitting to owning a

all
weapon . 10 Analysts Penh admit that
in Phnom these numbers are largely
educated guesses but the general consensus
that today there are somewhere

is
,

between 500 000 and one million military small arms circulating Cambodia

in
,

."
are
Notsurprisingly weapons and ammunition generally cheap and easy
,

although prices and availability vary between different parts

of
obtain the
to

country 1998 study weapons control issues carried out

on

seven Cambo

in
A
.

dian provinces concluded that military weapons were available almost every
where the country only organised weapons market the Tuk Thla market
In

,
's
.

40
Phnom Penh AK47s and M16 assault rifles sold for between and 120
in

,
$

an $
handguns for 200 350 Hand grenades oft
59

12

54s for 180 300

,
K

K
$

-$

. $
-

5 -

-
.
for

used weapon went just When one researcher working

13

Cambodia
in

$
–
for

the local NGO Working Group for Weapons Reduction WGWR approached
(

was told everything lighter than )

he

the market 1998 tank was available

in

a
'

'

for purchase According WGWR Tuk Thla was actually one the more
of
14

to
.

the country buy weapons

or an
expensive places
.15

Elsewhere Cambodia
. as to
in

in

,
as

AK47 could be had for little and some cases bartered for food
in
$
5

small consumer goods like radios

16

B40 rocket launchers with rockets sold

4
(

)
as

as

32

for little
$

Production

Given the fact that the country already awash with guns and ammuni
is

appear need for the Cambodian government

be

be
no

tion there would

to

to
,

involved any weapons production Despite this there have been reports
in

,
.

that Cambodia has limited small arms production capability Forecast Inter
a

national Ordnance and Munitions Forecast claims there state arms factory
it is
a
's

Strung Chral outside Phnom Penh and that was established with
at

located
,

assistance from what was then Czechoslovakia says the factory produces
It
.

9mm pistols and ammunition although the current manufacturing effort

in is
,

'

very low and solely meet domestic demand Extensive interviews

17
to

.'
 ASEAN Country Studies 29

Cambodia in February 2001 cast doubt on this claim . Senior Cambodian mili
tary officers and Interior Ministry officials categorically deny that the Kingdom
of Cambodia produces either small arms or ammunition . 18 They claim there is

for
no military requirement additional weapons and point out that the military
still has large stockpiles should need them appears that the factory re

It
it

.
during the 1980s but

no
ferred may have been operation longer exists
to

in

.
Likewise there were reports that Cambodia had entered into agreement

an
,

the
for
pro

for
of
with North Korea March 1994 the construction factory

in

a
repair tanks and small arms According
of

19
duction ammunition and

to

to
.
Jane World Armies this agreement was subsequently canceled avoid caus

to
,
's

ing offence Western military aid donors

20
to

.
One recent development however suggests Cambodia might implicated

be
,

,
the production weapons the future albeit indirectly According
of

an to
in

in

up
informed sources Chinese enterprise called Flour Company has set
,
a

operation Strung Treng province near the Cambodia Lao border growing
in

,
. -
Mai Sek trees which will produce rifle butts The company was
be

21
used
granted 7000 hectares purpose to
enterprise designed
for of

land for the and the

to
is
,
up

provide employment 800 families Land has been cleared for plant
to

.
produc

or
ing but there has not yet been any harvesting trees processing

of
,

,
tion The final destination for the butts presumed be China via Laos and

to
is
.

)
although the road covering the currently poor
10

the Lao border

to

is is
15km

in
-

repair the company apparently has plans possible that the

to

rebuild

It
,

it
.
agreement was arranged the provincial level perhaps without the knowl
at

edge
of

officials Phnom Penh

in

Military inventory
no

With domestic manufacturing capacity the Royal Cambodian Armed

,

weapons acquired
of

Forces RCAF relies exclusively the large number

on
(

variety sources during the civil war Current RCAF stocks include
of

from
of a

a
.

Soviet Chinese American and European arms some

of

mix which came

,

FN
from licensed producers Southeast Asia The inventory includes 9mm
in

and 62mm Tokarev pistols 9mm submachine guns

23
35

25
vz

and 56mm
;

;
, 7

5
.

.
/
FN

M16A1 FAL AK47 Type AKM and SVS assault rifles and
56

62mm
,

;
7
.

62mm M60 RPD and Type

59

do

machine guns While sources not list close

,
7
.

support weapons these are likely include some American M203 and M79
to
,

of

grenade launchers
22

Cambodia has obtained ammunition from number

a
.

sources including states Eastern Europe the late 1990s the Ukraine
In
in
,

supplied Cambodia with million 62mm cartridges produced

10

the
in
7
.

Luhans machine building plant The factory past production has been
23
’k

- -

's

geared towards sub machine gun and pistol ammunition

.

Domestic weapons problems

April 1999 the Cambodian Ministry the Interior passed sub decree
of
30

On
-

which made the possession of military arms illegal for civilians The
38
,

.
30 Small Arms in SE Asia

legislation was followed by a crackdown , particularly

in and around Phnom
Penh , where

for
roadblocks were used to stop and search people weapons

.
Cash rewards were also used for anyone turning guns explosives com

or

to
in

or
mune col

.24
district authorities Since then authorities have confiscated
or

,
lected 107 869 small arms including 000 pieces collected from the defence

15
,

,
(
Of these 505 have been broken down and destroyed Euro
25

36

26
forces

A
).

.
pean Union sponsored program Curbing Small Arms and Light

on
Assistance

,
-
Weapons ASAC has also destroyed several hundred weap

EU
Cambodia
in

),
(
-
public burning ceremonies and has plans destroy more surplus arms

27
ons

to
in

.
According press reports most weapons

, of
the destroyed these confisca
to

in
, ,
programs were AK47s AR 15s M16s SKS rifles carbines and SKs

28
tion

A
-

.
79
of

large number grenades ,

M shells B40 rockets and 60mm mortar ammu

,
-
29
nition have also been collected
.
ASAC running two pilot projects aimed collecting
EU

at
addition
is
In

,
-

weapons from civilians Bakan district Pursat province and Snuol dis
in

in

in
are
Kracheh province weapons for development

on
trict These based
in

a
'
.

formula which weapons are handed exchange for specific development

in

in
,

a
initiative such the building school medical facilities The

or
as

of

road
,
a

.
EU
by

projects are supported the Cambodian government ASAC and theUnited

,
-
aid
by
as

as

as
Ja
Nations World Food Program well bilateral donors such
,
'

pan and Germany

30

the Netherlands
,

Although the confiscation weapons positive step towards reducing

of

is
a

all

the surplus and illegal

of

the level armament Cambodian society not

,
in

weapons collected have been destroyed Many remain storage awaiting de

in
.

the RCAF EU
of

struction and some have been for the future use

earmarked

.
ASAC has documented the poor quality
storage facilities for the thousands
of

confiscated weapons housed throughout the country According Briga

of

to
.
EU

dier General Henny van der Graf the ASAC project manager great num
,

,
'
-

weapons and ammunition are stored

of

bers wooden sheds and barracks

in
(
)

by

without any registration and safety regulations Some have been stored the
. .
up

army others are piled inside police stations very easy for criminals
on to
It
is
,

access these weapons and explosives bring large quantities

of

and these
to

the black market without any chance that the theft will be noticed
31
to

.'

not simply limited weapons held national holdings

or

The problem
to
is

on in
of

storage some parts the country soldiers serving active duty also keep
In

,
.

their weapons insecure conditions One writer described coming across

in

a
.
at

Phumi Kampong sol

on

scene Sralau the Cambodian Lao border where

,

a
-

dier was sitting small border shack with no fewer than nine assault rifles
in
an a

up

ight AK47s and M16 propped The owners the weapons

of

corner
in
a
, )

.
(e

presumed
be

were nowhere be seen but were barracks located some

to

to

in

,
a

distance away across

32

river
a

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 31

Not surprisingly , leakage remains an enormous problem in Cambodia . One

of the biggest reasons is endemic corruption among security and law enforce
ment officials . Several sources in Phnom Penh claimed that off-duty members
of the police and gendarmerie are behind many of the robberies that take place . 33
Fear of the police and the military also provides people with a reason to retain
weapons. 34 Corruption has also directly impeded the collection process . Some
sources suggested the police simply return or sell confiscated weapons to crimi
nals , as they want to protect the illegal enterprises from which they make extra
income. Even the government admits that corrupt elements in the armed forces
and police are directly supplying weapons to criminal gangs and arms deal
ers . 35 As an average Cambodian police officer earns only $ 10 - 15 a month , it is

not surprising that corruption is rife .

Despite the passing of sub - decree 38 and the confiscation of some 100 ,000
weapons , small arms continue to circulate and cause serious social problems
throughout the country . In December 2000 the government published an an
nouncement noting that ' a majority ' of civilian ministries and institutions had
not observed sub - decree 38 and called on them to surrender their arms and
explosives . 36 A cursory flick through The the Phnom Penh Post 's ‘Police
Blotter '
large number

, of
section in any given week also reveals crimes committed
with military style weapons one week February 2001 the Post reported
In

in
-

three attacks the capital carried out with handguns three shootings 59
in

,
K
-

handgun another with unidenti

54

an
with AK47 assault rifles one with
,

,
K
a

fied handgun grenade attack that resulted from drunken quarrel and the
,

,
a

four people when the H107 artillery shell they were hammering ex
. of

death
ploded One report claims that Phnom Penh armed robbery rate four
37

is
's

times higher than that Bangkok and has the highest number armed rob
of

of
,
38

beries and murders Southeast Asia Another estimate that three Cambo
is
in

dians die military weapons every day

of

violent death the hands

39
at
a

.
The question weapons circulating within Cambodia caused fresh head
of

lines November 2000 when large group anti government rebels attacked
of
in

-
70
40

60

state offices Phnom Penh Between and men armed with AK47s B40
in

,
.

RPGs and hand grenades

arrived 30am local time
at

at

the city train station

1
's

.
of

and attacked the Ministry Defence and Cabinet buildings Fifteen kilometres
.
of

military
on

west the city another group launched simultaneous attack

a

barracks Both groups were repelled after lengthy gun battles with security
.

forces during which seven rebels were killed and eleven police and soldiers
wounded Government spokesmen accused group called the Cambodian
a
.

Freedom Fighters CFF also known being behind the

as

of

the Free Khmer

(

)
(

attack citizen Richard Kiri Kim

An American was arrested and charged with
,

,
.

planning Opposition leader Sam Rainsy accused the govern

41

the violence
.

being the real force behind the attack saying they had orchestrated the
of

ment
,

divert attention from the country economic and political problems

to

attack
.
's

Diplomats Phnom Penh dismiss this claim and generally support the
in

,
32 Small Arms in SE Asia

government 's interpretation of events . According to one ASEAN diplomat , Cam

bodian groups based in California provided the funding for the weapons and
manpower .42
The criminalisation of weaponspossession since April 1999 has had some
effect on the circulation of weapons . Armed people are no longer seen on the
streets of Phnom Penh and local residents say there are fewer weapons in
private homes .43 The Tuk Thla market which used to openly display military
hardware , now only openly sells uniforms and equipment . A complete range
of military products is still available , but would - be buyers need to discretely
contact vendors who take them to warehouses where weapons are available
for inspection and purchase . According to various sources in Phnom Penh ,
corrupt Cambodian military personnel are still the largest suppliers of illegal
weapons , and most of the guns sold through Tuk Thla come from military
warehouses . 44
The extent to which there has been any change in Cambodia ' s culture of
violence remains debatable . Some local people and government officials claim
that possession of weapons is increasingly stigmatised and looked down upon .
According to WGWR , however , weapons remain a potent symbol of prestige
and power in Cambodian society . Says Neb Sinthay , 'people continue to use
weapons as the first solution to solve their problems . This is true even for
minor disputes , which often turn deadly ' . 45 The extent to which a military
culture has infused itself into everyday life is reflected in the fact that guest
houses in Phnom Penh run tours in which backpackers can fire off a clip of
ammunition from an AK47 for about $ 10 . 46 Press reports even refer to ranges
where visitors can throw hand grenades or fire a B40 rocket — for a price .47
Another measure of the ongoing power of the gun is that senior government
officials continue to have heavily armed body guards and their family mem
bers also frequently carry personal weapons. In March 2001, the daughter of
Interior Ministry Secretary of State Em Sam An was caught with a handgun in
her bag at Singapore ' s Changi airport . She was detained and the weapon was
confiscated . She was eventually released after being given a life ban on travel
for

as
he
Em

to the city state . The incident was particularly embarrassing

An

Sam
the deputy president the Cambodian government gun control committee
of

48
is

's

Transfers

the civil war Cambodia has gone from being major im

of

Since the end

,

a
of

porter weapons being the largest supplier

of

used small arms various

to

to

insurgent and terrorist forces the Southeast Asia Whereas Thailand was
in

previously vital link the supply weapons the Khmer Rouge and other
of

to
in
a

opposition factions Thai criminals and corrupt officials now play key role
in
,

moving arms out transporting

of

of

Cambodia and zones conflict

to

them
in
by

Southeast Asia and beyond These transfers are not sanctioned officially the
.

Cambodian government but high level government officials politicians and

,

military personnel have been implicated black market sales

in

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 33

An outline of the trade can be gleaned from consignments of weapons inter

cepted by regional law enforcement officials , although as with narcotics , sei

the
zures probably represent just reports dur

tip
According

of
the iceberg

to

,
.
ing the 1990s the arms trade out Cambodia involved both small scale pur

of

of -
chases and large commercial sized shipments the first kind transfer

In

,
-

.
arms dealers from Thailand often acting their own would buy small num

on
,

,
bers arms from Khmer Rouge RCAF troops the Thai Cambodian border

or

at
of

.
These were then sold criminal gangs Bangkok Burmese rebels were

or
to to

in

,
gangs Hong Kong
re

or
exported

of
49
sometimes Taiwan With the end the

in
-

.
the Khmer Rouge these transfers appear

of
civil war and the collapse

to
have

,
declined
.

of
The second and more lucrative kind transaction involves large transfers

of
conventional arms from Cambodia While some
of

these came from Khmer

of .

as
Rouge stocks during the early part the 1990s today they are generally

,
sumed come from RCAF arms depots and warehouses The smuggling oc
to

.
curs with the tacit permission and often active participation

of
Cambodian and
Thai military personnel and politicians and the arms include everything from

by
air

Consignments are often purchased

50
assault rifles missiles
to

surface
to

-
-

insurgent groups using brokers front companies based

or

Thailand and

in
Phnom Penh For example the Tamil Tigers have used front companies like
,
.

restaurants and vehicle epair shops Other groups base

51
Phnom Penh
in

.
-r

themselves just across the border

52

Thailand
in

According senior Thai military officer per cent the weapons smug
of
of 80
to
a

by

Many these weapons leave

via
gled out
53

Cambodia move south

of

sea
.

ern ports such Kompong Som there they move along

as

Sihanoukville From
(

).

Rayong and Pattaya the Gulf

of

the coastline Thailand Once Thailand

of ( in
to

to in

.
by

weapons are then hipped groups like the Tamil Tigers LTTE and
re

sea

)
-s

Burmese opposition forces Much

54

the Arakan and Chin states the traffic

in

the LTTE directed from islands near Phuket and Cox Bazaar Bangla
to

is

in
,

's

transit point During May 1999 visit the Sri

as

55

desh often mentioned

is

,
a

a
.

Lankan foreign minister Lakshamn Kadirgamar raised the issue

of

transfers
,

the LTTE with

Cambodian authorities The government apparently prom
to

Sri Lanka that prevent black market sales

56

ised would take action

to
by it

A
.
sea

second major route through southern Thailand and across the Straits
is

more detail
of

Malacca These routes are discussed the Thailand

to

Aceh
in

in
.

and Indonesia country studies

.
As

sea
by

well moving Cambodian weapons have also been supplied

as

as

over land through Thailand Burmese rebels such the Karen National
to

Union KNU and Shan State Army SSA According one account the routes
to

,
(

'
).

for transporting arms from the Thai Cambodian border the Burmese minor
to
-
ity

forces stayed fairly constant from the 1980s onwards Weapons that
57
.”
of

crossed the border the lower northeast Thailand Ubon Ratchathani

in

,
(

Sisaket Surin and Burinam were stored Korat and then forwarded the
to
in
,

)
34 Small Arms in SE Asia

Karen , Mon and Mong Thai Army rebels . 58 Supplies delivered through eastern
provinces of Aranyaprathet , Prachinburi , Trat and Chanthaburi were moved
through Chonburi and Bangkok . 59 Larger shipments sometimes went by boat
to Prachaub Khiri Khan and then overland to Karen rebels in Amphur Saiyok ,

Kanchanaburi , or to Mon forces across the border from Sangkhla district .60

In and middle of the 1990s , Sa Kaew district seems to have played

the early
a central . In 1994 , Thai border policemen apprehended
role in this smuggling
two Thais dressed in military uniforms driving a truck loaded with arms. They
admitted that Cambodian soldiers in Sa Kaew had provided and loaded the
arms and said they were taking the weapons from the Cambodian border to the
northeast of Thailand en route to Burma . In 1995 Thai police arrested two
soldiers and a civilian transporting 'war weapons' in Mae Hong Son , on the
Burma border . They said the arms had come from Ka Saew and admitted that
they had made the trip several times before .61 It is also believed that SA -7 sur
face - to -air missiles obtained by the former Burmese drug baron Khun '
Sa s Mong
Tai Army (MTA ) came from Sa Kaew .

Indonesia
Indonesia 's small arms sector is dominated by a single government -owned
company , Pindad PT (Persero ). Pindad produces a range of small arms , light
weapons and ammunition , mostly for the Indonesian government , although
there have been some exports . Legal gun ownership is not common in Indone

can
or

anyone with money weapon

sia

and although practice influence get

in
,

,
a
gun not generally
violence problem the major cities There serious
is

in

is
a

a
.

problem with illegal small arms the country many conflict regions par

. ,
in

's

ticularly Aceh Maluku Timor and increasingly West Papua Irian Jaya
,

Military holdings

The Indonesian military has imported and produced significant number

a
At

of

weapons the past and holdings are diverse independ

its
of

the time
in

ence the country had wide variety infantry weapons including

of

7mm
,

7
a

Japanese 5mm Dutch the American M1 and British Lee Enfield rifles Dur
,

,
6

, -
.

816 M1 rifles
aid
as

ing the 1950s

69

the United States supplied

an

additional
,

along with M1
21

000 carbines further

rifles were transferred
000 commer
in
,

,
A

5
.

cial sales the early 1960s the Indonesian government decided adopt the
to
In
62 BM .

the M1 Garand the standard infantry

as
59

of

Beretta the Italian version

,

,
-

weapon shipment these weapons was purchased from

li
of

Beretta and
A
.

censed production later took place Other acquisitions included the Model
38

49
/
.
45

sub machine gun the Swedish Model Carl Gustav sub machine gun the French
,

,
-

SG540 rifle the Finnish the Kalashnikov AK47 Valmet M76

of

version the the

,

,
-

FN
vz
52

57

Heckler and Koch G3 the Czech and the Belgian

63

rifle FAL
,

,
.

.
/
 ASEAN Country Studies 35

In 1962 , American AR - 15 rifles were added to the mix and issued to Indone
sian commando units . Infantry forces still used the BM59 , but also increas
ingly armed themselves with Soviet AK47 and SKS rifles . Ammunition for the
AR - 15 was purchased from the United States through commercial channels .
The US State Department lists exports of cartridges up to 20mm for 1975 - 1980
as totaling 4,914 , 000 rounds . Other ammunition purchases were made from
Singapore and Europe prior to the development of an indigenous production
capacity (see below ). 64

During the 1970s, the Indonesian government decided to import the M16A1
(Model 613 ) as a replacement for the AR15 . Initial transfers were made as grant
aid under the US Military Assistance Program (MAP ) and an estimated 63,449
rifles were transferred to Indonesia in aid and through commercial sales . In
1990 , this already eclectic inventory was augmented with an unknown (but
probably small ) number of Steyr AUG assault rifles . Some of these may have
been provided by Australian Defence Industries . The AUGs continue in serv
ice today and were implicated in the shootings of students at Trisakti Univer
sity in 1998 that led to massive riots in Jakarta . 66 In 1997 there were also reports
of Indonesian interest in Russian small arms, but nothing appears to have
come of these contacts . 67

More recently , Indonesia has imported a number of Heckler and Koch weap
ons , including the MP5 sub -machine gun , a weapon popular among police
and special -forces units around the world . British Aerospace (which owns
its

H & K ) admitted that MP5s manufactured at factory Nottingham were

in
supplied Jakarta July 1998 the Turkish News Agency reported
to

1996
In
in

,
.

that MKEK the Turkish subsidiary Heckler and Koch had contracted
of

sell

to
,

400 000 worth sub machine guns the Indonesian police British docu
of

to
,

A
$

mentary also reported that MKEK had sold 500 MP5s Indonesia Septem
to

in
at

the height Arranging the sale

of

East Timor
68

ber 1999 the violence

in
,

through the Turkish subsidiary allowed circumvent British embargo

to
&
H

a
on

arms sales Indonesia

to

Domestic production

While many military small arms needs have historically been

of

Indonesia
's

of

met through imports well developed production capacity

its

now has
it
,

by

own The Indonesian small arms sector dominated single government

is

,
a
.

owned company Pindad The company origins date back

PT

the Dutch
to
, ,

's

by

colonial period when arms were produced first the weapons workshop
Artillerie Constructie Winkel AWC and later the Bandung based Artillerie
-
(

Inrichtingen AI AI
passed into Indonesian control with independence and
,
).
(

was renamed Pabrik Senjata dan Mesin Armament and Munition

an or

PSM
(

Factory
of

the name Pindad

69

on

abbreviation the term

it
In

1962 took
,
.
36 Small Arms in SE Asia

Persindusterisan TNI Angkatan Darat, or Army Industries . In the early 1980s

the passing of Presidential Decrees Nos . 59 / 1983 and 6 / 1984 saw Pindad
established as one of eight specific state - owned 'strategic industries ' and

its
PT

PT
name was changed Currently Pindad control

70
Pindad Persero

to

is
).
(
led under holding company called PT Bahana Pakarya Industri Strategis

a
Persero 71
).
(

Pindad business operations are grouped into two sections military and
's

:
commercial products These products are turn manufactured by four com

in
.
panies Bandung area about 125 kilometres south
all

which are based

of

the

in
of ,

,
east Jakarta The companies are weapons division mechanical division

,
, .

electric division and the forging and casting division Pindad small arms are

's
built by

.72
produced factory that was the German manufacturer Fritz Werner
in
a

The company Turen Malang

73
ammunition division based East Java

is

,
's

.
Current production

59
BM
the past Pindad has manufactured rifle and Model

12
the
In

-
submachine gun under licence from the Beretta company Italy

of

74
also

It
,

.
produced the Madsen Saetter machine gun under licence from the Danish firm
-

Today the company small arms production dominated by the

75

Madsen

is
,

's
.

FN
slightly modified version
SS

the Belgian FNC

of
assault rifle which
is
,
1

a
-

-
Fabrique Nationale Carabine made under licence from Fabrique Nationale

76
),

.
(

go

Pindad manufactures four versions which under the names SS1 V1 SS1

of
,

,
-
V2 SS1 V3 and SS1 V5 The V1 the standard weapon with retractable
is
,

,
.7

a
-

-
V2

as
butt stock The carbine and the V3 has the same barrel length the V1
is

,
a
.

except with polyamide short barrelled com

V5

solid butt assembly The

is
a

a
.

mando configuration that cannot take bayonet According

78

Pindad own
to
a

's
.

up
V2

and V3 offer selective firing

of

brochures the V1 760 RPM and are

to
,

telescopic sight and 400m without The

of

effective range with

to

600m
a

.
fire but effective only
of

150m without
V5

short barrelled has the same rate

to
is
,
-

telescopic sight 300m with

of
All use As
56

45mm ammunition late

5
a

x
).

.
of (

1999 production series was continuing but according industry

SS

the
to
,

,
79 1
-
at

reports reduced rate Pindad did not reply requests for additional
to
a
‘

'.

information about their current line products such production numbers

as
of

,
or

price The not known

to

exports exported
SS

have been
is
1
-
.

addition assault rifles Pindad also makes handguns produces

its
to
In

It
.

pistol and The pistol

be

special calibre revolver

38

own believed
to
is is

9mm
a

a
.

.
the

licensed copy Browning High Power semi automatic and produced solely
of

-
by
for

the

Indonesian military have been exported

80

use not known

to
is
It
.

Ammunition
an

its

Pindad produces extensive range

at

factory
of

ammunition Turen
, ,

including 9mm parabellum special parabellum

38

56mm 56mm tracer

,

,
5

5
.

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 37

.
5 56mm blank (M200) , 7.62mm , 7 .62mm tracer as well as ammunition for heavy
machine guns, hand grenades and mortar shells . According to the arms indus
try publication Forecast International, Pindad has in the past sustained annual
production runs of 5 , 000 , 000 rounds of 9mm parabellum , 5 ,000 ,000 rounds of
7 .62mm ammunition and 10,000 ,000 rounds of 5 .56mm ammunition . 81 In the
1980s Pindad ' s production apparently reached sufficient levels that it was
able to export small quantities of ammunition to other parts of Southeast Asia .
It is believed that at some point Pindad was supplying the Royal Thai Army. 82
These exports gradually expanded during the 1990s , although competition ,
particularly from Singapore , has hindered Pindad ' s efforts.83 Pindad ' s cur
rent production is not known , but it seems unlikely that it has be able to main
tain the levels of sales seen before the regional economic crisis .

Other small arms and light weapons

Pindad also produces mortar tubes , grenade launchers and associated

ammunition . Of particular note here is the CIS 40mm Automatic Grenade
Launcher , produced under licence from Chartered Industries of Singapore (now
part of the Singapore Technologies group ). Pindad also produces under li
cence the S411 40mm grenade for use with the system . 84 In terms of mortar
ammunition , it currently produces two 60mm mortar shells (designated as
GMO -6 PE A1 and A2) and an 80mm shell designated as GMO - 8 PE A1. All use
a PDM - 111 B1 fuse . In addition , Pindad markets a range of grenades . These
include a fragmentation grenade called a GT-5PE A2 , which can either be
thrown or fired from a rifle using a grenade launcher . When exploded the
grenade produces approximately 1050 fragments , which create casualtieswithin
a 15m radius . A practice variant (GT -5H A2 ) and a dummy (GT - D A2 ) version

of the grenade are also available . 85

Finally , the company also markets a range of crowd control and anti - riot
products , including a 5 .56mm rubber bullet called an MU - 5 DK , a riot control
grenade that dispenses colour dye (Type GT - W ), a canister cartridge contain
ing 12 pieces of rubber bullets (designated PK - 10 DK ) , a tear gas canister car
tridge (designated PG - 10 DK ) and a tear gas grenade designated GT -5 AR .

Commercial viability

No up - to - date figures are available on the value of Pindad ' s exports or

its

profitability The company has found compete the export mar

on

difficult
to
it
.

the
ket

for

regional
its

ammunition and economic crisis has also affected sales

An

the Indonesian government especially ominous development from the

to

AD

company point the Indonesian army TNI

of

of

view was the decision

to
-
's

purchases
of

halt Pindad 60mm and 81mm mortar bombs choosing instead

,
's

import them from China

86
to

.
38 Small Arms in SE Asia

Perhaps recognising these difficulties , Pindad is pressing the Indonesian

for
government to develop a new infantry weapon the TNI detailed survey

87
A
.
by
of Indonesian troops carried out the company suggests that the TNI exist

's
ing weapons are not ergonomically suitable Apparently most Indonesian

88

of ,
'

'.
do
not place their left hands the hand guard

on
soldiers their automatic
weapons while aiming Although standard procedure recommends this troops

,
.

the
usually place their hands closer the body between hand guard and the

to
magazine the front underneath the magazine between the magazine and

or
at
,

,
the trigger This exerts push and pull forces the magazine which over time

on

,
-

-
.

jamming especially during long rapid rec

of
can cause bursts fire Pindad
,

's
.
ommendation was that the Indonesian army should design new standard

a
by
infantry weapon presumably one

be

of
89
built Pindad Given the state the

to
,

.
national economy and other more pressing defence requirements seems

it
,

,
unlikely that designing and building new infantry weapons will

be
priority

a
the

for Indonesian government the near future more likely scenario that

is
in

A
.
any new weapons will be purchased from overseas One option China

is
.

.
According report Asia Pacific Defence Reporter recent soft loan arrange
to

in

,
a

a
-

ment with China will enable the TNI acquire the Chinese made mortar am
to

-
munition and other infantry weapons

90
the near future
in
‘

.
'

Domestic gun control

According interviews and research conducted under the auspices

of
the
to

Council for Security Cooperation the Asia Pacific CSCAP small arms do
in

)
of

not present major problem Indonesia terms everyday crime Guns are
in

in
a

, .
strictly controlled paper get appli
on

an
firearms licence
at

to

least order
In
,

a
.

shooting officially by
be

of

cant must member club that recognised the

is
a

government and he she must then apply the Chief Police for licence
or

of
to
,

a
for

hunting rifle weapon for sport the application approved then

or

If

is

,
a

a
.

at

weapon can be purchased but must kept police station

be

When the
it
,

weapon required for hunting the licensee must ask for permission take the
to
is

weapon out The police supply letter authorising the bearer have the
to
a
.

weapon for specific time and area After use the gun must be returned the
to
a

police
91

station
.

possible own weapon Indonesia for self defence pur

lawfully
It

to
is

in
a

by

poses but very licences are issued According figures gathered

to

few such
,

.
196

CSCAP there are only some licences for the personal protection
of

selected
,

government officials and private businesses These are typically issued only
.92

parliament directors important companies

of

or
as

of

VIPs such members

to

,
for

the very rich practice easy people with connections money get
93

or

to
is
In

it
.

gun impossible estimate how many people illegally own weapons

94

to
is
It
a

for theirown protection although this problem was highlighted September

in
,

2000 when former president Suharto daughter Mamiek was arrested for
,

,
's

possession illegal calibre handgun

of

22

.95
an

addition there are some 8067

In

,
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 39

licences issued for security guards and special police to own weapons and
6513 licences for sport and hunting . % In total, there are fewer than 15 ,000

200
people licensed to own weapons in a country with a population of million

.
The relative guns circulating domestic society especially within

of
lack

in

,
by

as

of
cities like Jakarta has been identified some officials one reason the riots

,
May Conversely

of
press reports

97
deaths number

so
1998 resulted few

in

in
,
a
.
1999 suggested that purchasing small arms Jakarta was relatively straight

in
forward and that weapons were even being sold up market cafes and bars

in

of .
Ethnic Chinese particular sought weapons for self defence after the riots
in

-
1998 Prices seem comparatively high however suggesting there not large

is
,

a
.

quantity weapons available One report priced pistol with

an
of

FN

45

a
'
-
.
at

98
dozen bullets 900
$
'

Indonesia also controls the importation

of
small arms ammunition and

by
To

related products import weapon company must be approved the

,
a

a
.

police According police sources very few companies are granted permis
to

,
.

Every gun imported must then have import permit Weapons that are

an
sion
.

.
by

imported public military weapons and must

be

as be
the cannot standard less
powerful than those issued the police armed forces For example the or
to

,
.
police use would only permissible import and own
be
38

32
revolver

to
it
,
a

a
.

.
calibre handgun
99
.

five private companies were charged with illegally importing hun

In

1999

firearms gas and electric shock weapons They had apparently mis
of

dreds
,

. ‘
import and sell the guns The
of

used licence from the chief the State Police

to
'a

companies allegedly involved the importation were Gawe Rapih PT PT

in

,
:

Darma Purnawira Lestari PT Perinitis Sarana Pancing PT Maju Purnama

,

Abadi and PT Batu Karnas Around the same time the Indonesian Directorate
,
.
of

Customs and Excise also announced had foiled smuggling operation

it

100

attempting import some pistols and firearms

38

265 assorted
to

Illegal transfers
do

While the Indonesian police insist that illegal small arms not represent
a
of

significant problem terms criminal activities places like Jakarta they

in

in

are without doubt serious concern Indonesia many zones conflict Of

, , .101 of
in
a

's

these four stand out Aceh Maluku West Papua and Timor While
is
,

it
:

beyond the scope this study discuss these conflicts detail the following
of

to

in

sections briefly summarise the reasons for the ongoing hostilities the weapons
use and how they reach the combatants
in

Aceh
•

of for
or

Gerakan Aceh Merdeka the Free Aceh Movement GAM fighting

is
(

now the province

of

the establishment separate Acehnese state what

in

is
a
tip

The group was founded

of

of
on

Aceh the northern the island Sumatra

in
.
40 Small Arms in SE Asia

102
1976 and is led by Hasan de Tiro , an Acehnese now exiled in Sweden . Some

the
group fighters received training Libya

of
where between 500 750 the

in

in
-

's
103
1980s

.
GAM rebels have been involved low level guerrilla war against Indo

in
a
's

-
nesian forces for more than years but the last few years their fortunes

20

in
,

by
have significantly improved Energised the collapse the Suharto regime

of
.
activists from Malaysia and with people increasingly embit

of
and the return
oppressive military presence GAM
by

total membership
an

tered across

's

as
several factions has increased from just few hundred fighters perhaps

to
a
)
104

many
as
15

000
,
.

Interviews news reports and pictures GAM forces suggest they are pre

of
,

as
dominantly equipped with variants the AK47 well M16s and some

as
of

,
105

be
World War vintage weapons the AKs seem Chinese made

of
Most
II

to

-
.
copies like the Type almost impossible accurately quantify the
56

to
is
It
,

number illegal weapons circulating conflict zone like Aceh but accord
of

in

,
a
the Indonesian maga

by
ing one tally advanced investigative report
an
to

in

zine FORUM Keadlian pro independence forces have more than 100 AK47s
,

, 1
as -

FN
ncluding variants such

52
the AK46 and AK74 almost 700 M16A1s

),

of ,
(i

106
Minimi LMGs and more than 200 military style pistols Reports GAM
,

,
1

.
military operations also frequently mention the use grenade launchers and

of

-
107

light machine guns

.

There are several sources for these weapons An important one weapons

is
.
108

captured from TNI forces during battle second leakage including arms
is

,
A
.

109
illegally sold GAM by TNI forces diverted from Pindad stocks
or

This
to

.
leakage apparently serious problem and indicates breakdown the

in
is

command between Jakarta and the provinces One commentator de

of

chain
.

110
as

scribed the military and police having empire

of of
an

Aceh their own

in

'.
'

its
as

Another recent report quoted GAM leader saying many weapons

a

originate with the TNI Kopassus was the principal player arms sales but
in

,
“
.

our weapons are bought from the TNI cash

of

longer the case Most

no

that
is

1 in
.

transactions They sell weapons many many including AK

us

SS
to

—
,

,
-
.

is (

us

and AK47 get weapons three generals

sic

201 not problem for

to

in
It

a
(
)

..
.
111

Jakarta are our main suppliers

.'

third source transfers from outside Indonesia Indonesian military forces

is
A

have long complained that weapons were reaching GAM from neighbour
'a

ing country and although they have been reluctant name names the refer
to

,
'

112

ences are Malaysia There are differences opinion about the involve
to

of
.

the Malaysian government the smuggling Malay

of

ment Some analysts

in

in
.

suggest the government turns

sia

blind eye GAM activities but informed

to

,
a

's

sources Jakarta argue that Kuala Lumpur not involved although local
is
in in

,
113

the heavily Islamic state Kedah may TheMalaysian govern

be

officials
of

ment naturally denies any role and one government official insisted GAM
is

much more active Stockholm and New York than Malaysia

in

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 41

There is consensus among analysts and diplomats in both Kuala Lumpur

and Jakarta that a large number of small arms smuggled to GAM move through
southern Thailand and the northern Malaysian port of Penang , which has a
large Acehnese population . Many of these arms are believed to come originally
from Cambodia . Some reports suggest they pass through Southern Thailand
with the help of the Thai separatist group the Pattani United Liberation Or

114
ganisation (PULO ) . According Aceh weapons are

an
official based

to

in

,
transported across the Straits

of
Malacca small boats and are often

in

,
sea before reaching their final destinations places

at
retransferred again

in
,

115
near Lhokseumawe Padang Tanjung Balai and Peureulak Sumatra coast
,

's
of .
of
line provides plenty isolated spots land and the use small boats makes

to
by

or
at

interdiction sea Malaysian Indonesian naval and marine forces ex

tremely difficult
.

One final source for GAM weapons may be local production While reports

.
are very sketchy wire service stories suggest that GAM may have acquired
,

primitive local arms production capacity According Agence

of

some kind

to
.
February 2001 four alleged GAM rebels were killed when
25
on

France Presse
,

Indonesian troops raided warehouse the village Batee Bireun District

of
in

,
a
by

group making weapons Few details were avail

be

believed used the for

to

.
able but the troops reportedly seized pistols and rifles from the

of
number
,

a
116

site
.

Like the weapons themselves GAM funding for small arms purchases

its
,

' of 's

seems come from disparate range sources The group collects various
in to

' .

at
taxes the province and also solicits donations from local people often

,
‘

'

by
armed checkpoints GAM also reported have generated income extort
to
is
.

PT
ing payments from the major businesses Aceh including Mobil Oil Arun
,

,
in

and ASEAN Aceh Fertilisers Infrastructure projects the province are report
in
.

edly taxed per cent According one analyst GAM has charged compa
10
at

to

,
.

nies building railway tracks the province much million rupiah per
as

as
in

1
117

kilometre for protection selling marijuana

of

has also been accused

to
It
'

'.
118

buy guns
.

for

Singapore apparently important financial centre

an

GAM
is

A
.

Singaporean businessman allegedly the finance minister the Acehnese

is

in

government According source Jakarta money traced

to

to

exile
to in
in

,
a
.
-
-

Singaporean bank accounts has been funnelled GAM and has been found
119

people arrested and charged with supporting the insurgents

on

Maluku
•

January 1999 fighting broke out between Muslim and Christian groups
In

eastern Indonesia While typically framed

an

Maluku island group

in

in

in
,

simple religious terms the conflict also about economic disparities and rela
is
,

tions between Indonesia outlying provinces and Jakarta the two years
In
's

since the latest fighting began many

as

as

8000 people have been killed

.
42 Small Arms in SE Asia

A large number of small arms of varying quality are involved in the conflict
in Maluku . According to news reports , both sides seem to be armed with rifles,
light mortars , grenades and bombs , but homemade weapons also seem to be

120
prevalent. For example February 2000 the Indonesian military seized

in
,

,
some 000 weapons from warring parties Many

of
, these were homemade
4

by .
rifles and bombs which were disposed being dumped into the waters

of

of
, 121
Tanjung Alang Army raids carried out under state

of
emergency declared

a
June .led
army standard rifles including

of
as 32
the confiscation
in

to
2000

',
'
AK47s SMR Bren MR3s and Rugers well 278 home made rifles The

as
,

.
army also seized four rocket launchers unspecified variety hundreds

of

of
an

,
122
of
hand grenades and 070 rounds ammunition early August 2000 the

In
3
,

.
acting governor North Maluku oversaw the destruction
of

of
23
standard rifles
including two M16s 4279 homemade rifles 2278 homemade bazookas and

,
(

)
123

1097 detonators
.

There are four major sources through which the parties fighting Maluku

in

of
obtain small arms First there credible evidence that significant number
is
,

a
.

by by
weapons have been directly supplied both sides Indonesian government
to
124

villages rioters reported finding

of

forces
on

Residents Ambon attacked

.

ammunition fragments bearing military markings blast sites spokesman

at

A
.

of
for the Ambon Military Command also confirmed that there had been reports

125
smuggling military ammunition into the territory Generally the TNI has
of

,
.
been siding with Muslim settlers the conflict including supply
of

accused
in

,
ing them with small arms and ammunition while the Indonesian Police Mobile
,

's
Brigade BRIMOB has been accused supporting and supplying Christian
of
(

126

An

forces with weapons Economist article March 2001 claimed soldiers

as in

,
.

127
and police were selling M16s and AK47s for
as

much 700 each

$

leakage
.
weapons from poorly guarded
of

second source insecure or

is
A

'

'

army and police The importance over be

of

armouries this channel cannot

.

For example just one attack police station July 2000

on

Tantui
in
,

,
stated
in

in
a
.

Of

823 military style rifles were stolen these 115 were later recovered but more
,
-

128

the weapons apparently remain

of

than 700 circulation conflict such

In
in

a
.

the Malukus where many

as

of

the small arms use are homemade obso

or
in
,

lete modern military equipment obtained such manner can make deci
in
,

sive difference the local balance power

of
to

The third
source supply from sympathetic groups inside Indonesia The
is

) .

Muslim group Laskar Jihad Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jammaah Jihad Force has
(

been identified by several analysts and diplomats

as

weapons
In of

source
to
a
the

129

Maluku
early especially April May
on

Muslim settlers conflict

in

in
,

reports that nine container loads weap

130 of

2000 there were also unconfirmed

Al

ons were unloaded Ambon and taken the local Fatah mosque July
at

to

In
-

2000 Defence Minister Juwono Sudarsono said the dispatch

of

Laskar Jihad
'

and any other forces has reached almost 000 people the last three months
10

in
,
 ASEAN Country Studies 43

131
and they have become the main reason for the ongoing ground conflict .'

A
Christian equivalent Laskar Kristus has also more recently appeared the

in
,

,
Malukus

.
Weapons are also being funnelled from elsewhere Indonesia the com

to
in
batants July the navy seized 200 grenades and grenade launchers and
In
. 2000
rounds ammunition the liner KM Dobonsolo which had sailed

of
7000 aboard

,
132
from Surabaya via Bali and Kupang Two months later security officials the

in
.
port

of
Buli North Maluku seized hundreds M16 rounds rifles and explosives
of

,
KM
from the passenger liner Albatim Authorities suspected that the arms had

, .

133
Bitung point departure

of
come from North Sulawesi the Albatim
in

's
Finally there are also rumours and reports that weapons reach combatants
,

sympathisers the Philippines According the Indonesian navy

to
from
in

's
.
Eastern Fleet commander Commodore Djoko Sumarsono weapons from the
,

,
Philippines were being freely traded Maluku Anyone with certain amount

in

he a
.
'
of

money can purchase guns the southern Philippines told the Jakarta
in

],
(

'
134

Post January 2000 the Indonesian newspaper Suara Merdeka reported

In
.

claims that helicopter had airlifted shipment weapons from Davao

of
the

in
a

Philippines Ambon with the tacit approval TNI No

of
the evidence was
to

by
provided support this allegation which was strongly denied the Indone
to

,
135

sian military
.

by
more likely route between the Philippines and Maluku sea Accord

is
A

.
ing North Maluku Military Commander most the weapons destroyed
in of
to

in
,
a

the August ceremony described above were made the Philippines and were
sea

136
confiscated from passengers during raids ports Indonesian navy
on

.
ships have intercepted several vessels from the Philippines carrying weapons
the past July 2000 three ships loaded with unspecified weap
12

months
In
in

,
.

137
onry were stopped North Maluku
en

route Halmahera and Ternate

to

In
as in

.
January 2001 the navy intercepted what described traditional vessel
it

a
'
for

from the Philippines The vessel was apparently destined the Malukus
.

138
guns and The guns were World War vintage
six

carrying bullets
II

454
.

.
be

While many these shipments are believed insurgents

of

Muslim
to

from

Mindanao there are also reports that Christian groups have been supplied
in

these weap
of

with small arms produced the Philippines While the source

in

ons unclear one possibility the numerous illegal gun factories located
is

is

in
,

139

largely Christian Cebu There have also been press reports suggesting link
a
.

between East Timorese militias and Christian groups Maluku Accounts

in

Ambonese Christian saying had bought

he

published February 2000 quoted

an
in

for

handguns million rupiah from

six

six

million rupiah and

15

three M16s for

140

mili
the

Timorese militiamen He claimed have been buying weapons

to

from
.

tias since July 1999 and said that guns and hand grenades could
be

easily bought

from militia personnel now living Kupang The weapons were apparently
in

smuggled back small boats avoid naval blockade

to

Ambon
to

in

.
44 Small Arms in SE Asia

Timor

The problem of small arms in East Timor seized the world 's attention when
pro - Jakarta militia forces went on a bloody rampage in September 1999 after a
UN -supervised referendum overwhelmingly supported independence for the
former Portuguese colony . Both pro - Jakarta and pro - independence forces have
access to small arms, although these are of varying quality . Many are homemade

141
and some appear to be obsolete remnants of the Portuguese colonial presence .
Many modern small arms were also used the Timorese conflict but their

in

,
source matter of some conjecture
is
a

.
the
At

the time September 1999 violence there were numerous media

of

,
reports suggesting that the TNI directly supplied military small arms the

to
aid
pro Jakarta militias Several groups and the Indonesian government own

's
-

142
Human Rights Commission supported this conclusion spokesman for

A
.
the Department Defense and Security ABRI also admitted that the TNI had
of

/
supplied weapons pro ntegration civilians East Timor the past Ac
to

bythe in

in

.
-i

cording Major General Syamsul Ma arif weapons were supplied the

to
to

,
'

'
people resistance force counter attacks the pro independence group
to

,
-
'
's

the
FALINTIL He also claimed that the weapons were withdrawn once threats
.
143

disappeared
.
the

on

recent conflict the island militias were certainly armed with some
In

former TNI weapons September 1999 INTERFET forces carried out sur
In

a
.
of

prise raid Com and captured large cache , of

on

the town former Soviet block

a
As

arms including SKS automatic rifles was noted above SKS rifles were used
,

.
by

the TNI the 1960s Indonesian forces were possible source supply
so

of
in

.
Australian troops uncovered another huge arms cache Dili September in
in

1999 The arms which belonged the TNI

to

744 Battalion the eastern

,

in
.

's

calibre machine guns and 9mm sub ma

of

50

suburb Becora included M16s

,

-
.

chine guns The departing TNI forces had apparently attempted destroy the
to
by .

144

weapons burning them Despite these finds there are differences opin
of
,
.

ion about how well rganised arms transfers were and who was behind them
.
-o

Some writers have made strong case that senior elements

of

the Indone
a

arm

sian military were involved plan the militia movements the lead
to
in

in
a

up the referendum According Damien Kingsbury the then Commander

to

to

,
.

Chief the TNI General Wiranto and the head military intelligence Ma
of
of

,
in
-jor -

General Zacky Anwar Makarim both played

an

active role the estab

in
‘
By
145

August 1999 pro Jakarta groups who

of

lishment the militia movements

.

had previously only been armed with homemade weapons and shotguns were
,

being quipped with TNI weapons including M16s G3s

SS

and AK47
re

1s
,

,
-
-e

automatic rifles 9mm pistols and hand grenades As Kingsbury concedes

,

,
.
by

however this stage the distinction between the militias and the TNI and
,

...

146

by

police had become very blurred the ground report

on

the James Dunn

,
A
'.

147

UN observer the 1999 plebiscite comes similar conclusion

to
in

,
a

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 45

According to Dunn , Makarim was 'widely reported to have been responsible

for militia terror against independence supporters and UN workers '.' He also
accuses a leading officer in Kopassus ( special forces) , Major -General Syafie
Syamsuddin , and the Bali -based commander of East Timor , Major -General

148
Adam Damiri, of complicity .

Some diplomats Jakarta while not disputing these claims put more em

in

,
of
phasis rogue elements the military soldiers acting
or on

an
the actions

or
in

in
149
oknum unauthorised fashion They say arms were transferred for vari

a
.
(

)
ety

reasons including political affiliation financial gain and also where

of

, 150
TNI soldiers married into Timorese families They make the argument that

.
, of

of
transfers were indicative general breakdown the chain command

in
a
government policy

of
expression

an
between Jakarta and Timor rather than

.
the
According TNI weapons that were used

of
one source least some at
to

,
by

were likely captured from Falintil forces who had themselves

the militias

151
taken them from TNI soldiers during the civil war report Jane Intelli

in
A

's
.
gence Review claimed that apart from few old Portuguese colonial weapons
,

,
a
guns ammunition and uniforms came from ambushing In
of

all Falintil
,

,
's
‘
(

)
152

The importance transfer continued while

of

of
donesian forces this kind
.'

Minimi light machine gun taken from

on FN

Interfet was Timor An New

in

a
.

up
Zealand peacekeeper killed duty subsequently turned among weapons
153

seized from the militias

.

peace East Timor guns

of

of
Since the intervention
Interfet and the return

to

,
as

have been confiscated and collected part UN effort disarm the militias
of

to
a

.
Several commentators including UN officials have been critical the imple

of
,

support
of

of

mentation the plan and the lack from Indonesian forces West

in
154

widely suspected that the militias have kept caches

of
Timor modern
It
is
.

155
military weapons and have only handed obsolete and homemade guns
in

.
of
This very difficult verify but official Indonesian figures show seizures
to
is

homemade weapons greatly outnumber military small arms Of the weapons

.

confiscated and collected from refugees Atambua late 2000 there were 10
in

in

FN46 pistols GETMI Mausers Sten guns

77

M16s SKS rifles SPs

,

), ,

,
6

LES Lee Enfield and jungle rifle contrast the same sweep collected
,
In
1
'
(

'.
?
's

156

over 1300 homemade weapons

.

depressing reprise the Timorese tragedy now appears

of

of

that some
In

, on it
a

the remaining militia weapons have been sold

the warring parties
to

in

Maluku February 2000 former pro Jakarta militia leader Florentino Moko
In

,
a

-
.

Soares was arrested Kefamenanu North Timor Tengah district and charged
in

in
,

with illegally trading firearms near the border between East Timor and East
Nusa Tenggara NTT The weapons he was accused selling were appar
of
).
(

157

ently leftovers from the Portuguese colonial presence Other reports suggest
.

that militia members Kupang have sold guns and grenades the com
in

to
158

batants Maluku
in

.
46 Small Arms in SE Asia

• Irian Jaya (West Papua )

low
Irian Jaya West Papua

on
A level secessionist movement has been active

)
The Organisasi Papua Merdek Free Papua Movement

or
since 1976 OPM

is
.

)
of
seeking independence for the ethnic Melanesians the area which was incor

,
porated into Indonesia 1963 Using bases across the border Papua New

in

in
.
Guinea has maintained low level insurgency occasionally attacking Indo
it

,
a

159
nesian military patrols and taking hostages the past years

of
For most

25
.
the
OPM has made little headway but collapse the Suharto regime and the

of
,
successful independence struggle energised secessionist

on
East Timor has

re
-
forces West Papua The pro independence movement now includes groups
in

-
.
other than the OPM During 2000 there were several violent incidents between
.

supporters independence and the Indonesian military

of

.
the
For the most part the parties involved nascent conflict Irian Jaya
,

in

in

/
West Papua are poorly armed They rely predominantly swords spears

on

,
.

and arrows although some individuals have access home made guns and

to
,

-
the
160

hunting rifles According some reports however pro independence

to

-
.

West Papua have allegedly attempted obtain weapons from Papua

on

forces

to
161

New Guinea and Australia Police sources Jakarta claim that small arms
in
.

by

purchases from PNG are being funded marijuana from Irian

of
the sale
162

Jaya Australian sources also report attempts the OPM buy weapons by

to
.

from northern Australia and several West Irianese have been arrested con

in in
163

nection with this type activity Military and customs personnel

of

Port
.

Moresby say the OPM very active along the border around Kiunga and Fly
is

164
River and purchases weapons from PNG Highlands region They also
.
's
the

acknowledge that border with Irian Jaya essentially impossible police

is

to

of be .
Some reports about weapons smuggling into West Papua however should
,

,
treated with scepticism early July 2000 The Jakarta Post quoted the Speaker
In
's .

People Consultative Assembly MPR Amien Rais saying

no as

the Indonesian
),

,
(
165

guns had been smuggled into West Papua confir

12

000 There has been

,

this and diplomats Jakarta were deeply skeptical about the

of

mation
in
,
166

claims
.

another disturbing parallel the East Timorese situation 2000 saw the
to
In

emergence rival militia groups Irian Jaya the pro independence Satgas
of

in

Papua Papuan Taskforce and pro Jakarta Satgas Merah Putih Red and White
(

(
-

the

Taskforce The latter has reportedly received funds from government and
).

by

by

may also have been infiltrated Pemuda Pancasila terror group used
,
a

167

former president Suharto undermine his opponents Although neither

to

be

Satgas Papua nor Satgas Merah Putih currently believed armed there
to
is

have been rumours that they are engaged military training

in

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 47

'
Lao People s Democratic Republic

its
The Lao PDR does not produce ammunition but

or
own small arms

is
,
on
largely dependent imports from China These have been provided since

.
exchange for the right operate listening posts southern Laos

to
1993
in

in

.
but the govern

of
There are very low levels gun related crime the country

in

,
-
ment Vientiane increasingly worried about several insurgencies two eth

is
in

:
nic Hmong factions the country and pro monarchist rebels oper

of
the north

in

-
ating out
of
Thailand and Cambodia

.
National inventory
good deal the military
circulating equipment currently
Laos dates
far of

in
A

Army LPA inven

up as

as

back least Lao People

the Vietnam War
is at

The

's

)
tory made principally weapons from China the former Soviet Union
of

,
as
well includes Soviet made
as
and other Eastern Bloc states from Vietnam
,

It

; -
.
9mm pistol 9mm

70
62mm Tokarev and 9mm Makarov pistols the Croat CZ

,
7
.

MAT guns dating

41 49

submachine the French colonial presence

to
back 62mm

;
7
-

.
PPSh sub machine guns Soviet AK47s and SKS rifles Chinese Type 56s

,
;
-

and the 62mm RPK light machine gun The RPK fact actually just

is is
in
7

a
.

.
(
old US
, of

heavy barrelled version the standard AK47

of
There also stock

a
.)
-

made arms circulation including M1 carbines While one commentator

in

suggests these are almost certainly obsolete and .

of little operational capacity

',
'

168
by

few Mls have been seen use tribal peoples

as hunting weapons
in
a

.
Lao government signed agreement with China supply the
an

1993 the

to
In

LPA with arms and ammunition part arrangement

as

exchange
of

barter
a

which gives Beijing the right operate signals intelligence and electronic sur
of to

169

veillance posts

of
the south Laos One estimate claims that 1600 tonnes
in

military equipment have been shipped from China since the agreement was
mostly reports
no
signed
of

the form small arms and ammunition There are

in
,

specific weapon types although the deal likely includes the ubiq
of

available
,

uitous Type assault rifle Laos also signed military technology agreement
in 56

a
.

for

with Russia The deal provided the shipment unspecified Rus

of

1997
.

sian military equipment Laos and for the training Lao armed forces per
to

of

sonnel Russia The Lao Defence Minister Ghoummali Sai Gnason visited
in

-
.

170

Russian arms manufacturers and suppliers examine products

on

offer
to

have any capacity for the production

of

Laos not known small arms

is

to

according Lao officials the country does not produce own weapons
its

and
171to
,

,
or

ammunition There are however two explosives factories that have been
,

,
.

operating the country since 1995 One joint venture between the Lao
in

is
a
.

military and the Chinese province

of

firm based Yunnan The enterprise

in
a

goes under the name Lao Yun Co Limited The other operation cooperative
is
a
-

venture between the Lao Ministry

of

Defence and the Swedish Australian

-
48 Small Arms in SE Asia

company , Dyno -Wesfarmers . The explosives produced in both factories are

intended for the development of hydro - electric schemes , road -blasting and min

172
for
ing but could potentially be diverted military purposes

be
the Lao economy
seems unlikely that Laos will

of
Given the dire state

it
,
making any investment indigenous defence production the immediate

in

in
erhaps sole supplier

as
future Rather China has emerged

of
the dominant

,
.

)
(p
arms the Lao government and likely continue supply small arms and
to

to

to
is
,
ammunition the LPA
to

.
Gun control

weapons Laos frequent visitors report

of

of
terms the illicit circulation

in
In

, ,
seeing far fewer weapons public than five years ago even out lying dis
in

in

-
173
tricts beyond effective government control Despite this some weapons are

,
.
circulating and crime committed with military weapons sometimes
society
in

occurs although infrequently March 2000 several people restaurant

at
In

in
,

a
.

Vientiane were injured when what was described press reports primi

as
in

a
'
174
tive grenade was lobbed from passing motorbike September 2000 Lao

In

,
a
'

.
police arrested husband and wife Vientiane after discovering 2400 small
in
a

weapons their shops and home The weapons were only described pis

as
in

'
.
175

tols and carbines There have also been persistent unconfirmed rumours

if
,

,
’.

that November 2000 Lao police caught eight people trying smuggle hand

to
in

grenades into the grounds the That Luang festival

of

Vientiane The incident

in

.
by

as
was apparently implausibly explained away the Lao government eight
young men from the countryside who brought the grenades with them for pro
big

176
the

tection city
in

Hmong insurgency

The regime concerned about the movement small arms

of

Vientiane
in

is

along the borders with Thailand Burma and Cambodia and the mountain
in
,

ous north where ethnic Hmong carry low level insurgency Many Hmong
on
a

fought with the United States during the Indochinese wars and according
to
a

US Senate report the Reagan administration secretly used donations from POW
,

MIA groups arm and supply anti communist Laotian rebels during the early
to

-
177

these weapons are almost certainly still

of

1980s Some circulation and

in

in
.

working order The Hmong rebels are reportedly divided into two camps The
.

weaker group called the United Lao National Liberation Front ULNLF
is
(

aligned with General Van Pao the wartime leader who now lives the United
in
,
178

former major
Pa

States Kao Her Van Pao army heads the stronger

in
,

,
a
, .

's

group known the Chao Faa movement

as

.
the

gauge the size two Hmong forces but

of

difficult total they are

to

in
,
is
It

as

have between two and four thousand members well informal

as

believed
to

support from Hmong villagers disaffected with government resettlement pro

 ASEAN Country Studies 49

179

as
grams . They capture many their weapons from government soldiers

of
well

. as
receiving some smuggled supplies from Thailand Cambodia and

,
180
Burma While analysts based Laos question the ability the Hmong

to
of
in
serious challenge the communist regime there have been some

to
sustain

,
a

181
bloody encounters between rebels and government troops June 1999

In

,
.
Hmong rebels fought LPA troops around Nong Het mountainous area be

,
In a
January 2000 they at

of
tween the Plain Jars and the Vietnamese border

.
tacked the village Jars killing six people and burning

of

of
on
Khoun the Plain

,
182
buildings There have even been credible reports that major rebel offensive

a
.

for
forced the Lao army ask Vietnamese combat troops help for the
in

to
2000

183
first time since the 1980s

.
There are also persistent claims including from the Lao government that

,
the Hmong rebels have supporters outside particular they are be

of
Laos

In

,
.
lieved funding and encouragement from Hmong now living
receive the
to

in
184

One expert Indochinese politics and security has concluded

on
United States
.

Hmong activity part the provision

of
that the resurgence due funds
of

to
is

in
'

Hmong living purchase and supply

of
from exiles the United States and the
in
185

black market arms

'.

Occasionally Hmong Americans have become involved the fighting them

in
According shortly

of
selves Bertil Lintner after the outbreak the June 1999
to

,
.

Ly
fighting two American citizens Michael Vang and Hua crossed over into
,

,
aim
Laos from the Thai town Chiang Khong with the starting rebellion
of

of

in
a
Keo province Vang was the nephew
Bo

of

General Van Pao Armed with

.
(

.)
assault rifles and backpack money they planned buy off the governor
of

of
to
a
Bo

Keo with the hope that their insurrection would spread south towards
their money leaked out they were robbed
of

Vientiane However when word

,

,
.

the

186

killed and their bodies were dumped Mekong

in

Monarchist rebels
by

the Hmong insurgency

of
addition Laos has been racked series
to
In

mysterious bomb explosions over the past two years has also suffered sev
It
.

187

eral cross border attacks from rebels based Thailand and Cambodia The
in

bombs are believed by many analysts power struggle within the

be

signs
to

of
a

regime itself but the cross border attacks are the work
of

anti communist rebels

,

-
188

associated with the former Lao monarchy

.

July group
armed men attacked immigration and
of

70

some
In

2000
,
a

customs offices Vangtao Champasak Province near the Thai border town
189at

in

Chong Mek The group including several elderly men who could barely
of

,
.

190

fire their weapons briefly raised the old royalist flag over customs office
,

short gun battle with LPA forces which left number

of

After rebels dead the

,
a

insurgents retreated into Thailand where

27

were arrested and the rest fled

.
191

the arrested men were Thai nationals Thai forces also confiscated
of

Eleven
.
50 Small Arms in SE Asia

130 rounds of 7 .62mm ammunition , 130 grenades and two RPGs from the

192

as
group . One the rebels injured the attack was identified former

of

in

a
the Royalist Lao Army The rebel group widely believed

be
officer

to
in

is
.

193
anti communist Laotians living

by
supported California Several days

in
-

.
later Thai police raided house northeastern Ubon Ratchanthani province

in
a
the
belonging the group Sisouk Salyasaeng and found

of
alleged leader

an
to

,
194
assault rifle and ammunition and Lao resistance paraphernalia

.
Cambodian military intelligence officials have also reported that increas

'
ingly active rebel groups cross over into Laos from Cambodia northern Preah
'

's
Vihear province although they deny claims that the group maintains perma
,

195
nent bases the country The Cambodian Daily newspaper reported July

in
in

.
2000 that Lao rebels were buying weapons and ammunition stolen from RCAF
military bases also claimed that the rebels maintained occasional contact
It
.

with the small anti communist insurgent group active Cambodia the Free

in

,
-

196
Khmer and with the anti communist Free Vietnam Movement An unnamed
,

.
Cambodian general cited Agence France Presse report admitted that weap
an
in

ons had gone missing from depots near the Lao border and were believed

to
197

have been sold Lao rebels

to

Malaysia
Malaysia has attempted indigenous small arms industry since
an
to

sustain

as
the early 1970s has produced several modern weapons under licence
It
.

as
well range ammunition and ordnance Exports did not perform well
as

of
a

.
as

expected however and the state owned arms firm SME ceased weapons

its
,

production activities early 2001 manufacture ammunition and

It

continues
to
in in

spares Gun control Malaysia strict and few people own weapons Despite
is
.

.
that the Malaysian government has been alarmed by several high rofile inci
,

-p

leakage from military stocks

of

dents also concerned about the transnational

is
It
.

implications insurgencies Indonesia and the southern Philippines

of

in

Domestic production

Malaysia small arms production began joint

of

1969 with the creation

in

a
's

venture Syarikat Malaysia Explosives between the Malaysian government

,

the explosives manufacturer Dynamit Nobel and the Swiss company Oerlikon
,
198

for

Machine Tools SME began commercially producing ammunition the

.

Malaysian army 1972 Two years later the Malaysian government bought
in

199

out foreign partners and SME became wholly owned government entity
its

Starting production with 9mm ammunition the company soon converted

7 its

200

rounds Malay
sia its

lines demand for 9mm

In
of

62mm due lack

to

to

1978
,

a
.

. .

produce NATO standard

began ammunition The machinery
to

56mm
, 5.

involved was apparently mostly French but also included German and Swiss
201

components
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 51

Today , a single , government - controlled group of companies , SME Group ,

dominates small arms production in the country . Established in 1985 , it has

its
headquarters Damansara just outside Kuala Lumpur SME 100 per cent

is
in

.
by
owned the Malaysian government through holding company called

a
SME Group SME Technologies

of
Khazanah Nasional Bhd subsidiary

,
A
. .

of
manufactures small arms Until recently SME produced number small

a
arms products including assault rifles pistols ammunition ordnance and

,
at
explosives Batu Aurang and Sungabulu On February
its

16
factories
in

202
2001 SME arms production operation announced that was closing

it
,

's

Prior developing own weapons production capacity Malaysia relied

its
to

imports 62mm German G3s 56mm Colt M16Als and Heckler and
on

of

,
7

5
.

.
203
Koch HK33s which assembled The M16 subsequently became the stand
it

.
ard infantry weapon and 200 000 M16A1 Model 613 and 000 carbines Model
,

,
5
(

(
204
653 were imported from Colt the mid 1980s Malaysia invited Singapore

In

's
-
.
)

tender for the licensed production SAR

of

80
Charted Industries assault

its
to

-
re
rifle When CIS realised that Malaysia wanted include export clause

to

in
a

-
.

the agreement which would allow them compete with Singapore foreign

to

in
,

205
Ultimately agree

an
markets they did not even bother submit tender
to
,

,
a

.
ment was struck with the Austrian company Steyr Daimler Puch and SME was

206
produce the Steyr AUG A1 assault rifle Production began
to

licensed 1991

in
.

.
bullpup
design which makes per cent shorter than

25
The AUG
it
is

,
a
'

'

other rifles with similar barrel lengths but without compromising ballistic per
formance The bullpup design does away with the folding stock feature found
.

many rifles allowing the AUG quickly available for accurate shoulder
be
on

to
,

firing The weapon can take magazine with either rounds and has
42
30

or
a

a
of .

207

650 rounds per minute

of

rate fire

The AUG completely modular design All components including bar

,
in
is

rels receivers and spare parts are completely interchangeable from weapon

to
,

of

weapon advantage special equipment and

an

the addition
as

This with
is

,
.

operational
of

accessories single AUG can be tailored suit wide variety

to
,
a

requirements SME Technologies advertised four variants as

an

the AUG
of

), :
.

sault rifle light support weapon machine carbine and commando para but
208 it
,

not known how many the Malaysian armed forces

to

each they delivered

of
is

. .

optical sight built

5x

The Steyr AUG also comes with the receiver

to
in
1
a

-
.

209

Its

SME was licensed produce

rifles over years
15

175 000 AUG

to

Sungabulu plant was fully automated and used Computer Numerically Con
trolled CNC machinery which according company CEO Ismail Kadir was
to
,

,
of (

210

SME was able produce some 1000 Steyrs month

to

the art
at

state
a
'

'.

211

000 weapons annually

of

Sungabulu The weapon

12

15

total
or

000
,

,
a

's
-

at .
all

barrel bolt mechanism and receiver were manufactured Sungabulu while

,

SME Batu Arang factory Some alu

at

plastic components were produced

's

optical sight and the

as

minium components such the body the weapon

of
(

's
52 Small Arms in SE Asia

aluminium parts of the receiver ) were made by another casting company in

212
Kuala Lumpur . SME received semi finished product which then ma

it
a

-
down and assembled Assembly and testing the weapons took place

of
chined

.
at
Sungabulu While SME was capable producing some per cent

of

of
70
the

.
parts for the weapon imported the optics for the Steyr sight from Austria

,
it

's
213
and Japan .
The principal demand for the Malaysian built Steyr was domestic Since

.
106
starting production 1991 SME has supplied 000 rifles the Malaysian

in

to
,

214
Army although these are being gradually phased into active use Army use
,

.
appears divided almost equally between the Steyr and the M16 and some
be
to

territorial units apparently still use the HKG3 the HK33E and the Armalite

,
215

Given that the Malaysian army 000 men SME

at

80
SLR estimated some

is

,
.

production figures suggest that number Steyrs were produced for reserve

of
stocks This may have implications for the future sale a
old weapons currently

of
.

national holdings
in

licence agreement with

Steyr permitted the export weapons Ac

of
SME
's

.
cording public statements by Prime Minister Mahathir Malaysia has ex
to

,
216

ported the AUG the past Company officials were reluctant discuss the

to
in

subject transfers but did admit they had sold AUGs

of

small numbers

of

in
,

(
the range overseas buyers One official said that
of

several hundred units

to

217 .
)

those exports included small quantity Pakistan Company representa

to
a
'

'

.
tives also said they had taken part international bidding supply weapons

to
in
218

the Philippines Kenya There have also been orders expressions

or
to

and
to

.
of

interest from South America Africa the Middle East and from within
,

,
219

by

company management closing sug

its
at

of
ASEAN Statements the time
.

220
gest that SME was not particularly successful obtaining export orders
at

.
addition the Steyr AUG assault rifle SME also produced another Steyr
In

to

weapon under licence the Tactical Mission Pistol TMP This 9mm
—

is
a
. ).
(

221

submachine gun made almost entirely synthetic material The TMP can
of
,

or

magazine with rounds The weapon had been produced

15

20

25

take
,
a

under contract from Steyr since 1998 and SME officials admit exporting
to

small numbers including the Philippines where apparently

39

units
to

is
it
,

222
by

SME hoped the weapon might

be

used some Special Forces units adopted

.
by

the Malaysian police and military and according Ismail Kadir antici
to
,

pated production capacity for the TMP 500 units per month These hopes
of
a

were dashed with the plant February

of

closure 2001
in

Ammunition and ordnance

addition small arms SME sister company SME Ordnance Sdn Bhd
to
In

,
's

at

range Batu Arang

its

SMEO makes ammunition factory

of

Since 1972
in
),

.
(

company produced Special 56mm ammuni

38

the has 9mm 62mm and

,

,
7

5
.

produce its own shotgun cartridges using Italian

to

tion 1989 started

In

it

,
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 53

16 223
machinery . According SMEO management the company has the capacity

to

,
produce 9mm ammunition annually

of

48
million rounds million rounds

of to

,
224
million rounds The American industry jour

of
32
56mm and 62mm

,
5

7
.

.
nal Forecast International has also reported that Pakistan Ordnance Factories
POF has been involved collaborative project share manufacturing tech

to
in
a
(

225
nology with Malaysia

the
addition small calibre ammunition SMEO has past produced

to
In

in
,

its
LAP HE range

of
the 60mm mortar shell which has own 1600 metres and

, ,
1

a
HE 80mm mortar shell with range 5100 metres Both are listed

by
are of
14

SMEO

the
as
industry publications production and service with Malaysian

in
'in

'
as 226

Army SMEO also produces light weight fragmentation grenade desig

,
a

-
.

for
nated HE HG85 which claims the ideal weapon use the forest

is

in
,

,
it

'
227
jungle and open country The company also manufactures several CS gas
in

.'

228
and coloured smoke grenades thunderflashes and signaling cartridges ,

.
While SMEO brochuresclaim the company can produce anything from
ammunition 155mm artillery shells and even aircraft bombs and rock
to

9mm

'
ets

actual production runs are very small and lot

of
the ordnance advertised
',

a
229

not being manufactured

all

SMEO production
at

an
October 2000
is

In

,
.

manager estimated that the factory was only working per cent

of
20
about

at
230

past production has gone the Malaysian

of

capacity Most the company

to
's
.

army and police although SMEO also tenders for export business According
,

.
company executives SMEO receives enquiries from overseas including from
to

231
,
Thailand Australia New Zealand Scandinavia and the US Past exports
,

, ,

.
have gone Nigeria New Zealand and the United States although such deals
to

,
232

were apparently rare One reason for this SMEO inability compete

to
is

's
'.
'

Kuala Lumpur based analyst described Malaysian ammunition

price
on

as
A

-
.

233

Company officials admit that because

of
the most expensive the region
in
'

'.

the need import brass rods brass plates and primers from Germany and
to

per cent more than similar

20

Austria SMEO ammunition costs between and

,

5
234
on

products the market

.

According company representatives the Malaysian government has

to

235

bought little new ammunition since 1997 due economic constraints The
to

government business means SMEO will likely put more efforts into
of

lack
exporting the future although will continue face difficulties competing
to
in

it
,

price opened negotiations for long term contract for

on

late 2000 SMEO

re
In

a
-

-
.

ammunition with the Malaysian government hoping for five year agreement
,

Despite the closure the arms producing sector the company SME Ord
to of

of

nance will continue manufacture ammunition and spares

.

Illegal arms circulation

The Malaysian government increasingly concerned about the circulation

is

illegal weapons among criminal and political groups The police have made
of

.
54 Small Arms in SE Asia

several arrests involving arms smuggling along the Malaysian - Thai border ,
and have also reported that weapons smuggled from Indonesia have been

236
offered for sale.
illegal weapons was highlighted July 2000 when large

of
The problem

,
in

a
military weapons was stolen daring heist from army camp near

an
cache of

in
a
Grik Perak state Fifteen men dressed military uniforms persuaded sen
to in

in
.
them into the camp and seized more than 100 M16 and Steyr rifles
let

tries

, of ,
machine guns grenade launchers mortar shells and thousands rounds

of
,

,
237

ammunition After five day standoff during which two hostages were killed

,
a

-
.

of 238
the group surrendered The Malaysian government quickly laid the blame
the door .
religious cult known AlMa unah Brotherhood
at

for the raid

as
a

(“
'
investigation several Malaysian soldiers
of

Inner Power An also implicated

')
.

sympathetic the group and Malaysian army captain was among those
to

239

all
the Perak siege not
of

remains unclear whether

or
at

arrested the scene

It
.
the weapons taken the raid have been recovered During early August 2000
in

.
group allegedly plan
by
the missing arms were seized police from
of

some

a
240
ning Lumpur
on

targets near Kuala

an

attack

.
While this incident made headlines the robbery was not unprecedented
,

.
Four AUG automatic rifles were stolen from the Armed Forces Royal Ord

241
'
These weap
on
nance Corps armoury Kamaunting Perak July

28
1999
in

.
up

ons ended the hands criminal group the media quickly tagged the
of
in

'
Steyr Gang which carried out
of

on
number armed robberies banks and
a
'

242

of

finance companies Four members the gang were eventually shot dead
.

243

and the weapons were recovered the dead was former sniper
of

One
a
's .

attached the Malaysian Army Commando Unit based Kuala Kubu at

to
244

Baharu Another solider reportedly the mastermind behind the group

,

,
'

'
.

245

was arrested Bandar Baru Selayang August 2000

in

in

.
for

Support insurgencies

addition leakage from military arsenals illegal weapons are also cir
to
In

culating the porous border region between East Malaysia and the Philip
in

by

pines Some fishermen who arm themselves against

of

these are carried

,
.

pirates and who have little time for immigration formalities when moving back
and forth across the Malaysia Philippines border But analysts Kuala
in
-

Lumpur also report that there arms smuggling

of

also low level the area

in
is

,
a

including barter trade where goods such

as

timber are swapped for

or

fish
weapons These are suspected going Philippines insurgent groups such
of

to
.

the Moro Islamic Liberation Front MILF and Abu Sayyaf After Abu Sayyaf
as

members kidnapped several foreign tourists from the resort island

of

Sipadan
up

2000 the Malaysian armed forces stepped patrols the region There are
in

in
,

also persistent rumours that the Malaysian government continues tacitly

to

246

support the transfer small arms the MILF but these cannot
be
of

to

confirmed
,

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 55

247
The Malaysian government strongly denies any involvement .

western Malaysia themost frequently cited arms smuggling route across

In

is
The port Penang with large Acehnese

of

of

its
the Straits Malacca Aceh

to

,
.
important point for the movement illegal goods all kinds

of
population

of
an

,
,
is
including arms and weapons from Cambodia and Thailand are believed

to to
,
248
pass through Penang the Aceh Merdeka rebels According

en
route

to

.
analysts the Malaysian state Kedah play

an
officials active role

to of
Jakarta
in

in
,
this smuggling smuggling

on
For more details Aceh see the Indonesian
in

,
country study
.

249
Myanmar Burma
)
(

Historically Myanmar has relied key supplier states for

on

, of
number

its
,

a
small arms needs notably China Israel Germany Pakistan and Singapore
,

, ,

.
technology transfers however

to its
range

of
Thanks now manufactures
to

it
,

a
by

own small arms for use military the Tatmadaw Myanmar believed
its

is
,

of
be near self sufficient small calibre ammunition and also produces some
in
-

light

of
weapons While mass production
its

own ordnance and small arms

or is
.

underway there evidence that the regime has exported

no

either arms
is
,

ammunition Illicit arms transfers are major problem the areas along the

in
a
.

Thai Indian and Bangladeshi borders where several rebel groups continue

to
,

the military government Burma

of

resist the rule also host several large

to
is

,
.

well funded and well equipped private armies that have ceasefire arrange
-

ments with the government Some these are involved illegal arms sales
of

in
.

Myanmar military regime have also been

of

and drug trafficking Members

's
.

implicated illegal transfers arms through the country rebels Sri Lanka
to
of
in

in
and Northeastern India
.

Military Inventory

According published sources the Tatmadaw has many

25

different
as

as
to

inventory Browning HP
FN

35

small arms These include 9mm semi

its
in

)
:
.

pistol 455 inch Webley

38

automatic inch Smith and Wesson revolver

;

;
0

0
.

M1 and M2 inch SMLE Mark

30

revolver inch Winchester carbines 303

;

V
0

0
.

MA rifle
Ka
Pa

No
56mm M16A1
Sa

and Lee Enfield rifles 56mm

;

;
4

. -1
.

MA
Pa

62mm Heckler and Koch G2

Sa

56mm Ka assault rifle 62mm

;

;
5

7
-
.

Type
Sa

AK 62mm Heckler and Koch G3 FAL Ka Pa

FN
47

( 56

62mm
;

;
7

Sa 7
-

.
/

3A2 Ka
63

Pa

62mm BA Heckler and Koch BA 100 Heckler and Koch

G

);
7

); -
.

(
Pa

3A3ZF Ka 9mm Uzi 9mm Ster

3K
72
Sa

BA AR Heckler and Koch

);

;
G

G
(
-

ling L2 A3 56mm Ka Pa MA Light Machine Gun LMG

62
Sa

Heckler
;

);
5

as -3

7
-

.
(

303 Bren light ma

Pa
Sa

and Koch G4 LMG also known the Ka BA64

);
0
(

.
FN

chine gun 62mm MAG General Purpose Machine Gun GPMG and
;
7

a
.

MG3 GPMG Browning 1919A4 medium machine gun

30

62mm inch
M
;
7

-
.

MMG Burma uses 40mm M79 M203 and RPK grenade launchers The
,
(

).

.
56 Small Arms in SE Asia

Tatmadaw also reportedly bought

small number of US Armalite AR - 10 ma
a
chine guns and a few units may
have retained old BA52 submachine guns
even

250
and British 9mm Sten guns in storage . Many

by
these weapons are obsolete

of

for
contemporary military standards and are believed have been passed

on
use

to
by
the

251
police and village militias rather than the armed forces

.
History
According Myanmar has produced

its
to
Andrew Selth own small arms

,
Its
since the early 1950s efforts began with the manufacture the World War

of
.
TZ45 submachine gun under licence from The gun

an
Italian firm
Il

era 9mm
-

.
was built Burma Army Ordnance Workshop near Inya Lake Rangoon

in
in
a

.
engineers
visited Burma oversee construction the factory and the

of
Italian

to
the machinery and by 1953 slightly modified T245 renamed
of

installation

(
as
the BA52 and more commonly referred the Ne Win Sten was the stand

to

's ')
'
252
ard submachine gun The gun simple design
of

the Burmese armed forces

.
made cheap produce and easy maintain but frequently misfired and
to

to
it

it

it
,
was not long before the need for more sophisticated weapon was recognised
a

.
1953 the German state owned firm Fritz Werner Industrie Ausrustungen
In

-
GmbH began going association with Burma Together with another
on
its

.
German arms manufacturer Heckler and Koch the company agreed estab

to
,

,
253

re
factory

of
lish manufacture G3 assault rifles Production the G3
to

,
a

named the BA63 began 1957 with financing supplied by the German gov
in
,
254

lighter shorter version the weapon known

of

ernment BA72 was also

as
,
A

a
.
255

produced Around the same time Fritz Werner also built factory near Prome
a
.

85
manufacture 62mm and 9mm ammunition 1958 Burma signed
to

In
7

on 5
a
.

.
supply
of

million deal with the United States for the arms The deal was
.

very favourable terms essentially allowing Burma pay own soft cur
its
to

in
,

rency attempt by the US influence Rangoon which had

an

The transfer was

to

,
.

of
aid

previously rejected US military 1951 for fear offending China Fram

in

ing the deal

of
its
as

commercial sale also allowed Burma maintain stance

to
a
256

strict neutrality More arms and ammunition factories were built during the
1970s some reportedly with the assistance engineers from the German Tech
of
,

nical Cooperation Agency and 1984 Fritz Werner entered partnership with
in

a
aim

Heavy Industries Corporation building what were

of

of

Burma with the

Sa 257
be

weapons factories
By

largely with the help

of

believed German
to

1988
,
.

facilities were producing range auto

. of
Pa

expertise called Ka
so

these
,

a
-

by 258

matic rifles and light machine guns grenades mines and ammunition
,

While Burma was able meet wide range

its

own defence needs the

of
to

imported raw materials

its

on

1970s factories were still reliant This left the

,

government vulnerable the whims international suppliers fact which

of
to

,
a

became apparent after the violent crackdown pro democracy demonstra

on

August
of

tors 1988 the aftermath violence which thousands were

In
in

in
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 57

killed , the US shipment of ammunition for the Tatamadaw ' s M1 and

stopped a
M2 carbines and 18 September 1988 the US im
M79 grenade launchers . On

byall
posed an arms embargo and suspended financial assistance The West

.
, of
German government deeply embarrassed images Burmese troops indis

all
criminately firing G3 rifles unarmed demonstrators also cut off

at
aid

its to
259

EU
Rangoon The soon followed with sanctions and 1991 declared

in
.
own formal arms embargo As result the military junta the State Law and

,
a
.
Order Restoration Council SLORC resolved become self sufficient and

260 to
(

-
launched major import substitution program
a

Help greater self sufficiency was

attain not difficult find Official Ger
to

to
-

.
man assistance was suspended but the German government sold

its
1989

in
,

its
stake Fritz Werner and the company was free relaunch operations

to
in

in
Burma 1990 the company reappeared Burma joint venture called

as
In

in

a
.

Myanmar Fritz Werner Industries Limited reportedly with

of
book value

$
8
a
million According Bruce Hawke Fritz Werner quietly went about resuming
to

,
.

exports what was euphemistically called German industrial machinery

of

to
'

'
Burma 261
.

Imports since 1988

develop indigenous weapons production

an

takes time and resources

It

to

-
capacity and while working towards this goal Myanmar government has
,

's
continued acquire small arms and ammunition from several foreign suppli
to

ers Imports small arms began flowing almost immediately after the vio
, of

in
.

by

lence despite the informal arms embargo

1988 many Western states
in

.
the

military government has used wide range foreign suppliers

of
While
a

since seizing power China Singapore and Pakistan have been especially
,

important
.

China
•

China has been Myanmar closest and most generous ally since 1988 and
's

the Sino Burmese relationship has been cemented with large arms
of

number
a
. -

mid 1990 the two countries signed

an

transfers enormous billion deal

In

of $1
.4
-

up

deliver military equipment most which was made large conven

of
to

tional systems but also some small arms and ammunition The price tag was
,

.
for

huge but was widely considered bargain the quantity and relative
it
,

sophistication the equipment involved

of

Another 400 million deal was inked

$
.
262

000 Chinese Type

an

November 1994
10

56

This included estimated

in

-
.

assault rifles 40mm RPK grenade launchers recoilless guns and heavy mortars
,

.
for

Ammunition was also supplied these weapons along with other miscellane
263

ous military and dual use materials The rifles and ammunition alone were
-

.
290

264

worth reported million China have supplied Myanmar

is

also said
to
$
a

265

large quantity Hongying HN man ortable SAM missiles

of

with
-5
a

.
-p
58 Small Arms in SE Asia

for

its
In exchange arms and ammunition China not only bought goodwill

the
and influence with the junta Yangon but also reportedly obtained right

,
in
to run signals intelligence SIGINT listening post the Andaman Sea from

in

,
a

266
can eavesdrop

on
which India missile program The closeness the

of
it

's

.
Chinese relationship has caused concern

. of
other parts South and Southeast

in
Asia ironically with some additional benefit the regime counter growing

To
to
,

in
government range weapons

of
Chinese influence India offered Burma

,
a
's
267
cluding small arms and light weapons counter Indian influence Paki

To

,
.
up

see
supply arms

its
stan has recently stepped efforts the junta below

to

on to

).
(
Perhaps concerned about own growing dependence

its
China 1999 Burma

in
,
268
military credits
of
an

declined offer 100 million

in
$

.
as

As well supplying arms China has also encouraged Burma develop

to
,
production reports
its

own capacity Far Eastern Economic Review

In
1991

in
,
.
claimed that Chinese engineers inspected locations near Magwe with the aim
building factory produce M21 semi automatics M22 assault rifles and
of

to

,
a

269
for
as

M23 light guns these weapons

as
machine well 62mm ammunition
,

7
.

.
The project does not seem have proceeded although factory built with
to

a
Chinese assistance near Pye does produce Type and Type anti personnel

58

59

-
270

Instead Burma appears have relied largely exper

on
mines Singaporean
to
,
.

tise for own small arms program

its

.
.

Singapore
•

China has been Myanmar biggest and most visible supplier Singapore

,
If

's

courting the regime but trying

do
silent suitor with the

so
has been
to
,
a
'

'
-
271

lowest possible profile Singapore has been involved

at
Burma since least
of in
.

late 1988 According that year hundreds

of
Bertil Lintner early October
to

in
,
.

boxes marked Allied Ordnance Singapore were unloaded Rangoon port

in
,

's
'

'

from two vessels belonging Burma Five Star Shipping Line The shipment
to

's

contained mortars ammunition and raw materials for the country arms fac
,

's
272

tories The shipment also allegedly included 84mm rockets for Myanmar
's
.

by

M2 recoilless rifles made Chartered Industries Singapore CIS

of

These
(

).
of

were purportedly supplied breach Singapore licensing agreement with

in

's

273

the Swedish defence manufacturer Forenade Fabriksverken Swedish For

.
do

eign Ministry officials not deny that the shipment was made but have said
,

investigation into thematter concluded that Singapore had not breached

an

that
274

obligations
as
its

licensee
a

August 1989 Singapore was again accused transferring weapons

of

to
In

Burma apparently the help joint venture company

of

with called SKS Market

,

ing based Singapore This time the weapons were alleged originate
to
in

in
,

Belgium and Israel and included used 40mm RPG grenade launchers and
-2

Eastern Bloc anti tank guns which were possibly captured from Palestinian
,
-

275

fighters southern Lebanon and xported by Israel While Singapore

re
in

.
-e

as

has denied any involvement the transfers one writer has noted
is
in

,
it
'[
]
 ASEAN Country Studies 59

highly unlikely that any of these arms shipments ... could have been made

276
without the knowledge and support of the Singapore government '. addi

In
tion Singaporean companies are believed have sold the SLORC Chartered

to
,
Industries manufactured M16 automatic rifles and 56mm ammunition

If
5
-

.
proven this would licensing arrangement

be

of
, violation CIS with Colt

.
's

by

of
These early consignments were apparently paid for the sale fishing and

277
logging concessions

.
Perhaps themost controversial sale involving Singapore came 1998 when

in

,
an
Jane Defence Weekly reported that the city state had transferred entire modular

-
's

the
arms factory Myanmar While
transfer has never been confirmed
to

,
is
it
.
by

the leading analysts the Burmese military

by all
The factory
as

of
treated fact
a

.
of
was allegedly
built Chartered Industries Singapore with assistance from

,
278
consultants belonging TAAS Israel Industries was built tested disas
to

It

,
-

Sin
sembled and then shipped Yangon February 1998 aboard the Ho
to

in

,
a
by

Co
vessel owned the Singapore registered company Lian Huat Pte The
-

.
cargo weighed 413 341kg and was packaged several 36m 12m containers

in
,

,
x
described the shipping documents containing pre engineered building as
in

's a'
-
279

by
system According documents obtained Jane the shipment notifier
to

's
'.

was Myanmar Hong Leong wholly subsidiary publicly listed

of
Ltd owned
,
a

a
-

Singapore company
as
The consignee was listed

of
the Directorate Defence
.

Industries Ministry Myanmar state owned arms and

of

Defence which
is
,

-
's
280

ordnance producer Reports suggest the factory may have been reassembled
.

inside the government arms production complex Padaung believed

at

to
is
It
's

.
of up
be

able manufacture arms 37mm calibre and now producing

in
to

to

is
Myanmar indigenous range small arms see below The Singapore gov
(

).
's

ernment has consistently denied transferring weapons arms producing tech

or
281

nologies Myanmar
to

Pakistan
•

Pakistan has also been significant small arms supplier the regime
to

in
a

Yangon since 1988 January 1989

to an

official from Pakistan Ordnance Facto

In
.

ries POF reportedly visited Yangon offer the SLORC arms and ammunition
.
(

Tin

Shortly afterwards Burma Air Force Chief Tun visited Islamabad and
,

's

arranged purchase 150 machine guns

of

000 rounds
50

ammunition and
to

,
,
282

000 large calibre mortar shells POF ordnance subsequently

of

Evidence
,
5

along Burma border with Thailand later sold Myanmar

up

turned Pakistan
.
's

20

mortars launchers assault rifles and ammunition valued about

at

rocket
,

$
283

Apparently many US sup

off

million these arms were siphoned

of

from
-
.

284

plied weapons intended for the Mujahadeen Afghanistan While these

in

sales reportedly 1991 after US pressure Pakistan continued

ceased sell
to
in

,
By

POF weapons Burma was offering training Myanmar army

to

to

1995
it

's
.

part this defence cooperation arrangement had also sold

as

of

and airforce and

285

million unspecified arms and ammunition These were shipped

in

in
$
2
.5

.
60 Small Arms in SE Asia

two consignments in March and April still , Pakistan has 1999 . More recently
indicated a desire to sell more small arms sales to Yangon , partly to offset
Indian influence . In January 2001 , Pakistan ' s military leader General Pervez
Musharraf visited Yangon where he offered small arms , ammunition and soft

286
loans to the SPDC .

Other suppliers and transfers

addition Burma big three suppliers

of to several other countries have
In

,
's
been source small arms and ammunition for Myanmar Amongst those
a

.
often cited are Israel North Korea India Portugal the former Czechoslovakia
,

, ,

,
South Africa and South Korea France Belgium and Chile have also been

.
of

accused arming the junta although difficult find conclusive evidence

to
is
it
,
for many alleged transfers
of

these

for
of
Israel has been reliable source arms Burma Transfers have been
for a

.
motivated largely attempt gain greater

an
commercial reasons but also

to
in
287

the consignment as

of
influence within ASEAN As well captured Palestin
.

ian arms mentioned above Israel apparently tried interest the junta pur

to

in
,

by
chasing 9mm Uzi submachine guns the early 1990s visit Israeli engi
in

A
.
neers Yangon 1991 did not lead any major sales but has been regu
to

to
in

it

288
of

larly reported that the bodyguards senior government officials carry Uzis

.
According Andrew Selth Israeli officials deny that they sold the regime Uzis
to

and point out that the weapon manufactured under licence other coun
is

in
289

tries including the United States There are also unconfirmed reports that
,

290
develop the Uzi called the BA94
its

Burma has tried own version

of
to

In
,

.
March 2000 Jane Intelligence Review reported that Myanmar and Israel had
's

291
for

agreement closer military

an

signed relations
.
of

the help Thai intermediaries Burma arranged the purchase

In

with
,

1990
massive consignment North Korean ammunition The shipment
of

of

of
20
a

ammunition prompted heated speculation among

of

million rounds 62mm

7
.

seasoned Burma watchers curious why the regime didn simply buy from its
,
-

't

regular supplier China Martin Smith has offered one possible answer
—

,
.

suggesting that the weapons were not actually destined for the Tatmadaw but
,

were instead for the government aligned United Wa State Army UWSA the
in
by , -

Shan state According Smith the Wa involvement heroin trafficking

to

in

,
s
.

, '

which was officially opposed Beijing made buying the ammunition from
292

China awkward
.

Portugal also transferred mortars and mortar bombs Burma the early
to

in
293
EU

1990s despite the existence arms embargo According Bertil

of
by an

to
,

Lintner the deal was brokered Singaporean arms dealers who arranged
,

contract with private Portuguese firm called either Industrias Nacionias de

or a

294

Companhia
de
EP

Defensa Polvoras Municoes Barcarena SA The

,

Singaporeans did not divulge the final destination the arms and the
of
 ASEAN Country Studies 61

Portuguese government was apparently genuinely embarrassed to later learn

it had breached the EU ban . Other rumoured but unconfirmed transfers in
clude small arms and ammunition from Belgium , South Africa , Czechoslovakia ,
South Korea and mortar ammunition from France . These cannot be verified .

Recent indigenous production efforts

As noted , since 1988 the military government - since 1996 called the
above
State Peace and Development Council (SPDC ) - has focused efforts on reducing
its

dependence foreign suppliers through program import substitution

of
on

.
Specifically has sought replacement for old G2 and G3 assault rifles

its
,
it

295
which Burmese troops apparently found heavy and prone jamming

it

to

.
According Jane Intelligence Review the import substitution program man
to

is
,
's

-
by

the Ministry Science and Technology facility with

of

aged which shares

a
296
Myanmar Fritz Werner Industries Yangon The army Electrical and

in

's
led .
Mechanical Engineering Corps EMEC has the way designing weap

in
(

)
By

apparently produced

no

16
ons December 1998 EMEC had fewer than
.

prototypes These included copies

of
all

but one which were the

of

56mm
,

5
.

of
Chinese Type rifle the Israeli Galil the G3 and
56

56mm version rifle

,

,
5
a

a
.
as

which analysts have referred the EMERK sometimes called the EMER
to

1
-
(
K1
or

EMER
K
.1
).
are

conflicting reports about the status the EMERK

of
There believed

is
it
-1
:
first thought reverse engi

be
have been designed 1995 and was
at
to

to
in

a
although some have noted
of

neered version the Austrian Steyr AUG also

it
,

resembles the Chinese bullpup assault rifle unveiled during the handover

, of
297

Hong Kong 1997 Several publications including Jane Defence Weekly

in

's
.

available either bullpup styled assault rifle light

or
as

as
is

claim 56mm
it

5
a

a
-

.
298

machine gun They report that both versions are nearly identical with

,
.

stamped all metal bodies and M16 type magazines Both are 832mm length in
-

although the LMG weighs 500g more empty magazine

at

5kg with
an

The
4

(
.

.
difference likely heavier barrel According these accounts the weapons
to

,
is

.)

have the same effective range and firing rate given 400m and 650 rounds per
as
,
299

minute respectively unclear how widely the EMERK has been issued
It
is

1
-
.

troops Some writers have claimed that the weapon was given soldiers
to

to
.

300

guarding the Yadana gas pipeline project the country

of

the south Other

in

sources say that has only seen limited use the field but that examples have
in
by it

301

been captured insurgents both the Thai and Indian border regions
in

Conversely some commentators have recently raised questions about the

,

status EMERK program Discussing Burma indigenous weapons

of

the
1

's
-

program Sentinel Southeast Asia notes the existence 56mm LMG

of

Jane
,

5
a
's

and assault rifle and 62mm LMG but adds that the EMER seems
to
,

K
3027

.1
a

have been abandoned seems possible that this disagreement the result
It

is
'.

confusing nomenclature
of

of

of
In

his assessment the Burmese order battle for

,
.
62 Small Arms in SE Asia

example , Andrew Selth does not refer to the EMERK - 1 rifle , but notes the use of
the Ka Pa Sa MA - 1 5 .56mm rifle , a Ka Pa Sa MA - 2 5 .56mm assault rifle and the

303

be
Ka Pa Sa MA -3 LMG . possible that these may the new standard

is
It
names for the EMERK program

1
-

.
additiondeveloping more advanced small arms production capac

to
In

a
the
ity

regime has also improved ability produce ammunition

its
Burmese

to
,

.
The largest armaments complex well guarded facility across the Irawaddy

It is
a

-
includes factories making 56mm

of
River from the town Prome 62mm

,
5

7
.

.
and 9mm ammunition Htonebo Padaung and Nyaung Chidauk Accord

at

(
.
ing Jane Defence Weekly Burma has been making 56mm ammunition since
to

5
's

of
Another facility Malun west the Irawaddy near
at

at
least 1996 located

is

,
.)

Magwe and there are others Inndaing ntaing Pegu district and another

at

in
)
(I
304

near Mandalay likely that

In

addition small calibre ammunition

to

is
it
,
.

technology transfers recent years has given Myanmar the ability produce
in

51mm 60mm 81mm and 120mm mortar bombs hand grenades 41mm and
,

,
for
51mm rifle launched grenades and probably grenades

its
40mm grenade
-

'

'
launchers 305
.

Licit arms transfers

Myanmar small arms production date has been with the goal meet

of
to
's

ing There have been no recorded in

its

own considerable domestic needs

.

weapons sales transfers and although one 1998 report suggested

of

stances
or

that the government had the long term goal exporting ordnance and small
of
-

is 306
no

arms for foreign exchange evidence support this claim was offered
to
,

.
Given the intense international scrutiny which the regime subjected
to

it
is

,
of

reasonable assume that news any transfers would quickly surface For the
to

.
time being therefore appears that Myanmar government not an exporter
is
it

's
or
of

small arms ammunition

.

Small arms and non state actors

-

Myanmar home numerous long running insurgencies along north

its
to
is

-
ern

307

eastern and western borders The rebel groups involved these con
in
,

all

flicts vary motivation numbers resources and military strength but they
in

rely almost exclusively assault rifles light machine

on

small arms such

as

,
308

guns RPGs and might mortars While the past some groups have had
in
,

their own limited production capacity most their weapons are acquired
of
,

as

through illicit transfers including covert supplies from governments such

,
309

Thailand and India

.

addition these rebel groups Myanmar host several sub state ac

to
to
In

is
,

tors allied with the government Yangon that also possess impressive mili
in
310

The most important these the United Wa State Army UWSA

of

tary arsenals
,

),
.

military power own right The Wa effectively control the north eastern
its
is

in
a

-
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 63

Shan state and are massive producers and exporters of narcotics . UWSA op
erations take place with the tacit approval of the government , which views it as
a useful buffer force between Thailand and Myanmar .

The following brief survey is not intended to be a detailed description of the

reasons for the various intra - state conflicts in Myanmar , but rather outlines

the
some of principal rebel groups involved their small arms holdings and the

,
311
their weapons
of
source

.
Thai border region

Karenni Army KA
•

(
The military wing )
the Karenni Army KA was
Karenni movement
of
the

)
seeking
independent

an
founded establish status for the ethni
It

to
of is

1974
in

At
cally Karenni states Bawlake Kyebogyi and Kantarwady one time the
,

.
KA had ceasefire agreement with the Myanmar regime although this

no
is
,
a

longer the KA beyond

of
force Little known about the command structure
is
in

by.
led

total membership

of
that Bee Htoo and believed have fewer
to
is

is
it

a
guerrillas According Jane Sentinel the KA lightly armed with
to

is
than 1000

,
.

's
few

rifles handguns and machine guns The principal source these weap

of
,

smuggling across the border from well trading with

as
ons Thailand

as
is

,
other Burmese rebel forces
.

Karen National Liberation Army KNLA

•

The KNLA the military wing the Karen National Union KNU which
of
is

)
for

has been fighting for Karen homeland Burma more than five decades

It
in
a

.
for
armed with many the weapons that are standard equipment
of

rebel
is

groups the region assault rifles light machine guns mortars and RPGs
in

,
:

.
News reports seem suggest the KNLA relies miscellany rifles includ
on
to

of
a

ing AK47s ncluding the Chinese Type AR15s M16s HK33s

56

assault rifle
),

,
(i

312

SKS rifles G3s and G4s During the 1990s many

of

these were smuggled

,

to
,
.

by

Burma from the Thai Cambodia border where they had been sold Khmer
-

Rouge and Cambodian military forces

.

recent years the Karen movement has weakened and suffered several
In

of

major military defeats the most important being the capture headquarters
its
,

4th

The KNLA
at

Manerplaw January 1995 Brigade headquarters

in
in

's

Minthamese opposite the Thai province Kathanaburi also fell the Bur
to
of
,

mese military 1997 The Tatmadaw was aided this cause by the Demo
in

in
.

Buddhist Army DKBA

of

cratic Karen former members the KNU who had

),
(

313

broken away sign ceasefire with the government According Yangon

to

to

,
a

KNU members have also surrendered under the Burmese government weap
's
'
314
for

ons peace program

'

Despite these setbacks the KNU has not collapsed military force
as
,

In
a

.
of

most significant victories

its

November 2000 achieved one

it

recent times
in

,
64 Small Arms in SE Asia

when group of KNLA troops armed with assault rifles , rocket -propelled gre
a
nades ,
heavy machine guns and 81mm mortars captured a Tatmadaw military
camp at Tojo Mountain near the Thai border . The victory not only boosted
KNU morale , it also yielded a cache of abandoned arms and ammunition .
According to an Associated Press reporter present during the operation , KNU
troops seized ' thousands of assault rifle rounds and dozens of rocket pro

315
pelled grenades '.
As

battlefield gains the KNLA continues obtain smuggled weap

as
well

to
,
Thailand Many these arms originate Cambodia and are moved

of
ons from

in
.

316
corrupt sympathetic Thai security personnel
of Arms

or
with the assistance

.
317
often move the Karen forces through refugee camps along the border Of
to

.
for
ten

these are stored large caches along the border region later use Sei
in

.
arms shipments Thailand are relatively common but
of

zures the Karen

to

in

318
many are small and thought just
be

of
fraction the total transfers
to

.
rumours that the Thai govern
There are also persistent but unconfirmed
ment covertly supplying the KNLA along with other groups fighting Yangon
is

.
June 2000 Far Eastern Economic Review citing Thai intelligence officials re
In

,
the British Special Air Service SAS have
of

ported that that former members

)
been recruited train Karen fighters No other details have emerged
to

.
United Wa State Army UWSA
•

Wa State
The United the successor Army
the Burmese Communist
to
is

Party BCP which collapsed after internal squabbles 1989 When the BCP
in

.
(

leadership fled into exile the UWSA inherited large arsenal

of
Chinese
its
,

several rebel groups sign

of

made small arms and became one ceasefire

to

a
agreement with the government The peace deal was reportedly offered

in
.

exchange for the Wa right keep their arms and produce and sell narcot
319 to

to
's
by
ics

Yangon
unhindered The UWSA has been closely linked one the
to

of
, .

top generals the junta intelligence chief and SPDC Secretary One
Lt
Gen
in

-
Khin Nyunt and fighters work with the Tatmadaw parts
of

the border
its

in
,

320

area with Thailand

.

of

The UWSA one the richest non state militaries Southeast Asia and
in
is

Thai intelligence officials have described the group first effective

as

Asia
's
`
321

drug cartel drug operations are based factories just across the Thai
50
Its

in
'.

border These have produced estimated 600 million methamphetamine

an
.

322
few

pills that have flooded Thailand the past years 1996 following the
In
in

,
.

Mong Army the UWSA took over several key bor

Sa

surrender Khun Tai

of

,
s
'

drug opera
by

der towns previously controlled

its

the Shan and expanded

323

presently troops
12

20

tions estimated have between and

It

to
is

000
,
.

As well spending one billion baht developing Yong Mawn the

as

at

base
,
a

Wa have invested profits from their drug trafficking activities upgrading

in
324

military capabilities July 2000 the UWSA announced through

its

their
In

,
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 65

network of agents along the Thai and Lao borders that it was prepared to pay
up to 10,000 baht ($ 250 ) for an assault rifle in good condition , either an AK47 or

325
these weapons come from Thai government arsenals

of
an M16 . Most

or
are
smuggled through Thailand from Cambodia open secret that the cross

an
is
It
.
corrupt members

of
border trade would not be possible without the complicity
the Thai and Burmese military border officials and police
of

one recent

In
,

.
of
example two members the Thai police ordnance division were arrested

in
,

connection with the attempted theft

of

of
20
000 rounds 56mm ammunition

5
.
from government arsenal Along with two other suspects former police

,
a

a
, .

326
officer and former soldier they had links the UWSA

to
a

.
But addition smuggled arms there are also unconfirmed rumours that
to
in

,
the Wa deals directly with major Chinese arms producers like Norinco Ac

.
cording sources Bangkok not only does the Wa buy from Norinco meet
to

its to
in

weapons ,
other insurgents part from
its

on

own needs also sells bitter

to
it
,

(a
327
rivals the Shan State Army profit of for
Some reports suggest that China

, is
,

.
)

supplying the Wa with the aim pushing their drug peddling operation south
328

away from the Chinese border Other analysts have mentioned the govern
.

for
important
an

ment Yangon conduit for Wa small arms example the

as
in

,
North Korean ammunition shipment mentioned above The relationship be

.
tween the UWSA and Yangon complex however One explanation some
is

.
times given for the Wa recent arms expenditure their fear that any shift
is

in
's

power within the SPDC Khin Nyunt

of

of
the balance for example the fall
—

-
the collapse their ceasefire agreement The Tatmadaw has also
of

could lead
to

.
by

trying
of

been accused the Wa smuggle arms into Wa territory for use

to

in
future operations against the group
.

Shan State Army SSA

(

the

Army
of

The Shan forces that signed

the sole remnant
is

State Shan

a
peace agreement with the Burmese government
was also affiliated
It

1989
in

Mong Tai Army which officially surrendered

Sa

with Khun 1996 The SSA

in
s
'

have some former MTA members within goal

its

continues
Its

ranks
is
to

to
.

independent Shan State

an

create
.

The SSA predominantly

armed with assault rifles explosives and light
,
is

machine guns weapons captured from the Tatmadaw most

of

addition
to
In

,
.

these are bought illicitly from Thailand Laos and southern China There have
of ,

.
of

also been rumours covert supplies weapons from the Thai government
.

These reports have become more credible bigger role

on
as

the SSA has taken

a

fighting the drug trafficking activities the pro angon United Wa State Army
of

.
-Y

Despite
its

own extensive involvement narcotics the past the SSA has

in

in

of ,

seemingly been opted into the Thai government fighting Wa

In co

strategy
-

's
329

smuggling April 2000 Thai deputy Foreign Minister Sukhumbhand

,
.

Paribatra admitted that Thailand was supporting clandestine sabotage opera

330

tions Wa controlled territory inside Burma The SSA was believed be

to
in

.
66 Small Arms in SE Asia

receiving Thai support , particular after UWSA and Tatmadaw forces launched
a coordinated offensive against the group early in 2001 .

India and Bangladesh border region

There are several groups fighting the Burmese government using bases along
the borders with India and Bangladesh . The weapons traffic in this region is
two- way , as rebels in the Indian states of Mizoram and Manipur and in Bang
ladesh also buy and sell weapons across the border . Groups like the National
Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN ) , the United Liberation Front of Asom
(ULFA ) and the People ' s Liberation Army of Manipur (PLA ) source weapons
from inside Burma , sometimes in exchange for drugs or the chemical precur

331
for

sors needed their manufacture consignment from Cambodia destined

in A
.
for ULFA intercepted by authorities the mid 1990s contained 775 AK56 as

-
GPMGs RPGs 100 anti tank weapons pistols and thou
65

10

50
sault rifles
,

,
-
332
of

of

sands rounds rifle ammunition The small Indian border town Morea

of
.
one important centre for the exchange weapons and
as

of
has been identified
333

drug related products Weapons are also apparently transferred out

of
the
-

.
the

334

region Tamil Tigers

to

Burma Arakan State insurgent groups include the Arakan Liberation

In

,
's

Army Arakan Army Arakan People Army Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front
,

,
's

Rohingya Army and Rohingya National Army These are generally equipped
.

with AK47s and other rifles and explosives smuggled across the border from

by
Bangladesh Many the weapons originate
of

Cambodia and come sea via

in
.

Thailand and the Bangladeshi port Bazaar According Agence

of

an
Cox

to
.
's

France Presse report one shipment landed the port

at

December 2000 was

in
,

' of

supposedly worth some 000 Comprised AK47s AK56s M16s mortars

80
,

,
$

.
as

as

40mm rocket launchers well pistols and Chinese made explosives and
-

335

hand grenades was believed have come Cambodia

to
',

from
it

.
by

Another shipment was intercepted Indian navy vessels off Port Blair
en
336

As

route the Burma Bangladesh border well arms ammuni

to

as

1998
in

,
, -

tion and explosives the two boats involved were carrying kilograms
of
50

heroin After further investigation was discovered that the navy had inad
,
it
.

vertently exposed Indian intelligence operation smuggling arms

an

rebels
in
to

the Arakan and Chin states India external intelligence service the Research
,
's
.

Wing
of

and Analysis RAW had facilitated the purchase the weapons

in
(

Cambodia and arranged for them be smuggled the Chin and Arakan
to

to
337

of

insurgents the shipments infuriated

on

Thai crewed trawlers News the

-

Indian army which argued that large proportion the Indian weapons were
of
,

finding their way back across the border secessionists groups they were
to

fighting The Burmese rebels were believed be selling surplus weapons

to

to
.

338

the Indian separatists

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 67

Philippines

The Philippines is a heavily armed society , with a level of civilian gun

339
ownership close to that of the United States . also has large domestic gun

It

a
industry both legal and illegal the past illegally produced weapons have

In
.
generally been low quality but some are increasingly being made close

of

to
,
military specifications and have been linked criminal groups and insur

to
gents both inside the Philippines and overseas Filipino weapons

of
Transfers
,

.
reported groups the Maluku islands Indonesia although the

of
have been

to

in

,
smuggling the Philippines
of

the difficult Transfers

to
scale calculate

to
is

'
.
several insurgent groups are also major problem and involve not just leakage

a
and black market sales but also covert grey market supplies from several Mid
,
dle Eastern states Gun violence problem and there strong gun lobby

in
is
is
a
.

a
Philippines politics well increasingly vocal gun control constituency
as

as
an

.
History

The United States has historically been the most important supplier mili

of
weapons
of
tary the Armed Forces the Philippines AFP The AFP was
to

).
created by the US 1936 and after the World War inherited the American
in

it
II
arms and ammunition already the islands The US continued influence

its
in

.
after independence through Military Assistance Agreement MAA with the
a

)
Philippines government which ensured the provision US equipment and

of
,

advisers and which also prevented the Philippines from purchasing arms from
third parties without US consent Not surprisingly the

to
from 1950 1970
,

,
.

total Filipino arms provided by the United States never slipped

of

percentage
the
340

Of
all

by

per cent the ASEAN states Philippines was the

75

below
,

1985
.

most heavily dependent single foreign supplier

on

arms
a

Occasionally non American weapons were acquired such the ubiqui

as
,
-

tous German G3 and the Israeli Uzi submachine gun and Galil assault rifle but
generally US small arms dominated the Philippines imports During the 1970s ,
'

.
the

the

US sold Philippines government more than

45

000 M16A1 rifles and

,

later sold the rights for licensed production

of

the M16 the Elisco Tools

to
341

Company see below also sold some 3000 M203 grenade launchers
It

it
(

).

American transfers continue the present day often bargain basement prices
to

at
,

1994 and 1995 alone the US gifted 500 M16A1s 448 M1911A1 pistols
22

16
In

,
,

342 ,

M240 machine guns the Philippines government

10

638 M14 rifles and

to
,
3

Military inventory

The AFP current small arms inventory includes the 9mm

FN

35

9mm
,
's

GLOCK and 9mm M1911A1 pistols 9mm Uzi and the World War
45

era
II
;
,

M3A1 submachine guns 56mm M16A1 and Galil assault rifles 62mm M14
;

;
5

7
.

.
100

and G3 rifles Singapore Ultimax light machine gun and

;

56mm 62mm
5
.
's

7
.
68 Small Arms in SE Asia

M60 and FN MAG machine guns . The Philippines military uses American
M79 and M203 grenade launchers .

The AFP is currently in the midst of a modernisation plan . Under the latest

be 000
plan , the army will reduce

its

15
65

50
revised size from men 000 over

to
,

a
year period and eight infantry divisions will

its
restructured into three

,
the
, As
as
organised rapid reaction brigades part army

of
this transition

is
.
acquiring badly needed new equipment including infantry weapons Plans

.
for new assault rifle replace the aging M16A1 have been mooted has the

343as
to

,
a

light machine gun

as
need for more section assault weapons such Given

a
(

).
the Philippines budgetary difficulties and more pressing defence needs

,
'

this acquisition will likely have wait until sufficient new funding be

to
344

comes available
.

Domestic production

has been the domestic production small arms ammu

. of
an

There interest
in

,
of
nition and munitions the Philippines meas

at
since least 1917 series
in

A
ures was proposed for the creation local arms industry prior independ

to
of
a

of
all

ence but pass until the enactment the 1957 Republic Act This
to

failed
,

.
declared that was government policy achieve within reasonable time
to
it

a
'

self ufficiency small arms mortars and other weapons ammunitions for
in

,
-s

345
these weapons and other munitions for the use the military establishment
of
,

. ”
346
government arsenal for the purpose
of of

also mandated the creation The

It

.
result was the establishment state run arsenal Camp General Antonio
in
a

Luna 150km from Manila although ground was not broken the site until 1967 at
,

.
The imaginatively named Government Arsenal GA produced

its
first small
(

arms cartridge August 1971 Three years later integrated small arms ammu
in

.
all

nition production began with the components case primer propellant

,

,
–

powder and bullet assembled into complete cartridge manufactured the

in
a

-
347

By 1985 GA produced most re

of

arsenal the small arms ammunition

.

. '

'
348

quired by the AFP

old

M1 Garands
30

This included calibre rounds for the

.

pistol ammunition
50

and carbines 45mm calibre ball and 62mm and

.,

7
.

.
349

56mm ammunition
5
.

The Philippines domestic production was given another boost under the
'

Marcos dictatorship September 1972 was

of

The declaration martial law

in
.
by

followed surge activity from insurgent groups like the New People
in
a

's

Army NPA and the Moro National Liberation Front MNLF Marcos re
(

).
by

sponded increasing the size 000 troops

of

62

the AFP from about 160 000

to
,

,
350

by 1986
be

equipped and from November 1972

on

These soldiers needed

to

,
.

greater emphasis was put outfitting them from local sources early 1974
on

In
.

this was formalised when Presidential Decree 415 launched the Self Reliant
-
the
351

be

Defence Posture Program SRDP Among projects given priority

to
(

).

private
of

were the production small arms and ammunition

of

number
A
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 69

companies were ' confiscated ' by the government to achieve this end , including
the Elizalde group . In 1974 an Elizalde subsidiary , the Elisco Tool Manufac
turing Company , was given the task of producing 150 , 000 M16s (Models 613

352
and 653P ) under licence from Colt . turnkey plant for the purpose was

A
by
provided Colt and actual production began 1982 The contract was sub

in

.
60
sequently extended for another 000 rifles These M16A1s remain the stand

.
of
ard infantry weapon the AFP

.
Other SRDP projects involving small arms and light weapons included
mortar production the manufacture

of
81mm mortar tubes began 1974 and

in
); (

by
60mm tubes MKII hand grenade was produced 1978 and 56mm
in

1977

5
a

.
byby
ammunition began produced be
Government Arsenal 1983 M16 rifle

in
to

.
the
production was also accompanied manufacturing

of
various accesso

353
Oro made M16 bayonets

El
ries for example company called
,
,

.
a

Several other local producers were involved

of
the manufacture small

in
354
arms under the SRDP They included
.

Andres Construction Industrial Corporation :

vacorp produced
A
.V

a
•

)
.

(A
rifle grenade for the SRDP The 40mm grenade was based

on
local

a
.

design and used both live and blank ammunition was designed be

to
It
.
presumably using standard US M203 grenade
an

fired from M16

,

by
for

launcher The initial contract was 385 000 rounds and 1987 the
,
.

company had delivered 335 912 rounds Avacorp was also contracted
,

produce ammunition for the M79 grenade

of

million rounds
to

1
.5
By

had only delivered grenades

29

launcher 1988 860

,
it
.

for
Cortes Manufacturing Corporation produced barrels the old
A
S
.
.

upplied M1 M2 well as

30
American and M14 rifles calibre
as
,

a
.
-s

machine gun barrel

.

Government Arsenal produced variety rifles and small arms ammu

of
a

nition mostly based US designs and technology also produced the

on

It
,

German G3 rifle under licence from Heckler and Koch Government Ar

.
US

M
on

senal produced
19

60mm and 81mm mortars based the and

M
-
29

models
.

Dayton Metals developed 60mm mortar bomb with range

of

950m
,

,
a

apparently without any technology transfer Originally contracted

to
.
375

by

supply 000 rounds the AFP 1988 Dayton had delivered 300 000
to
,

,
of .
for

Hannah Corporation was allocated responsibility the development

pyrotechnics under the SRDP
of

produces range white green and red

It

,
a
.

the
Ltd 000
An

original contract for units was signed with

80

flares AFP
,
.

.
As

Creative Self Reliance Enterprises part the indigenous mortar

of
:
-

production project Creative Self Reliance developed point detonat

,

a
-

ing delayed rming fuse for use with 60mm and 81mm mortars The
,

.
-a

for

total contract volume was 340450 fuses

.
70 Small Arms in SE Asia

Production today

Government Arsenal : Today, Government Arsenal (GA ) retains

as
its
role
the major supplier the Philippines AFP and the Philip

of
the Armed Forces

of

)
pines National Police PNP Under government regulations enacted April

in
(

).
2000 GA charged with developing capabilities enhance self sufficiency

to
is
,

-
. '
the country defence requirements Towards this end the Government
in

of ,
's
Arsenal shall be effectively used the production basic weapons

in

,
the AFP and Philippine Na

for
ammunitions and other munitions

of
355 the use
tional Police GA mandate further allows production facilities

its
use

to
it
's
.'

arrange joint ventures

or
roduction similar arrangements with local

co
to

,
-p
and foreign entities 356
'.

appar

for
GA export market Philippines made arms
an

keen find
to
is

It
, -

by
for
ently explored the possibilities exports the 1980s but was blocked

in
existing laws Under the 1995 Republic Act No 7898 and the regulations de
, .

.
scribed above however GA permitted export arms produced

of
excess

to
is

in
,

'
AFP and PNP requirements The arsenal management describes these

's
'.

357
as

changes the law fortuitous

to

'

'.

GA currently manufactures types ammunition for the AFP and

of
seven
for

PNP two production lines one

on

rifle rounds the Gatlo line and one for

)
:

pistol rounds the Gapat Gabin line The ammunition types are 56mm M193

),
5
(

(
-

).

.
calibre M1 and carbine calibre M2
30

30

45

38
62mm M80 calibre M1911
;

;
7
.

.
358

its

Special and 9mm parabellum According annual report production

to

in
;

,
.

of
year 2000 Government Arsenal produced million rounds 52
of
17
total
a

.
359

small arms ammunition

.

GA currently planning program dependent Phil

on
modernisation the
,
is

ippines government approval funds There have also been reports that GA
of
'

(
.
to s

may privatised permit the improving equipment Specific plans

be

its
of

.)

upgrading
of

include the the 56mm and 62mm ammunition lines and the
5

7
.

of
nitration plant give the Philippines
its
of

establishment first local source

to
a

360

military grade nitrocellulose NC

(

).

Private production
as

state run armoury the Philippines has very large private

As

well
,
a

a
-

arms industry the biggest players the private sector

of

One the Arms

is
in
of .

Corporation the Philippines ARMSCOR the self described largest arms

),

'
-
(

361

manufacturer Southeast Asia ARMSCOR produces weapons and am

in

'.

the
for

munition both the government and for local gun market factory
in
in
a

Parang Marikina City

,

According promotional materials the company currently manufac

its
of to

tures range pistols revolvers bolt action rifles shotguns semi automatic
,

,
a

. -

extensive selection of ammunition

as

as

Among
an

and assault rifles well

 ASEAN Country Studies 71

these weapons are the MAK and theM1600 assault rifles, which the company

362
describes as ' exact replicas ' of the M16 and AK47 . The weapons are not
less expensive and less powerful

as
replicas however they are chambered

in
,

,
LR
ent 22 High
Velocity ammunition addition ARMSCOR produces differ

11
In

,
.

.
all
special revolvers four semi auto

22
bolt

38
rifles
action calibre four

);

;
-

-
(
.

.
matic rifles which claims are designed for the satisfaction semi auto tar

of
it
,

, -
'
get shooting enthusiasts and M1911 A1 pistols

45
of

40
selection and

in
';

.
.
363
9mm calibres.

ARMSCOR has also signed agreement with the South African firm Denel

an

364
produce the 9mm Vektor pistol under licence According industry

SP
to

to
1
-

.
reports ARMSCOR will initially manufacture 000 weapons for the Philip

10
,

,
pines National Police PNP and will also sell the pistol commercially

on
the
(

365
large Philippines domestic gun market According the company website

to

,
.

's
are
ARMSCOR also developing several pistols M1911 range that

its
not

in
is

366

yet available for sale

.

ammunition production ARMSCOR produces wide range

of

terms

of
In

a
Company materials claim produce M1

30
calibres calibre and 56mm
to

5
.

.
as

M193 ammunition rounds produces

as

well 223 and 222 REM also

38 It
,

a
.

. .
(

large range ammunition and unprimed cartridges

40
of
22

357 9mm

in

.,
,

.,
,
.

367

The company prod

its
have exported
45

30

56mm and calibres claims

to
,
5
.

countries although no
22

ucts more than further details are available

to

It
,

.
exports International Marketing
an

an

maintains interest however and has

in

Inc
subsidiary ARMSCOR Precision
an

Director and office for based Las

in
,

,
a

.
368

Vegas
.

are

addition ARMSCOR there many smaller firearms manufacturers

In

to

throughout the Philippines These include Shooters Arms Manufacturing In

.

369
Co

corporated Stronghand Incorporated and

PB

Dionisio According

45 to
&
,

the PNP Firearms and Explosives Division 1998 there were FED April
in
),
's

legal manufacturers small arms 522 authorised dealers and 133 gun repair
370of

shops the country The largest concentration these producers

of

around
in

is
.

Danao City and Mandaue City the Visayas where arms production has
25 In in

way 3000 gun

be
of

been life for decades Danao there are estimated

to
,
a

many
as

000 people are believed

on
at

as

smiths work and rely

to

the gun
,
371

trade for their livelihood

.

There are two major licensed producers Danao the Danao Arms Cor
in

poration DAMCOR and the Workers League Danao Multi Purpose Coop
of

by-
(

as the

Under licensing agreement signed

of

erative WORLD MPC the Chief

a
-
(

).

PNP these two manufacturers are authorised produce

of

total
be to

000
,

6
,
a

sorted firearms annually They are believed dire financial straits how
to

in

,
.

they collapse many their employees will

of

ever and there are fears that

if
,

,
372

return illegal production

to

.
72 Small Arms in SE Asia

With such extensive domestic production , it is not surprising that the Phil-
ippines has problems controlling the spread of small arms . Indeed , it is diffi
cult even to get an accurate picture of how many guns are circulating in the
country . There are currently between 600 ,000 and 700 , 000 guns registered

373
with the Philippines National Police (PNP ). addition there are estimated

In
Of

,
somewhere between 270 000 and 600 000 unregistered weapons
be
circu
to

in
,

,
374
lation Philippines Center for Transnational Crime report citing the PNP

,
A

to 's
.

Firearms and Explosives Division FED comes up with figure closer

),

a
(

un
unregistered guns
dividing the total into 189 766

re
350 000 registered
,

,
'
-
-
weapons 156 firearms that are lost and 157 860 weapons simply desig
' 2,
,

,
‘

'
375
The annual output

of
the country gun industry means
as

nated loose

's
’.

constantly increasing According the PNP more than

65
these totals are 000

to

,
. .
new guns are registered every year Doubtless countless more are not regis

,
tered With many guns being legally produced and owned little wonder
so

it
is
,
.

that many slip into the hands criminals and insurgent groups active the
of

in
country
.

Illegal and paltik production

'

'

addition large legal arms industry the Philippines home

to

to
is
In

,
a

a
illicit producers Many
of

of
significant number these are also based around
.

Danao and Mandaue City Much the production involves paltik

of

. or
'

'
.

or
homemade weapons and takes place backyards small primitive factories
in

According some sources many these producers would like legally

to be
of
to

to
,

registered and properly authorised produce arms but are unable get ap
to

,
376

proval due bureaucratic obstacles

to

Many paltik weapons are literally hand made often crafted from pipes
,

,
-
377

old car parts the more sophisticated examples

of

steel bars even Some are

,

378

chromed and engraved with fake American markings The work

is
even
.

incredibly time consuming taking three days produce simple shotgun and
to
,

a
-

for
long handgun Even making
as

can as

38
three weeks make hammer
to

a
.

.
379

pistol
are

While the guns low quality and

of

take hours work often

8

'

frequently more dangerous the user than the intended target some higher
to

quality copies military style weapons are becoming available report

of

in
A
-

Asiaweek magazine 1996 mentioned the availability locally made sub

of
in

own hybrid mili

his

machine gun and referred gunsmith who had made

to
a

380

tary weapon based the Armalite Ingram and M16 rifles

on

more recent
,

A
.

BBC report claimed that automatic weapons are available Danao with
in

a
381

submachine gun costing

as

as

little 375
$

There are paltik sales elsewhere the Philippines well Business the
as
in

in
.

Cruz brisk with reports claiming that gunmakers cannot meet

of

city Santa
382is

the rising demand According Philippine Daily Inquirer report August

to

in
a
.

despite the increased demand prices firearms were remaining steady

of
,

2000
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 73

that
thei
handgun cost

45
while

20

30
revolver cost between P1000 and P1900

),
A

($

a
-

383
sed

P10000 Shotguns ranged from P4000 P6000 depending their quality

on
to
,
i itis:

.
The widespread illegal production sidearms has also been reported

of
ulating

in
registaMindanao According Merliza Makinano and Alfredo Lubang unlicensed
ire 25

to

,
. .
estima copies calibre pistols are made Western Mindanao and
of

45
and

38

in
.
Zamboanga Prices Mindanao include P25000 for 9mm pistol P24000 for

in

,
ons
the in

a
pl c

384
calibre handgun genuine M16 costs P26000
45

.
a

.
o

close
"e

register Illicit transfers

not hantry ply
rey 650merdes

The Philippines has serious problem with the illicit movement

of
small
arms Many the arms illegally produced a
Danao have reportedly found
of

in
.

their way into the hands insurgent groups and criminal gangs including
of

,
385
Taiwanese and Japanese crime syndicates Until the late 1980s the Yakuza

,
.
wonde used buy arms directly from Danao but crime syndicates now use middle
e

386to

,
the
ve

highly organised process agents collect finished products

in

men what
is
In

,
a
.

variety small producers and consolidate the weapons pre desig

of

on
from
a

-
nated bodegas for shipment Japan Important exit points include Batangas
to

,
of .
'

387
Ilocos Sur and other northern parts the country the southern Philip

In
.
pines gunrunners are especially active Agusan Misamis Surigao Sulu
in
,

,
ne
to
:

388
Basilan Tawi Tawi and Zamboanga provinces According Philippines

to
,

Trounc .
diplomats Japanese gangs now also import Filipino gunmakers rather than
or

,
ik
'

389

just simply their products

.

tories
gali There are also reports that Filipino weapons have been
smuggled Mus

to
ap

lim

forces January 2000 the Indonesian newspaper Suara

Malukus
et

the
In

,
in

claims that helicopter had airlifted shipment weapons

of
Merdeka reported
a

from Davao Ambon with the tacit approval the Indonesian military No
of
to

.
pes
,

evidence was provided support this allegation which was strongly denied
to

are
390

sea
by

by
for

Indonesian forces more likely route smuggling According

is
A
.

Indonesian military commanders Filipino weapons purchased Mindanao

in
to

,
391

are freely traded weapons have been seized

on
of

Maluku number
in

A
.

passenger boats travelling from the Philippines and the Indonesian Navy has
intercepted some small craft carrying arms July 2000 three ships loaded
In

,
.

with unspecified weaponry were stopped route from the Philippines

en

to
392

Halmahera and Ternate North Maluku January 2001 the navy inter
In
in

,
' .

cepted what described as Filipino traditional vessel destined for the

it

a
six

Malukus carrying guns and 454 bullets The guns were World War
II
.
393

vintage
.

Insurgent groups

The Philippines home several long running insurgencies particularly

to

,
is

the country Prominent rebel groups include the Moro Islamic

of

the south
in

Liberation Front MILF the Abu Sayyaf Group ASG the New People Army
),

),

's
(

(
74 Small Arms in SE Asia

the
(NPA ) and Proletarian Army Alex Boncayao Brigade RPA
Revolutionary

(
394
groups political agenda numbers and military

of
ABB These vary terms

in

,
).

all
strength but they rely almost exclusively small arms although there are

on

,
the
reports that MILF and Abu Sayyaf have been trying buy heavy weap

to
395
ons Typically rebel inventories include assault rifles M203 grenade launch

,
, .

346
ers light machine guns RPGs and light mortars According one writer

to
,

.
who spent time with the MILF military wing the Bangamoro Islamic Armed

or —
's
sprinkling

as of
Forces BIAF they are armed with the M14 M16 rifle with
in —

a
(

)
M1 Garands evidence At section level the BIAF uses the M60 GPMG

,
.
'

397
Phil
as

well M79 grenade launchers and locally made RPG

2s
see below

(
-

).
as
ippines intelligence June 2001 Abu Sayyaf had 640

of
sources estimate that

398
men with 208 firearms Jolo and 464 men with 177 firearms Basilan

In
in

in
,

.
addition politically motivated groups there are also several private armies
to

,
-

affiliated with Filipino organised crime figures that possess impressive mili
399

tary arsenals
.

While some insurgent groups production capacity

have their own limited

,
most weapons are bought stolen captured from Philippines security per
or
,

sonnel Some weapons also reportedly come through covert channels from
.

governments the Middle East although difficult get firm evidence

to
to
is
in

it
support these claims Philippines rebel groups are some the better equipped

of
.

and better funded Southeast Asia Groups like Abu Sayyaf are able pay

to
in

high prices for weapons successful campaign

on

the black market thanks

to
,

a
400

hostage taking during 2000 According Peter Chalk the MILF and Abu
of

to

,
-

Sayyaf are known purchased sizeable quantities arms through deal

have of
to
ers

Phuket and Ranong which have been smuggled

of

Thailand most
in

in

,
401

back Mindanao through Sabah The group has also obtained weapons

in
to

direct swaps for hostages and the illegal

be

also rumoured involved

to
is

in
402

drug trade
.
by

Production rebel groups

According
reports 1999 the Moro Islamic Liberation Front MILF has
to

in

)
403

arms factory An MILF spokesman Ustadz

an

built central Mindanao

in

,
.

Shariff Mohsin Julabbi told the Philippine Daily Inquirer that the factory had
97
,

employees and produced high calibre weapons and ammunition including

, ,

as a
-

well
as

replica grenade launcher 60mm mortars

of

the Russian RPG

,
2
-

404

unspecified bullets and bombs He claimed the factory could produce

'.

month and said that the MILF had about 1500

of

almost 200 RPG the

2s
a
-

weapons inventory more senior MILF figure Ghadzali Jaafar later

its
in

,
A
.

2s
as

the factory and said well producing RPG

as
of

confirmed the existence

,
-

calibre pistols and 60mm mortars also converted M1 rifles into fully
45

it
,
.

405

automatic M14s
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 75

Grey market transfers

for
Anotherimportant source of illicit weapons Filipino insurgents the

is
Middle East the past there have been persistent reports connecting groups

In
.
Lebanon Pakistan Sudan and Libya Islamic rebels the Southern

to
Iran
in

in
,

,
406
Philippines Libya believed have been active the country for decades

to
is

in
.
and President Qaddafi once publicly declared

of of he
had sent arms and funds

to
407
Muslim dissidents Mindanao Members Abu Sayyaf trained Libya

in

in
.
and Tripoli reportedly facilitated the transfer large numbers Pakistani

of
the MILF

at
made RPG HK33s and MP5s the southern Philippines one

to
7s

in
,

,
-

time using financing from the Bank Credit and Commerce International

of
408

BCCI According former Filipino National Security Adviser Jose Almonte

to

,
).
(

Libyan support the MNLF was generous there was time during the

so
to

a
early 1970s that the secessionists were better armed than the forces the

of
'. '
409

Philippine state

Saudi involvement

of
has also been mentioned June 2000 container

In

a
.
M60 machine gun rounds was seized Manila North Harbour shortly

in
2000

,
before the cargo was be loaded onto boat Mindanao The box was
to

to
a

.
marked with labels indicating had come from Jeddah Saudi Arabia Police
it

.
to 410
said they believed the bullets were destined for the MILF More recently the

, ,
.
Bin

in
Saudi terrorist Osama Laden has also been linked Filipino rebels
411

cluding the MILF and Abu Sayyaf The Manila Bulletin newspaper reported
.

1999 the MILF ordered shipment 3000 assorted high ower fire
of

that
in

-p
resumably AK47 variants and tens ammuni
of

arms thousands rounds

of

of
)
(p

412

Afghanistan According Abu Sayyaf

of
tion from former member
to

,
a

a
.

Philippines based Islamic welfare organisation known

as
the International
-

Islamic Relief Organisation IIRO the primary conduit for channelling funds
is
(

)413

re
Bin Laden Abu Sayyaf Philippines government intelligence
to

from
byA
.

port stated that the IIRO pipeline through

as

utilised foreign extremists

is

a
'

funding being through 414

for the local extremists are
sic

which coursed Some

(

'
).

scepticism about these claims may be warranted Even before the September
.
on

2001 terrorist attacks the United States one commentator noted that Bin
,

Laden was useful name for the Philippine government mention order
to

to
in
a

415

stir fear and loathing the West

in
'

'.

Apart from the Islamic connection North Korea China and Vietnam have
,

416

suppliers illegal arms groups the Philippines

to
as

of

also been mentioned

in

According Filipino intelligence reports May 2000 officials from the MILF
to

in
,

of

reportedly met with North Korean discuss the purchase anti tank and
to
a

-
Bin

anti aircraft weapons using million allegedly received from Laden The
,

$
3
-

deal was allegedly brokered by Malaysian arms dealer named Samuan

Bin
a
417

Akmad Intelligence officials say they doubt the shipment took place al
,
.

though there were sketchy press reports possible North Korean presence
of

in
a

418

Abu Sayyaf camp August These reports were much too

an

Sulu 2000
in

in

.
76 Small Arms in SE Asia

vague to be considered authoritative , but there was high - level concern in the
Philippines about DPRK shipments , although these were played down when
Manila established diplomatic ties with Pyongyang as part of North Korea 's

419
entry into the ASEAN Regional Forum . supply

of
China has been accused
ing arms the RPA ABB terrorist cell charge both the Chinese government

to

,
a
-
and the group itself dispute

.
Leakage

transfers from the Islamic world and Asian neighbours have

of
rumours
If

captured headlines insurgent groups have been open admitting that their

in
,

biggest source weapons actually the Armed Forces the Philippines

of
of

is

420
AFP and the Philippines National Police PNP These are usually weap
(

)
, .
or

ons that are stolen lost captured during combat but there are also reported
,

421
AFP troops selling their weapons
of

incidents simply

.
Rebel groups have also been known raid AFP arms depots municipal

to

,
armouries and have even seized small arms from civilian competitors shoot

in
422

ing competitions These operations are usually carefully planned and the
.

rebels often wield more firepower than the unfortunate defenders For exam

.
September 2000 200 New People Army NPA fighters at
of

ple force
in
,

's

, )
police station and army detachment Northern Samar making off
an

tacked
in
a

423

with four M16 rifles revolvers and pistols Sometimes the raids are executed
,

with the help January 1998 communist rebels raided

an
of

AFP soldiers
In
.

by

army depot Misamis Oriental guarded single sentry from the Citizens
in

'
Armed Forces Geographical Unit CAFGU He allowed them into the armoury
).
(

424
M1 Garands and
an

where they took five M14 rifles M60 machine gun

17
,

.
he

Both and his chief subsequently disappeared leading investigators sus

to
,

pect that they may have been collaborators

.

ten

Another police raid September 2000 netted men Bulacan and Nueva
in

in

Ecija provinces along with shipment high powered military firearms and
of
a

crew served weapons

The weapons including various assault rifles M16s
,
-

(
.

grenade launchers machine guns mortars explosives

FALs
FN

and Belgian
),

,
, -

425

unspecified rebel group

an

and ammunition were destined for Mindanao

in

According officials from the Presidential Anti rganised Crime Task Force
an to

-O

as

the smuggler was certain

of

PAOCTF official connection most the

to

,
‘
(

426

weapons could only be found the government armory Police officers

in
(

's

'.

reselling illegal weapons that they capture confis

of

have also been accused

or

cate One Manila businessman quoted The Straits Times claimed that the
in
.

100

427

practice was worth more than million pesos annually the PNP
to

Private security firms have implicated weap

of

also been the movement

in
of

ons October 2000 employees the Mindanao security firm Anflocor were
In

,
.

by

charged with illegally transporting arms the family

of

plantation owned
to
a

prominent Davao del Norte politician Antonio Floerendo The weapons

Jr
,

,
a

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 77

included more than a dozen M16s, rifle grenades, hand grenades , . 38 pistols ,
an unspecified grenade launcher and ammunition . According to police , the

428
. 38 calibre pistols were made in an illegal arms factory .
corruption among officials and members the country lead

of
In addition

's
ing families endemic Many have links organised crime insurgent

or
to
is

.
groups and consequently the movement illegal small arms July 2000 raid

of

A
.
the former mayor handguns
on

of

of

of
the home Sulu uncovered cache

,
a
assault rifles M16s and Galil grenade launchers machine gun and am

),

,
429a

a
(
munition and grenades August 2000 members prominent Anzar

of
In
Cebu

'
.

50 s
family were charged with illegal possession firearms includ

of
more than

,
430
of
ing M16s grenade launcher and host sidearms
,

.
a

Gun control and disarmament

above the Philippines has extremely high level

of
As gun owner

an
noted
,

pub
Its

ship weapons culture deep rooted and guns are commonly seen

in
is

-
.

wielding security guards shops

lic

Gun stand outside banks and and the

-
.

431
carrying weapons Each year Christmas and New
of

concealed common
is

.
by

Year are marred by deaths caused celebratory gunfire and national elec
'

'
432

tions send murder rates soaring the past licensing civilian weapons

of
In

,
.

has been notoriously slack with gun permits sold by corrupt officials and
,
by

the police This practice was widely condemned

by
handed out gun control
.

433
as

organisations such the NGO Gunless Society but little avail Lobby
to
,

.
groups like the gun owners organisation PRO GUN were more influential
'

-
434

with Filipino politicians

.

of

November 1999 the new Chief the PNP Panfilo Lacson announced
In

a
illegal possession weapons severe penalties
on

of

crackdown addition
In

to
.

for illegal gun ownership Lacson said the police would

be

more cautious

in
,

issuing gun licences He declared that he personally would have sign any
to
.

new permits While Lacson backed away from his original plan ban the
to
.

by
of

of

carrying
all

arms
civilians outside their homes the results even limited
,
435

reforms have According

been dramatic gun companies sales are down
to

,
.

436
as

per cent leaving some

On

the verge bankruptcy

on

of
as
90

much the
,

other hand anecdotal newspaper reports are any guide seems likely that
it
,

,
if

any drop off legal arms acquisitions has been matched by

an

increase
in

in
-

illegal purchases Not surprisingly the Philippines gun lobby has reacted
,

'
.
437

angrily
.

conflict the Philippines government has organised disarmament

of

areas
In

the

buy back goal reducing the number

of

of

schemes with small arms

in
'

'

called Balik Baril program running Mindanao has

so

circulation The
in
'
-

-
.

produced mixed results The BARIL ring Rifle Improve Your Livelihood
a

)
.

(B
by

program worked offering former Moro National Liberation Front MNLF

(

fighters compensation for turning their weapons The payments ranged

in

.
78 Small Arms in SE Asia

for
from P1500 to P4000 foreign made pistols and low powered rifles P9000

to
-
for high
P15000 owered assault rifles light machine guns and B40 rocket
to

,
-p
438
launchers These incentives could not hope compete with black market

to
.
M16 could reportedly fetch

its as
prices where

an
much carbine

as
P30000 and
,

a
or
45
taking spending spree

of
calibre P25000 Indeed the wake hostage

in
,

,
.

439
Abu Sayyaf was reportedly offering twice the normal market rate for M16

an

.
by
by
Despite this September 1999 almost 5000 weapons had been turned

10

in
,
MNLF members seeking return civilian life Of these 1760 were M1

to

to

,
.
Garands 1563 were unspecified carbines and 884 were M16s AR15s Only

or
;

.
'

'
440
weapons

of
But despite
20

AK47s were handed the number collected

is
in

it
,
.
thought that only MNLF firearms were handed

of
fraction Indeed accord

in

,
a

.
ing Makinano and Lubang sobering analysis problem

of
the Mindanao
to

it
,
seems likely the number ' of s firearms circulating Mindanao remains high
or is

in
'

441

has even increased

'.
[

Singapore

Singapore began producing small arms organised basis over three

on
an
decades ago The growth and success the country
of
arms industries since

's
.

then has been spectacular by any measure Singapore was not even men 442
.

by

' as
defence producers 1973 yet
of

tioned one list 1983 was described

in

in

it
443
of is of

defence producer more than regional significance Today Singapore

,
a

in s
'

small arms industry without peer Southeast Asia the only country '.
It
in

is
.

the region capable producing high quality small arms from the drawing
board the production
line and Singaporean products have proved them
to

holding
of

selves capable their own the highly competitive international

in

gun control Singapore has extremely strict gun

of

small arms market terms

In

,
.

laws and ASEAN not problem with the

of

one the few countries

to

have
is

in

leakage military weapons major haven for the broking arms deals
of

an of
an is

,
It

a
.

important
as

however and has developed international reputation

,

for

entrepôt port the transfer illegal arms

of

History and ownership

Singapore began producing

its

own small arms ordnance and ammunition

,

Over the last three decades Singapore small arms and ammunition
in

1967
,
.

's
of

producers have undergone number changes identity and ownership

in
a

Despite that the real power behind the arms sector the Singaporean state has
,

remained constant presence As book published by the country only

a

's
.

small arms producer Singapore Technologies ST puts Singa

of

the story
,

of ),

it,
(

(
'

pore Technologies inseparable from the story the country itself the part
is
;
is
)

444
up

wrapped the whole

in

'.

of

State control has historically been achieved through the incorporation

the arms industries within government holding company From 1974 1989
to
a

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 79

this was Sheng -Li ( Victory ) Holdings . Sheng -Li was officially owned and
overseen by the Finance Ministry , but in practice was supervised by the coun

445
try ' s Ministry of Defence (MinDef). MinDef appointed the members

of
its

set
broad policy guidelines although company officials

of
board directors and

di
were apparently allowed make day day business decisions without

446to
to

. -
-
rect interference from the government keeping with other Government

In

are
Linked Companies GLCs Singapore defence industries expected turn

to
),
(

's
profit They were also told they could not automatically be assured the

of
a

447
of

business the Singapore Armed Forces

.
Singapore defence industries were rationalised and two new
In

1982
,

's
these the Singapore Technology Corpora

of
divisions were introduced One

,
the .
STC incorporated country small arms maker Chartered Industries
),

tion
(

:
's

448
Singapore CIS and several ordnance producers
of

also included the

It
(
)

.
arms industry marketing wing Unicorn International
,

.
's

April 1989 when the defence

in
Another reorganisation took place

on
19

449
ST
dustries were brought together under the name Singapore Technologies

.
(
)
The choice was supposed reflect the fact that they were increasingly in
to

non defence related production was structured into four groups

ST
volved
in

:
Industrial Ordnance Aerospace and Maritime with small arms production
,

in
falling under Singapore Technologies Ordnance

ST
The Ordnance group .
companies including Allied Ord
16

cluded Chartered Industries and another

,
Singapore Chartered Firearms Industries Ordnance Development
of

nance
,

,
and Engineering Singapore Ordnance Engineering and Unicorn International
,

.
by
ST ST

companies
ST

ST
November 1997 the four Automotive
In

now called

,
(

Aerospace Electronics were brought under single hold

ST

Marine and
,

a
)

ing Engineering the Singapore stock exchange

ST

on

and traded
,

.
Today Singapore Technologies controlled through Temasek Holdings
is
,

,
government Temasek Holdings holds

57
the Singaporean investment arm
a
.
's

per cent interest the company along with Raffles Nominees

12

DBS
%
in

),
(

HSBC Singapore along with

11

range other banks and invest

of
%

%
),

(4
.3

a
(

ment companies Singapore Technologies Automotive acquired Char

In

2000
.

CIS new land systems arm the company known

of

tered Industries
to

create
a
(

)
as

Singapore Technologies Kinetics

ST

Kinetics Chartered was subsequently

(

).

450

fo

renamed Founders Industries Pte Limited FIPL ST Kinetic business

(

's
).

451

vehicles support weapons and munitions addi

on

cuses four key areas

,

In
-

producing small arms Kinetic provides design and engineering serv

ST

tion
to

ices for military vehicles weapons systems and munitions including from manu
,

452

facturing upgrading and repair maintenance and life cycle management

to
,

Small arms production

Singapore first small arms manufacturer Chartered Industries Sin

of
,
's

gapore began production

of

CIS was established with the

It

1967
),

in
(

.
80 Small Arms in SE Asia

. its
first exports the period 1967 supplying sev

69
ammunition and made

in

,
-
Australian forces fighting

of
eral million rounds ammunition

to
56mm

in
5
453
Vietnam CIS also assembled and built parts for the AR15 M16 Model614

/
.

(
454

of
rifle under licence from Colt Under the terms the commercial licence

,
S
)

.
eight primary parts Singapore with the balance pur

of
the rifle were built

in

,
455
have pro

, at
chased from Colt standard export prices

to
CIS estimated

is
.
duced between 150 000 and 180 000 the local M16s between March 1971

of
,
and March 1977 including 000 rifles that were exported

30
Thailand

to

in
,
1973 456
.

with Colt however export rights were

its

Under licensing agreement CIS

457 ,

's
restricted limited production period As result the company subse
to

,
a

a
.
quently entered into negotiations with the British company Sterling acquire

to
458
designs for new assault rifle The result was the Singapore Assault Rifle
a

.
whose first prototypes were made
80

SAR Chartered Industries

at
1978

in
,
(

)-

.
was designed primarily for export459 and minimise production
80

The SAR

to
'
-

costs the weapon components were made partly from sheet metal pressings
's

on
and partly from standard parts available the commercial market The result

.
was mixed success Despite the fact that the SAR was two thirds the price

80
a

-
.

Singapore only 000 preferring

of

20
the M16 the Armed Forces ordered

to
,

,
,
as

standard weapon This raised questions

its

retain the more reliable Colt

.
460
among potential buyers and hurt foreign sales Eventually the weapon was
.

Sri
dropped from production but not before was exported Lanka Somalia

to

,
it

461
which purchased The weapon was also
of

10

and Thailand the latter 000

,
).
(

462

reputedly sold Slovenia

to

the

80

88
CIS unveiled the successor
the which was SAR
SR
In

1988
to
,

,
-

-
463

improved most respects construction with the

There were changes
in

in
'

'.

lower receiver made alloy casting and the upper receiver

of of

aluminium steel

a
pressing With 750 rounds per minute and the capability fire
of

rate fire
to
a
.

in
also incorporated other design changes
of

three round bursts number

it
,

464a
-

tended reduce fouling and corrosion Along with the M16S1 became the
to

it
,
.

Forces SAF and according

the Singapore Armed one au
of

standard rifle
to
(

465)

thor has also been sold elsewhere the Far Easť Two years later 1990
in

in
,

,
'

SR

CIS produced the 88A which used the same firing mechanism
SR

88
as

the
,
-

but showed evidence further improved construction techniques

of

carbine
A
.

the weapon with shorter barrel was also produced for use by
of

version
a
SR

special forces The 88A was exported several states including Papua
to

,
-
.

466

New Guinea and the Solomon Islands

.

Production today

Ultimax 100 light machine gun

•

The Ultimax 100 Section Assault Weapon has been mainstay CIS pro
of
a
-

as

duction for more than two decades Billed the lightest 56mm calibre
5
'
.

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 81

machine in the world ' , the Ultimax was designed with the help of two
gun
,
Americans Robert Waterfield and James Sullivan (the latter having previously

467
worked on the Stoner AR - 15 weapon , a predecessor to the M16 ). gas

is
It
per

It of
piston operated minute and maxi

be of
with rate fire 400 600 rounds

a
-

fed -
can
mum range

to 20

30
about 800m standard round box

of

be or
from

-
.

by
magazines The Ultimax designed operated

or
100 round drum

is
a

a
-

.
single user and reliability and low recoil

its
renowned for Indeed CIS

is

's
.
the
low

be
patented recoil system weapon can without

so
effective that fired

is
-

by
making

or
the buttstock attached possible use confined spaces

to
,

in
it

it
paratroopers
.

While the Ultimax received glowing reviews from users Jane describes

it
(

's
excellent weapon like the SAR has only had limited success

80
an

an
as

as
,

it
')
'

-
export item One reason

its
that release 1982 came shortly after the Belgian

in
is
.

Minimi appeared
FN

on

the market with the result that several armed forces

,
that would probably have chosen the Ultimax had already committed them
468

by
selves the Minimi The Ultimax has been exported Singapore however
to

, ,
.

the Philippines Slovenia Fiji

of
and currently the national inventories
is

in

,
469
Papua New Guinea the Solomon Islands and Zimbabwe Jane Infantry
,

's
Weapons also reports that service with the Croatian armed forces and
is
in
it

470

was used during the civil war Bosnia

in

.
21

SAR
•

the past Singapore weapons production philosophy has been described

In

- ,

's

471
as

sub optimisation has used proven technologies and

of

one That
is
,
it
'

'.

established designs and has refused manufacture given defence product

to

ahead anyone else According Singh and Kwa this risk averse philoso
to
of

-
.

472

Singa
of
phy has prevented catastrophic product failure The unveiling
a

.
21

pore Technologies Singapore Assault Rifle SAR late 1999 however

in

,
'

seems mark departure from this historically cautious attitude many

to

In
, a

ways the SAR

21

which ST markets the assault rifle for the 21st century

as

is
',
'

ground breaking weapon the first assault rifle have laser aiming
be to
is
It
a

a
-

-
.

does not need sight

its

device built into the stock zeroed and has

to
,
it

it

patented safety features

of

number Janes International Defense Review describes

'
.

unique design that bears only superficial resemblance other bullpup

as

to
it

a
'

'

'
473

As such the SAR symbolic Singapore Technologies

of
21

assault rifles
,

is

'
'.

confidence their ability design and produce high quality small arms
to
in

Development began
21
of

the SAR
when Chartered Industries 1993
in

launched search for Research over the first two

replace the M1651
its

to

rifle
a

aim

years focused finding viable design technology The designers

on

was
at to
'
.

develop weapon that was significantly more accurate than the M16 while
,
a

the same time keeping compact and light even with integrated optical
an
it

475
474

21

sight The resulting weapon the SAR was launched 1999

in
,
,

.
.
82 Small Arms in SE Asia

The SAR 21 is a 5. 56mm gas- operated weapon , made of high strength engi
neered plastics and composites . It is a modular design , comprised of five com
ponents : the upper receiver , lower receiver , barrel , bolt and magazine . It comes
with a high - quality integrated 1. 5 X optical scope , which can be up - graded to a

476
3X scope for sniper and sharp shooter use . also equipped

21
The SAR

is
Aiming Device LAD

be
with Laser built into the stock which can activated

,
the a

)
by

can
by
AA battery the LAD
of
switch button Powered single operate

,
a

a
.
for
continually day night operations

be
hours used

or
the

,
can both

in

in
It
4

477
visible and infra red light spectrum
-

.
bullpup
design meaning that the receiver main body

or

of
The rifle

,
is
a

'

(
the rifle the rear and integrated into the weapon
moved stock This
is

to

.
)

's
full length barrel despite the fact that the overall length
of

allows the retention

a

-
of

of
the weapon The shorter length provides

an
closer that carbine
to
is

.
or
advantage close combat situations when soldiers are mounted vehi
in

in
cles disadvantage typically associated with the bullpup design that the

is
A

'

'
.

face which risks injury magazine

of
receiver next the user the event
to
is

in
, ,

a
's

explosion however incorporates unique patented safety vent

21

The SAR
,

's ,
a
.
the

the

the
explosion directs force away from
of

an

which event such user

in

a
478

face
.

According Singapore Technologies the SAR

21
fire

to
of
rate 450 650

is
to

rounds per minute and maximum range 's using M193

of
effective
to
is

460m
it

The weapon offers

or

ammunition 800m when used with SS109 ammunition

select fire capability the user can quickly switch between semi automatic .
so
,

-
The magazine which contains
30

and automatic fire rounds made

of
clear
is
,

,
.

at

perspex and indexed allowing the user glance how many rounds
to
,

see
is

a
479

remain
.

According people who have fired the weapon the SAR very light
to 21
to

be is
,

,
480

solidly built and has almost no recoil also reputed extremely

is
It
.

Singapore Technologies claims per centmore accurate then

30

an
accurate
is
it
.

by

assertion supported industry reviews One test conducted by writ

an

M16
,

per cent hits

90

Jane International Defense Review returned

at

ers from 300m

,
's

481

using what they called extremely fast semi automatic fire The weapon
'

'.

once during the shooting minor

or

never misfired jammed criticism raised

A
.

by one Western user was that appeared that the SAR had been built with
21
it

the Singaporean soldier

of

the smaller frame mind and that conse

as
in

a
482

quence the rifle felt little undersized general however the consensus
In
,

,
21 a

of .

reaction the SAR has been one high praise

to

According Singapore Technologies several different

information from
to

,
483
be

offered for export

21

will
of

21

versions the SAR These include SAR

1
.

(
)

Light Machine Gun this differs from the standard weapon that includes
in

) it
-

heavy barrel and bipod and

21

open bolt system

21 an

fires from SAR

;
it

(2
a

/
-

40mm Grenade Launcher here the SAR fitted with 40mm grenade
is

a
-
 ASEAN Country Studies 83

launcher with a 9 - inch barrel and the laser aiming device is mounted on the
weapon ' s quadrant platform to facilitate quick and accurate target acquisition ;
( 3 ) SAR 21 P -Rail - this has a sight mounting platform in place of the integrated
optical scope, allowing for the incorporation of other kinds of sights , depend
ing on the needs of the user ; and ( 4 ) SAR 21 Sharp Shooter - this features a more
powerful 3X optical scope in place of the standard 1X sight .
, as of US market Singapore Technologies gave

its
In 2000 part push into the

in
the SAR various American government agencies

21
demonstrations

to
of

,
484
cluding Special Forces and the US Marine Corps also took part major

in
It
.
defence exhibitions such the Tactical and Security Resources Expo TREXPO

as

);
(
the National Defense Industrial Association Symposium and the Association
the US Army Convention and Exhibition shootoff was organ

21
of

An SAR

'

'
at

ised range Fairfax Virginia for US Congressional staffers and military

in

,
a

officials addition the weapon was demonstrated the Middle East Africa
In

in
,

,
.
485

and Asia Despite this enthusiastic marketing Singapore not known

to
,

is
.

have sold any SAR 21s this point

at

time in

.
CIS

50

MG
•

machine
gun has been production since 1988 and
50

The CIS the

is
in
.

the Singapore Armed Forces

, of

standard GPMG gas operated and modu

is
It It

-
. .
lar construction with five basic components uses dual disintegrating
in

a
feed the weapon with ammunition and has

of

of
belt system fire
to

rate 600

or a
rounds per minute The gun can be provided with tripod pintle mount for
a

a
.

486

fitting into armoured vehicles

.

CIS 40GL 40mm grenade launcher

•

Developed the CIS 40GL modular construction single shot

is

1990
in

,
a

-
firing 46mm low velocity gre
of
all

grenade launcher capable types

of

of 40
x

nades At 655mm long and

kg

thick aluminium alloy and

05

made
is
,
it
2
.

high strength engineering plastics The weapon has four major components
. :
.

the barrel and receiver the feed cover and the trigger mechanism and rearsight
,

as
an

Two versions are available one with buttstock for use individual
,

as

weapon and one which can be used with rifle the same manner the
in
a

configured range
be

American M203 The CIS 40GL can fire ammuni

to

of
a
.

tion including high explosive illumination tear gas baton and practice gre
,

has maximum range According Singapore Technolo

of

nades
It

to

400m
a
.

gies has been accepted by many military paramilitary and police forces
it
,

,
487

488

around the world Known purchasers include Papua New Guinea

'.

.
CIS

40AGL
•

The CIS 40AGL 40mm automatic grenade launcher can either be

is

It
a

light vehicle
by
or

single soldier The weapon fires

on

mounted operated
a

a
.
up

standard 40mm High Velocity HV grenade 2200m and can be configured

to
(

)
84 Small Arms in SE Asia

to fire single shots or on automatic . Like many ST weapons , it is a modular

can
broken down into four major assemblies without any special

be
design and
tools Several optical configurations are available including reflex sight

,
a

a
.

489
day optical sight and night vision scope 1993 Singapore sold the rights

In
,

490
Indonesia PT Pindad Persero

the
for licensed production

of
CIS 40AGL

to

).
(
's
Ammunition ordnance and grenades

,
•

small arms production large range

ST

of
addition to also manufactures
In

a
FMJ and

as 56

45
ammunition and ordnance These include mm Ball SS109

,
5

)
.

491
as
62

of
Ball M80 Tracer M62 AP61
51mm well blank Exports
,

,
7

a
x
.

.
Singaporean ammunition are known have gone Australian forces serving

to

to
Vietnam Thailand New Zealand Papua New Guinea and the United Arab
in

,
492

of
Emirates There have also been unconfirmed reports sales Cambodia

to

,
.

493
Myanmar and two African states
.
Mortar bombs
•

ST

produces three types mortar ordnance two high explosive HE

of

bombs

(
)
:
494

one smoke bomb The two HE are similar but differ terms their

of
and

in
.

forged steel filled with 250g grade

of

of
fuses Both are made streamlined

1
, . .

TNT One type has A2 super quick delay fuse screwed into the nose fuse
an

/
-

well the other uses SF1 point detonating fuse Both have range

of
an

between

a
.

of
and 5km The smoke bomb filled with 271g titanium tetrachloride
is

150m
2
.

and uses the SF1 point detonating fuse ballistically similar the HE

to
is
It
-

495

also produces training and drill rounds

ST

bombs
.

Grenades
•

low
ST

producesown grenades including hand grenades and

its

and high
,

velocity The most basic weapon

grenades fragmentation hand
87

the SFG
is
of .

grenade made high strength plastic filled with 80g RDX and TNT
of
is
It
,

explosive and 2200 steel balls The weapon has

of

lethal radius 10m An

a
.

.
identical but inert training grenade known The company smoke
93
as

SPG
is

's
.

496
grenade conventional hexachlorethane combustion type designated M8
is

,
a

Engineering produces several different 40mm grenades

ST

both low and

in

high velocity types The HEDP S401B dual purpose shaped charge and
in is
a

-
.

fragmentation grenade designed for use low elocity launchers like the CIS
,

-v
497

maximum range
of

GL and American M79 M203

40

has about 400m

It

a
/

and incorporates point detonating fuse capable penetrating 63mm

of

of

mild
a

TP

For training purposes produces the S406B ballistically

ST

steel which
is
,

,
.

the

S401B but produces orange dye impact

an

on

similar
to

addition Singapore manufactures five different 40mm High Velocity gre

In

,
all

of

as

capable being fired from launchers such the CIS 40AGL the
or

nades
,

MK Model Three are HE fragmentation types with point deto

19

American
3

-
.

nating fuses HE
SD

They are designated HEDP S411 HEDP S413 and

,

S412
-
.

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 85

The S411 and S413 are capable of penetrating thick mild steel up to 2 . 5 inches
thick and have a lethal radius of 5m . In addition , ST produces two target
practice variants ( TPT S415A and S416A ) . The S413 is promoted in ST materi
als
as
green grenade

its

as
comes with mechanical self destruct feature

It
. it

a
'

'

.
498
has been exported Sweden Licensed production rights for the S411 have

to

499
PT
Pindad Indonesia

of
been Persero
to
sold

.
Kinetics announced plans for the launch upgrade

all ST

of
an
March 2001
In

fit ,
kit designed existing 40mm Automatic Grenade Launchers including
to

,
AGL and the American MK Model The kit called Air Burst
40

19

an
the CIS

,
3

-
.
Munition System ABMS essentially fire control system combined with

is
),

a
(

bursting munition
air

40mm When round fired from grenade launcher

is

,
a
-

.
the

air
ABMS system automatically programs the fuse explode above

to
the

in
500
being

of
the target releasing deadly fragments The munition
of
cloud

is
,

.
fered with the same mechanical self destruct option used with the S413 gre

-
Kinetics has completed feasibility studies and technology demonstra
ST

nade
.

tions for the ABMS which scheduled for the next stage production

of
is

2002

in
,

.
The munition being developed collaboration with the Swiss defence pro
is

in

ducer Oerlikon Contraves AG which will provide the Programmeable Time

,

,
501

Base Fuse technology

.

Profitability
of

The Singapore Technologies group one the top arms producers

is

ten

in
by
the

502
world achieving Singapore Tech
of

total billion sales

of in
,

1999
$
1
is a

.
profitable part
. ST

nologies Engineering the stable 2000 reported

it
in

a
a

net profit per cent the previous

of

43

on
million
of
14

an

increase
288
,
$

7
S

.
503

year Unfortunately ST Kinetic does not provide disaggregated data

on
its
.

the

small arms production impossible profitability

of
determine
so
it

such
to
,

is

be

operations Some useful information can gleaned however from STK

,

'
.

of s
they separately identify revenue gained from the acquisition
as

2000 results
Chartered Industries First quarter 1Q results 2000 for ST Kinetic show total
a
.

504
just under pre tax profit
of

134 million and million

18

turnover
of
$

$
S

S
a

According unaudited company results this made for after tax profit
/ of
an
to

about 14m for the quarter Of total company sales for the quarter Chartered
,
$
S

the

million According report sales

of 43

Founders Industries contributed

to

',
$
S

respect trading activities accounted for the

of

its

Founders Industries
in
(

the Engineering service and trading segments

of

increase turnover This

in

'.

per cent
53

sector went from

14

million 1Q1999 million 1Q2000

to
in

in

,
$
9

$
S

increase pre tax profitability Profit for the sector before tax jumped from
in

a
-

505

million
to

mere 2000
in

203 000 1999

in
,

3
.2
$
S

.
$
S

Gun control

Singapore has the strictest gun control Southeast Asia and some the
of
in

weapons regulated by the Arms and

of

strictest the world Possession

is
in

.
86 Small Arms in SE Asia

Explosives Act , which defines 'arms' as including firearms , air guns , air pis
tols , automatic guns, automatic pistols and any other kind of gun from which
any shot , bullet , or other missile can be discharged or noxious fumes

can
be
also includes any component part such weapons such bayo

of

as
emitted

It

,
.

506
nets daggers spears and spearheads also illegal sell replica guns

is

to
,

It
.
507
without a licence

.
Some weapons such shotguns for clay pigeon shooting pistols and

or
can as
,

be
rifles for target shooting legally owned but only with firearms licence

.
Other weapons such military style assault rifles and submachine guns are

as
,

,
-

be
illegal applicant must

an
To
any circumstances get firearms licence
in

,
a

a
.

the
Singa

or
as
Singapore
of

member recognised gun club such Gun Club

,
a

pore Rifle Association The prospective owner must then apply the police

to
.

no

or
and pass background check showing they have criminal record mental
a

can

be
illness application approved weapon
an

only

at
Even once

,
fired
is
.

in a

a
shooting club and must the gun club armoury
be
regulated all

at
stored

's
be
times when not kept

at
home
in

use cannot
It
.

.
According representative the Arms and Explosives Branch
of

of
the
to
a

Singapore Police Force the penalties for illegal gun possession are extremely
,
to 508

illegal weapon

by

ten
punishable jail sentence
an
of

of
strict Possession
is

a
.

life

years imprisonment more than two illegal weapons con

of

Possession
.

stitutes arms trafficking and punishable by death Discharging firearm

is

a
.
during the commission not anyone

or
injured
of

crime whether killed

or

is
is
a

)
by

509

also punishable Unlike many neighbours Singapore also has

its

death
of

,
.

of
its

the ability effectively monitor and enforce firearms laws one only two
is
It
to

510
people authorised
of

ASEAN states keep computerised record own guns

to

to
a

.
The severity the penalties and the generally low incidence
of

of
violent
that illegal arms possession

or
crime leads the country Police Force
to

claim
's

511

smuggling not significant problem Singapore However given that

in
is

,
a

.
60

Singapore annually
of

some 000 commercial vessels pass through the Port

,

,
be

would extremely difficult totally prevent any movement illegal small

of
to
it

512

through Singapore
or

arms into
.

Singapore also strictly the import and export military goods

of

controls
It
.

controlled goods which includes arms and explosives steel

of

maintains list
,

,
a

toy pistols guns and revolvers Singapore also lists sanctions

on

helmets and
,

.
the

military equipment Angola the Federal Republic Yugo

of

of

export most
to

slavia including Kosovo Liberia Libya Sierra Leone and Somalia

),

.
(

all

the export import and almost

of

Control movement small arms and

is of

,
of

explosives the Arms and Explosives Branch AEB

of

the function the

(

Singapore Trade Development Board practice military related goods will

In

of -
.
for

by
or

only approved importation export

be

the Government
or

one
to

Linked Companies GLCs such Singapore Technologies Kinetic

as

.
(

)
 ASEAN Country Studies 87

Exports

Because Singapore Technologies is expected to make a profit and is not

guaranteed the business of the country ' s armed forces , it has a keen interest in
developing overseas markets for weapons As was noted above Singapore

its

,
.
has exported small arms and ammunition almost since Chartered Industries
began production the early 1980s the decision was taken gener

to
1967

In
in

of .
revenues through vigorous exports and more re
at

per cent
40
ate least

'

of '
of
cently the company declared the goal raising per cent

50
revenue from

513
exports and the rest through domestic supplies

by
Chartered Industries used complain that this objective was hampered

to
historically had work within government guidelines

on
the fact that sales

to
it

within Southeast Asia According 1992 article regional sensitivities pre

to
a

'
.

substantial quantities CIS made weapons

of
clude the sale either ASEAN
of

to
-
514
or

other countries the Far East Quite how concerned the Singaporean
in

'.
government was with these sensitivities debatable Singapore has sold tens

is

.
Thailand Myanmar and Sri Lanka Ultimax
of

of

thousands assault rifles

to

,
light machine guns the Philippines and Papua New Guinea and has
to

100
licensed the production grenade launchers and grenades Sin
of

Indonesia

to

.
gapore Technologies has also opened marketing office Vietnam with hopes

in
a
515
of

breaking into the market there addition Singapore widely believed

In

is
,
.

have sold prefabricated arms factory Myanmar 1998 For more details
on to

to

in
a

.
see

this transfer the Myanmar Burma country study

,

.
Entrepôt trade

Singapore the busiest ports servicing some

60
one the world 000
is

of

,
in

vessels annually Many these are carrying entrepôt trade destined for third
of
.

party states Small arms and ammunition are included these consignments
in
.

and Singapore has developed reputation important trans shipment

an
of as
a

-
point the international arms trade Some these deals involve illicit trans
in

fers where export licences are granted for the shipment weapons Singa
of

to

pore although not actually their final destination Such was the case when
it
is
,

arms British company BMARC were illegally routed through Singa

from
,

,
a

516

pore Singapore has also been accused providing false End User
of

Iran
to

-
.

'

'
517

Certificates EUCs for transactions that sent arms Iraq According

to

to
(

some reports Pakistan Ordnance Factories POF has also routed weapons des
(

, )
as

tined for non state actors through Singapore has Sri Lanka Liberation
's
-

518

Tigers Tamil Eelam Tamil Tigers LTTE

or
of

).
(

extremely difficult trace weapons shipments that enter Singaporean

to to
is
It

ports and then move They are sometimes deliberately

on

other states
.
or
as

misidentified machinery industrial equipment Occasionally however

,

of , ,
.

intelligence reports surface identifying particular consignment For example

a

according report Jane Defence Weekly Singapore was also the point
to

in

,
a

's

519

origin for shipment small arms

of

the Solomon Islands

to

1999
in
a

.
88 Small Arms in SE Asia

One other means for probing the entrepôt trade is by cross - referencing na
tional arms export reports published by supplier states . For example , the Di
rectorate Arms Control of South Africa 's Ministry of Defence
of Conventional
exports by category and destination

at
publishes an annual list of Looking

its

.
the list for 1997 1999 we can see that Singapore imported 225 000 Rands

28
,
,
-
infantry hand held and portable assault weapons and
52

of
million worth
($
3
.

'

is 520
of

12
associated ammunition calibre less than 7mm from South Africa

.
Given that Singapore forbids private ownership military weapons and

of
self sufficient small calibre ammunition and small arms this raises the in
in

,
-

up
teresting question where these arms ended Unfortunately
of the South

,
.
African data does provide

an
answer

.
Thailand

state run weap

at
Thailand produces
its

own small arms and ammunition

-
ons centre near Lop Buri self sufficient small calibre and mortar ammu
is

in
It

-
.

nition and also produces range ordnance While past exports have been
of
a

.
increasing

an
modest the Thai armed forces have recently expressed interest

in
,

ammunition mortars and military spares Thailand has some prob

of

sales
,

.
lems with the circulation military small arms particular criminal or
of

to
in
,
ganisations and hired guns the past the country was the key conduit the
In

in
,
.

supply grey market weapons the Khmer Rouge and other groups fighting
of

is to

Cambodia Today Thailand the supply black market weap

of
central
in to
in

-
.

Sri
ons from Cambodia insurgents fighting Burma Aceh Lanka and north
to

,
eastern India
.

Imports and production

the early 1980s Thailand biggest single source

of
From the early 1950s
to

's

small arms was the United States Through until 1980 Thailand received
,

a
.

US
via

military assistance
72
of

total variety
of

132 989 rifles and 914 carbines

,

programs The US also provided Thailand with 15000 machine guns aid
in
.

as
direct commercial well
the M1917 and M1919
as

and sales These included

. .

the M60 and M2HB models Some 55000 M16A1sModel 613 were purchased
(

Colt 1975 and hundred M16 carbines Model 653 were added
in

from few
in
a

)
521

the early 1980s

.

American arms Thailand also purchased the Belgian

FN

addition
to
In

FAL 1961 and German Gewehr G3 assault rifles has also bought
It
in

3
(

(
)

weapons and ammunition from closer home 1973 the Thai government
to

In
.

imported 000 Colt M16A1 rifles Model 614S from Singapore and
30

later
it
,

,
(

Singapore
by

000 SAR
of
10

80

added assault rifles made Chartered Industries

,

-
522

CIS has also imported ammunition from sources including Singapore

It

,
).
(

Indonesia and Pakistan state owned arms company Pakistan Ordnance Fac
,
's

-
523

tories POF Despite these imports US small arms continue dominate

to
,
(

).
 ASEAN Country Studies 89

Thai acquisitions to the present day . In 1994 the United States sold Thailand
360 M240 and 180 M85 machine guns ; in 1995 it provided another 601 M60
machine guns , and in 1997 it sold 37500 M16A2s , 107 M2HB machine guns

524
and 4700 M4 carbines . now the standard infantry weapon

, of
The M16A2

is
Royal Army

FN
the Thai but the national inventory also includes G3s FALS

,
525
HK33s HK21E AR15s and M16Als rifles
, Special Forces are armed with

a
.
variety modern commando weapons including the Heckler and Koch MP5
of

,
526
submachine gun The Thai military also uses American M203 and M79 gre
nade launchers . .
large numberweapons many built military specifications have also
of

to
,

,
A

According Thai customs offi

by
been imported into Thailand
individuals

in to
.
of

firearms have been imported

of
cials tens thousands this manner the

in
,

'
‘

last five years April 2001 alone some 4000 weapons

12
months
In

the

to

3
-
.

527
were brought into the country
.
Domestic production

by
While many
of

small arms needs

its

the past have been met imports

in

,
its
Thailand has long been interested producing own weapons and ammu
in

The Thai government apparently bought the rights produce the post

to
nition
.

war vintage American Ingram Model submachine gun and invited the weap
8
up
of

designer assist with the setting factory make the gun although
on

to

to

,
a
s
'

528

principal pro
no

of

there record any production Today the country

is

,
.

's
military Ministry Army Weapons
of

of

ducer small arms the Defence run

is

Lop Bang -

of
Production Centre AWPC located Buri 150 kilometres north
in
),

,
(

During the 1970s the Centre assembled approximately 000 HK33 as

30
kok

,
.

529
sault rifles under licence from the German company Heckler and Koch

In
.
1988 the AWPC began produce the HK21E also under licence from Heckler
to

by
after smaller quantities the HK21E had been imported for use
of

and Koch
,

530

the Thai marines

.

current production AWPC producing rifles

be
of

terms not believed

In

is

to
. ,

,
be

although this cannot confirmed meeting between Thai foreign minis

In
a
try

police and defence officials and representatives from the Bangkok office
of
,

the NGO Non Violence International government officials stated somewhat

,
-

obliquely that Thailand not producing any guns that could legally sold
be
is
'

531

exported They would not make any

on

the local market for civilian use

or
. ,

’.

further clarifications According Forecast International AWPC produces spares

its to

for

gradually components M16 and

of

and has increased manufacture

'

(
532

AR15 rifles over the years Recent comments by company spokesmen sug
)

'.

533

gest that the centre producing plans produce mortars tubes

or

to
is

producing
be

of

AWPC known range small arms ammunition well

as
to
is

,
a
as
60

81

of

and 120mm mortar

some which have been offered for ex
shells
,

,
534

port One industry estimate claims that the centre capable producing
37
of
is
.
90 Small Arms in SE Asia

million rounds of 7.62mm and almost 50 million rounds of 5 .56mm x 45mm

535
(M193) ammunition annually . According the AWPC Technol

to

of
the head
ogy Division Lieutenant Lerthorn Prahanpot the AWPC also provides Thai

,
land with the capacity be wholly self sufficient artillery and mortar am

to

in
-
536
munition
.
Exports

According another AWPC spokesman Colonel Siddhiporn Tubtieng

to

,
about two per cent production between 1998 and 2000 was sold
of
the centre

's

537
buyers Singapore and Malaysia presumably for export

re
The Thai
to

in

up

ex
Ministry Defence recently announced plans for the centre
, of

its
step

to
port efforts partly attempt earn foreign exchange and ease the army
538 an

to
in

's
be
budgetary difficulties AWPC hopes able sell mortars machine gun

to

to

's ,
.

spare parts point 539

ammunition and Officials the company low labour

to
.

comparative advantage but given the high cost

of
costs and ISO 9002 status
as

,
importing the raw materials needed produce ammunition seems unlikelyto

,
it

540
do

that Thailand will any better commercially than Malaysia fated SME

ill
-

.
's
Ministry
of

Defence adviser General Songkram Aimpum admits that Thai

,

,
A

land cannot compete with Singapore but also suggested that the two countries
,
541the
be

might able cooperate future with Thailand perhaps supplying

to

,
in

Singapore with military spares

.
the

addition AWPC some industry reports also refer second pro

to
In

to

a
military style weapons called Rungphaisan Industries

or
some
of

ducer

in
,

(
-

542

accounts Rung Paisal Industries The firm was apparently established

its in
).

of
the mid 1970s produce small arms for the Thai military Accounts
to
-

production vary According Forecast International the company designed

to

a
.

rifle similar the M16 designated the RPS 001 was based around the
It
to

NATO 45mm cartridge and had selective fire capability

56

standard The
5

x
-

.
company apparently made unspecified weapons
of

. of
an

sale number the

to
a

543
of

Thai government but nothing has been heard since 1991

it
,

by
set

more detailed account the company and products

its

out
544of

is
A

Duncan Long book According Long the RPS 001 was designed
in

to

1986
,
a

-
.

by team
by
led

as

Krairach Manadamrongtham basically

an

described
is
It
a

.
AK

hybrid weapons was 56mm

47

with some features borrowed from other

It

5
'
-

625 rounds per minute Long describes

of

calibre and had cyclic rate

of

fire
it
a

He says Rung Paisal produced two differ

as

reliable and easy use rifle

to
a
'

'
-
-

ent models the standard RPS 001 and short carbine version the RPS 0015
,

,
a
is :

-
545

adding semi auto version will

be

possible produced well

as
it

.
“

Domestic gun control

Thailand has large but apparently tightly regulated domestic gun market
a

According government rules sell guns can be

no

more than three licences

to
to

,
 ASEAN Country Studies 91

are

276
issued in each province . The exception is Bangkok where there some

546
licensed gun dealers Each licence regulates the numbers weapons and

of
.
amount ammunition each dealer can purchase year and this limit

of

to is
in

,
a
strictly enforced and difficult change No single gun shop permitted

to

is
.
import more than weapons each year although this rule has been easily

30

,
547
circumvented

.
regulation strict enforcement less successful Thailand has large
If

is

is
,

a
.
military small arms which had origins during the Vietnam

its
black market in

,
548

War Many these military style weapons are used

of
crimes The country

in
.

.
has large gun for hire industry and assassinations and murders are com
a

a
-
-

549
solving business and family disputes
of

mon means There are some 3000

ten
Thailand annually and police estimate many

as

as
murders one
in

in

is
a
professional hit According police sources assassination only costs

an
to

of ,
.

be
about 100000 baht 2500 but some parts the country killings can
in
),
($

550
arranged for significant the industry that the Thai
So
little
as

as

is
250
$

National Police has Centre for the Prevention and Suppression Hired Gun

of
a

well Gunmen Suppression Centre GSC within general

its
as

as

men CPSG
a
(

)
of
Crime Suppression Division organisations maintains list

of
Each these

a
.

suspected gunmen and accomplices As

of
1999 the CPSG list contained 1008
.

551
gunmen Many

on
hired while the GSC listed 866 killers the lists have been
,

involved armed combat either communist insurgents separatists army

as
in

,
552
trained rangers former policemen former military personnel
or

The most
,

.
dangerous places for hits are Chonburi Phetchaburi and Surat Thani
of ,

,
while Bangkok despite population million has only

47
sus
its

over
,

,
7

pected gunmen
.

The Thai military has been actively involved circumventing some gun
in

control laws For example April 2001 senior Air Force officer was arrested
in
,

,
a
.

seven armed military personnel stormed

at
group
of

after warehouse Don

a

Muang airport and made off with imported 9mm Glock semiautomatic pis
30
553

tols worth million baht 43000 The weapons which were being held
,
1
.8

($

of ).
by

proper paperwork were apparently des

of

Thai customs because lack

,
a

by

gun shop Hat Yai Songkhla province After investigation

an

tined for
in

,
a

police and Interior Ministry officials was discovered that the military was
it
,

being used bypass restrictions weapons each gun shop

of
on

the number
to

could apparently import year Units were importing arms tax free claim
in

,
a

-
.

as

ing they were welfare benefit for officials and employees and saving
a
'
as

much 6700 baht 160 applicable duties per weapon The imported arms
in
($

gun shops and sold the public According

on

were then sold one source

to

to

to

,
.
An

the scale this trade was significant estimated 30000 pistols and rifles
of

were imported using this loophole 1996 alone The Thai Supreme Court
in

000

subsequently ordered the Air Force

33

pay million baht owed

in
to

785
($

)
554

import duties and interest

.
92 Small Arms in SE Asia

Grey market and illegal transfers

Surrounded by neighbours coping with insurgencies and on - going con

flicts , Thailand has become an important centre

for
the brokering and facilita

'
important point for the trans hip

an
of of
tion small arms transfers also

is
It
'

-s
ment weapons from producers and suppliers outside Southeast Asia the

In
.
recent past the Royal Thai Army was extremely important conduit for the

an
,
of
supply arms the Khmer Rouge and other Cambodian opposition forces
to

.
illegal weapons ranges from the

of
Today Thai involvement the movement

in
,

the active participa

of

actions individual arms dealers and brokers through

to
serving senior military officers Many transfers take place along the
of

tion

.
country border regions with Cambodia and Burma but southern ports and

,
's

towns are also important for the trans hipment weapons Sri Lanka and

to
of
-s
Indonesia
.

Shipments and from Cambodia

to

During the 1980s Thailand was key conduit moving weapons oppo

to
in
a

sition forces Cambodia including the Khmer Rouge fighting the Vietnam
in

)
ese backed regime Phnom Penh Weapons and ammunition were provided
in
-

.
by

the United States Singapore China and others but many

of
the transfers
,

,
by

ko
as
special unit the Thai military known

po
were arranged bo

to
so
of
a

“
Special Operations Division 315 The unit was headed by then General
or

315
.
'

Chavalit Yongchaiyudh later become Prime Minister and Thailand cur

to
,

's
According one book Special Operations 315 was
of

rent Minister Defence

to

,
.

independent and did not have report

or
coordinate any government
or

to
to
'
555

military office agents worked civilian clothes and based themselves out
Its

in
'.

556
Bangkok designed private company
of

rented shop house look like

to
in

,
a

.
the
An

of

enormous quantity arms was involved these transfers Khmer

in

to

Rouge Thai policemen stumbled trucks carrying

on

one incident
In

1993
in

,
.

military equipment Chanthaburi near the Cambodian border On board

in

. .
557

bombs missiles explosives and tank guns

of

they found five tons The two

,

,
the

men arrested with shipment confessed that the weapons had come from
a

nearby warehouse Police subsequently discovered arms ware

of
12

total
a
.

piled high with weapons According

all

houses around Chanthaburi one

to
,

.
of

estimate they contained equipment most which was originally

of

1500 tons
,

from China addition heavy weapons the haul included hand grenades
to
In

,
.

of
40

mortar shells RPG rocket launchers and grenades and cases machine
,

-2

gun propellant belts Thai police arrested men all

45

the warehouses
of
of In

,
.

558

whom were members the Khmer Rouge

.

The Thai government continued send arms and supplies the Khmer
to

to

Rouge signing
of

even after the the Paris Peace Accords and after the United
559

Nations sent peacekeeping force April 1993

20

oversee free elections

to

In
a

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 93

truckloads of arms and equipment were spotted near Ampil in northeastern

Thailand . In 1994 , then First Prime Minister Norodom Ranariddh , told the
press he had photographs taken secretly showing trucks delivering arms to the

560
Khmer Rouge from the Thai border town opposite the KR stronghold in Pailin .
The US government also reportedly had satellite photos showing the transfers

561
being made

.
Thai businessmen also supplied guns and money the Khmer Rouge

to

.
of
According member the Thai National Security Council loggers and
to

,
a
traders working KR controlled regions were obliged supply the fighters

to
in

562
with arms food and medicine These were often obtained from the Thai
,

.
army The military also provided weapons exchange for logging and pre

in
.

these logging and mining operations was

of
cious stone concessions The scale
.
By

staggering 300 tractors and 30000 people

an
1992 there were estimated
.

563
mining for blue sapphires and around Pailin According one American

to
in

.
estimate logging concessions granted Thai businesses were worth between

to
,

564
the Khmer Rouge
10

20

million month
to
$

a
-

.
But weapons poured Thailand during the civil war
Cambodia
if

into from
by

as
and early 1990s the middle the government began
of

the 1990s secure

to
,

its
the country Cambodia began export surplus arms This was not
of

most
to
,

.
brokers military per

of
done officially but rather involved complex network
,

,
a

sonnel and corrupt officials Large numbers arms belonging

of

demobilised

to
.

up

soldiers and opposition fighters began turn the Thai border As the on
to

.
of

tide the civil war turned against them many Khmer Rouge fighters also
,

began sell their weapons Bangkok based arms dealers operating

on
their
to

-
.

these purchases
of

own made some Their customers were largely criminal

.

gangs Thailand but they also involved some exports crime syndicates
to
in

in
,

Taiwan and Hong Kong Larger sales often involved the Thai military The
.

.
the

army which had made the transfers Cambodia first place was per
to

in
,

,
fectly poised advantage weapons
of

of

of

take the movement out Cambodia

to

.
Small arms and light weapons also began be exported from Cambodia
to

southern ports For more detail see the Cambodia country study Most 's
: of
(

.)
.

these also passed through Thai ports their way

on

their final destinations

to

Sri
as

as

insurgent groups Burma India and Indonesia well Lanka Tamil

in

's
565

Tigers LTTE
).
(

Transfers Burma
to

the most important markets for small arms and munitions

of

Burma one
is

566

moving out Cambodia through Thailand According

of

one Thai national

to
.

Burmese minority groups rely weap

all

security official
of

on

the armed forces

'

)
567

ons purchased from the Thailand market The routes for transporting arms
'.

the Thai Cambodian border Burmese rebels have apparently stayed

to

from
-

568

fairly constant since the 1980s Weapons that crossed the border the
in
.
of

lower northeast Thailand Ubon Ratchathani Sisaket Surin and Buriram

,

,
(

)
94 Small Arms in SE Asia

were stored in Korat and then forwarded to the Karen , Mon and Mong Thai

569
Army forces . Supplies delivered through eastern provinces Aranyaprathet

of

,
Prachinburi Trat and Chanthaburi were moved through Chonburi and Bang

,
570

by
kok Larger shipments sometimes went boat Prachaub Khiri Khan and

to
.
then overland Karen rebels Amphur Saiyok Kanchanaburi Mon

or
to

to
in

,
571
forces across the border from Sangkhla district

.
Incidents involving the interception arms being smuggled Burmese

to
of
groups are extremely common Many implicate the Thai military and police

In
.

.
1993 General Chavalit Yongchaiyudh

of
then Minister the Interior admitted

,
that most the trucks caught shipping weapons Burma belonged the
of

to

to
572
Thai government and that most the smugglers were policemen

of
one

In
.
incident 1994 Thai border policemen apprehended two Thais dressed
in

in
,

military uniforms driving with arms They admitted that Cam

truck loaded
a

.
provided and loaded the arms and said they
Sa

bodian soldiers Kaew had

in

were taking the weapons from the Cambodian border Thai

of
the north east

to

-
1995 Thai police arrested two soldiers and
en

land route Burma civilian

to

In

a
.

transporting war weapons Mae Hong Son the Burma border They said

on
in

.
'

'

the arms had come from Cambodia and admitted that they had made the trip
573

several times before

.

Thai military and police involvement this trade continues the present

to
in

day August 1998 Royal Thai military officer was arrested Bangkok
In

in
a
.

when police found 600 000 rounds

of

an
Czech ammunition and M16 his

in
,
574

July 1998 police uncovered

of
of
50

home 000 rounds ammunition

In

cache
,
a
.

guns and rocket propelled grenades launchers and anti air

range
of

and
,
a

-
craft ammunition Police sources quoted the Bangkok daily The Nation said
in
.

corrupt police officials were behind the ring which was smuggling the arms

to
,
575

Karen rebels
.

The movement arms and ammunition along the Burma border closely
is
of

related other illegal smuggling activities particular the trade narcotics

in
to

in
,

.
by

the past the main problem was heroin production and trafficking groups
In

Mong Tai Army Small arms light weapons and ammunition

Sa

like Khun
,
s
'

for

were shipped Burma into heroin exchange

one incident 1994 more
In
in

in

,
.
of

than 50000 rounds ammunition for M16 rifles and M60 machine guns were
of

shipment almost 30kg

of

seized with heroin The ammunition was marked

to a

576

the Thai Third Army region

of

and traced the stocks More recently the

,
.

the drug trafficking has been methamphetamines mostly from the

of

bulk
in

,
An

United Wa State Army the eastern Shan State estimated 600 million
in

speed pills crossed into Thailand the last year from the Wa drug facto
to 50
in

's

As well sending drugs the Wa have also exported arms Thai crimi
as

ries
,
.

by

nal gangs Seizures Thai police suggest they also use Thailand trans
as
a
.

shipment point for the sale

of

assault rifles and ammunition other rebel

to
577

groups Myanmar
in

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 95

As the Wa' s activities have increased , Thailand has taken a stronger mili
tary posture along the Burmese border . In 2000 , Myanmar 's government ac
cused Thailand of directly supplying arms to Burmese rebels fighting the gov
ernment and the Wa, a claim the Thai government denied . Despite that, in
April 2000 Thai deputy Foreign Minister Sukhumbhand Paribatra admitted
that Thailand was supporting what were described as ' clandestine sabotage

578
operations against the United Wa State Army inside Burma.

Transfers Sri Lanka

to

Burmese rebels usually move over land weapons another ma

to
arms
to
If

,
by
jor consumer the Tamil Tigers move sea Intelligence sources say the most
,

579off
of

of
important areas activity for arms smuggling are islands the coast Phuket

,
as

provinces Ranong and Satun

of
well Canadian Secu
as

the southern

of A
.
rity Intelligence Service report identifies the coastal town

as
Trang another
580

LTTE base Thai military personnel and police are alleged be involved

to
.

and former Norwegian Special Forces members are also have provided

to
said
587

training explosives
of

the use
in

.
the
for

Weapons destined Tamil Tigers are frequently shipped

on
trawlers

,
by

apparently

. or
serving members
. of

of
some which are owned former the Thai
military The LTTE also has own Shipments cross the Bay
its
11

to of

of
vessels
Bengal and are then transferred
at

Tiger speedboats off the coast

of
sea Sri
582

Lanka With more than 10000 vessels fishing Thaiwaters and large number

a
.

small islands where weapons can be trans hipped effective interdiction

of

to is
,
-s
583

extremely difficult Accordingly

of

the scale this trade also difficult

is
,
.

quantify but reported seizures suggest significant one incident March

In

in
is
it

armed trawler that had departed from Thailand carrying

an

an
1999 estimated
,

weapons destined for the LTTE was sunk joint opera

10

million worth
of

in
$

a
584

tion between the Indian and Sri Lankan navies March 1997 the Thai
In

,
.

ship reportedly destined for Sri Lankan waters carrying M16s

six
navy seized

of ,
a

of

four mortar tubes four rounds M79 ammunition two RPGs 5000 rounds
,

unspecified anti
33

ammunition 5000 rounds 56mm ammunition

of

62mm
,

,
7

5
.

585

tank rockets and chemicals for bomb production February and May
of
In
.

1998 two fishing vessels carrying 146 and machine guns respectively were
45
,

by

impounded Thai authorities subsequent investigation revealed that the

586A
. .

boats were linked the LTTE January 2000 Thai police seized another
at to

In

Kra Buri near Ranong was carrying Carl Gustav rocket

on

trawler river
,

It
a

, .

ropelled grenades reportedly

of

launchers and rocket the result deal be

a
-p

tween the LTTE and two Burmese rebel group the Karens and the Arakan
,
587

Liberation Party
.

Southern Thai ports are also important transit points for weapons ship
ments coming from Vietnam and Cambodia According the RAND analyst
to
.

Peter Chalk arms from Cambodia Vietnam and Burma transit through
,

,
'
96 Small Arms in SE Asia

Thailand before being loaded onto port of Ranong for

vessels at the southern

588
the trip across the Bay of Bengal ”. Hat Yai

on
The town the Kra Isthmus

of

,
weapons from the

of
has been identified another centre for the movement

as
Gulf the west coast for shipment

on
Thailand Sri Lanka Burma and
of

to

to

,
India May 2001 two senior military officers were among those arrested after
In

,
.
two sergeants from the 42nd Army Circle southern Songkhla province were

in
caught trying weapons dealer

of
deliver two truckloads arms The

to

to
a

.
detonating pow

60

of
hand grenades 720 bars

23
seizure included landmines

,
der and 15000 rounds The arms were believed be

of
M16 ammunition

to
.

589
LTTE base island nearby
an

on

an
destined for

.
attempt counter arms smuggling the LTTE and insurgent groups
an

to

to
In

India Thailand signed four nation security arrangement with Sri Lanka
in

,
a

590
India and Bangladesh April 1999 While details about specific mecha
in

.
nisms are sketchy the agreement reportedly included improved exchanges

of
,

information between intelligence officials The agreement step forward

is

in
a
.
promoting regional cooperation against trafficking small arms and other

in
illicit goods but the absence Myanmar raises questions about
of

its
likely effec
,

tiveness Islands along Myanmar long coastline are often used by smugglers
's
.

of
South Asia The reported involvement personnel
en

to

route Tatmadaw

ar in
.

smuggling operations also means Myanmar participation any such

in
's
rangement the future unlikely According Lloyd London the LTTE

of
to
in

is

,
's
.

only relocated Phuket after being forced

on
abandon base Twante Island
to

to

a
Myanmar they occupied through understanding with some generals
an
in

in
591

Yangon
.

Transfers
to

Aceh

Small arms also pass through southern Thailand destined for the seces
Sumatra Many
of

of
sionist group Aceh Merdeka
on

the Indonesian island

.

these arms come originally from Cambodia and there are reports that they
move through Southern Thailand and into Malaysia with the help
of

the Thai
592

separatist group the Pattani United Liberation Organisation PULO Ac

).
(

cording report the Sydney Morning Herald August 1999 while some
to

for in

in

,
a

arms and support Aceh Merdeka come from Malaysia the AK47s
of

the bulk
',

and M16 assault rifles entering Aceh are being smuggled out
of

southern Thai
593

ports
'.

According official sources weapons for GAM are transported across the
to

, ,

Malacca small boats often being retransferred again before

at
of

Straits sea
in

reaching their final destinations Sumatra places like Lhokseumawe Padang

in

in

,
594

Tanjung Balai and Peureulak Malaysian Indonesian naval and marine

or
.

extremely difficult coastline Many large area

of

of

forces find cover suchthe

to
it

fishing trawler companies used these operations also have close links
to
in

corrupt elements the Thai military and the customs service Some are also
in

595
by

reportedly owned serving senior Thai naval and army officers

or

former
.
 ASEAN Country Studies 97

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Little is known '
about Vietnam s small arms production and transfers . Ac
cording to sources Hanoi the country does not produce small calibre weap
in
ons or ammunition , but does have the ability to refurbish existing weapons
and make them in effect as good as new . Vietnam has recently asked several
countries for assistance in developing own defence industries including

its

,
production

of of
country

, of
the small arms The also inherited massive number

a
.
arms the end American War April 1975 Despite that

or
at

the Vietnam

in
(

')
‘

.
gun ownership and gun violence rare Gun smuggling concern particu

is

of is

,
a
.
larly across the border with China and there are reports leakage from mili

,
tary arsenals Vietnam does not have the resources adequately secure its

to
.

borders and gun smuggling and trans shipment through the country will likely

-
remain concern for some time
a

.
Domestic production

Unfortunately there very little information the public record about

is

of in
,

production
of

Vietnam small arms since the end the Vietnam War 1988

A
on s'

.
Vietnamese defence expenditure notes that imports

of
article small arms
and ammunition from the Soviet Union were necessary because Vietnam has

'
596
no

production capability There are reports that organisation

an
almost
.
”
as

simply referred State Arsenals formerly produced small arms for the
to

'

'

military These included copy the Russian RPK light machine

of

Vietnamese
a
.

gun which was designated TUR and which was apparently

of
copy the
,

a
-
597

Chinese Type also appears that Vietnam has produced modified ver
56

It
-
.

sions several other small arms According Edward Clinton Ezell Small
to
of

's
.

Arms Today Vietnam has produced Type pistol based

68

on

the Soviet TT33

,

,
a

62mm pistol has also altered the French 9mm MAT submachine gun
49
It

of ,
7

-
.

by .

left behind colonial forces fire 62mm rounds The People Army
to
,

's
.

PAVN
of
Vietnam rifle see below also modified version the
is

50M
K

of a
(

)
)'

the

598
50

41

Chinese Type assault rifle itself modification Soviet PPsh

a

-
(

)
.
for
Reliable sources Hanoi say that Vietnam does not have any facilities
in

the production own small arms However carry out depot

its
of

able
to
is
,
it
.

of

existing stocks Vietnam acquired

its
on

level maintenance small arms

a
.

maintenance capability when captured the old US depot Long Binh out
by at
it

side Bien Hoa facility still used storage

as

The area the Vietnamese

is

a
.

military weapon that undergoes this level

as of

of

The endstate maintenance

is
a
.

599

essentially brand new had come from factory

,
if
it

Military inventory

Apart local production the past most PAVN inven

of

from limited the

in

's

tory was acquired

on

favourable terms from the former Soviet Union and China

.

Between and 1971 the Chinese claim have supplied what was then
to

1964
(
98 Small Arms in SE Asia

North ) Vietnam with 2 million rifles and over 270 million rounds of ammuni

600
tion . After Sino Vietnamese relations worsened the late 1970s the Soviet

in
-
Union and subsequently Russia have become more important Soviet ammuni

.
tion produced 1990 and provided Vietnam still use the country

to

is
in

in

in
601
today major supplier

of
China also small calibre ammunition for the

is

a
. .
PAVN
According published sources the current PAVN inventory includes
to

:
Type pistols Russian SKS and Chinese Type

68

56
62mm Tokarev TT33 and

;
7
.

rifles AK47 and AKM assault rifles the Second World War era Soviet PPSH 41
;

-
submachine gun the 62mm 50M submachine gun mentioned above and
;

,
K
7

-
.
the modified French MAT Vietnam also has 62mm DPM RPD and Type
49

/
-
.

602
light guns 62mm SGM medium machine gun Of
53

67 machine and

7
a
/

.
these weapons the today and soldiers guarding military
service
is
50M in
,

K
-

facilities and around Hanoi be seen carrying the weapon Other troops
in

can

.
have been seen with SKS rifles and AK47s Many these weapons are ex

of
.
603
tremely old and poor condition
in

Imports and technology transfer

recent acquisitions small arms ammuni

of
Littleknown about Vietnam

,
is

's

the
tion and defence technologies However according leading commenta
to
,
.

the Vietnamese military Carlyle Thayer Vietnam attempting ac

on

to
tor

is
,

quire the technology needed produce including

its

own modern armaments

to

,
604

small arms and ammunition has also recently reached agreements with
It
.

states for the import these weapons

of

several
.

One important source has been North Korea Vietnamese military delega
A
.

Pyongyang May preliminary the possi

on
tion visited 1994 for discussions
in

bility North Korean arms sales The following month Vietnam

of

Vietnam
to

to s
'
.

Defence Minister Doan Khue led high ranking military delegation

a

-
at

Pyongyang for Marshal Minister

an

official visit the invitation

of

Chin
O

,
u
-

the North Korean People November 1994 Vice Marshal

of

Armed Forces
In

,
.
's

Choe Kwang the Acting Minister

of

of
of

Armed Forces and Chief Staff the

,

Korean Peoples Army paid return visit Shortly thereafter emerged that
it
,

.
on

Vietnam and North Korea had struck deal barter trade under which North
a

Korea would supply Vietnam with weapons parts and ammunition exchange
in
605

100

for

for rice Another million barter deal defence equipment was signed
$
.

of

December 1996 when Vietnam Deputy Minister Defence General Nguyen

in

,
's
of 606

Thoi Bung visited North Korea There are also reports that North Korea
,

supplied undisclosed quantity April

an

62mm ammunition
to

Vietnam
in
7
.
607

1999 Contacts between the two countries are ongoing July 2001 the
In
.

second most senior North Korean leader Kim Yong Sam visited Hanoi where
,

,
608
for

another rice arms exchange was reportedly discussed

-
-

.
 ASEAN Country Studies 99

Vietnam has also had contacts with India concerning weapons production
and supplies . In May 1995 , a Vietnamese military delegation led by the Chief of
General Staff ,Deputy Defence Minister Senior Lt .Gen . Dao Dinh Luyen , paid a
visit to India . The delegation was received by India ' s Minister of State

for
De
the India Defence Ministry and the com

air of
fence and met with senior officers

's
manders the army navy and During their visit the Vietnamese
of
force

.
delegation studied military training and defence industries including the op

,
erations the company Ordnance Factories Board OFB March dur
of

In
2000

,
).
(
ing

by
return visit Hanoi Defence Minister Georges Fernandes India and
to

,
a

for
Vietnam signed new defence agreement exchange Vietnamese assist

In
a

.
jungle warfare and guerrilla tactics India apparently agreed help

to
ance
in

'
Vietnam manufacturing
small and medium weapons assault rifles and
in

)
609
certain ordnance products missiles Vietnam presently studying the

is
'

'
(

).

610
services available from the Indian Ordnance Factory Board familiar

In
a
.'
pattern Pakistan has been quick match India offers assistance May

of
to

In
,

's

.
2001 Pakistan military leader General Pervez Musharraf visited Hanoi where
,

's

611
the Vietnamese government
he

offered small arms

to

.
May 2000 Vietnam and the Ukraine also entered agreement

an
into
In

governing military and technical cooperation According Thayer the Ukraine

to

,
.
will assist Vietnam the development and production artillery weapons

of
in

612
well armoured equipment
of
as

as

and small arms the modernisation

In
.
September 2000 the two sides were expected complete agreement mili
an

on
tary technical cooperation and long term projects the defence industry
on

in
-

weap

of
sector under which the Ukraine may assist Vietnam the production
in

ons 613
'.

Finally has also sought Polish and Slovak cooperation

Vietnam the pro
in
,

duction arms and ammunition August Deputy Prime

of

Vietnam
In

1994
,

's
.

Minister Tran Duc Luong paid visit the Slovak Republic and held talks
to
,

with Slovak arms manufacturers about the possibilities for cooperation Viet
.
up

namese Defence Minister Van Tra made follow

Pham May 2000 where
in

,
a

he expressed interest cooperation with the Slovak armaments industry

in

.
Again details about the specific weapons types involved these discussions
in
,

are not available

.

Gun control and domestic unrest

Vietnam has few problems with gun violence fact given the vast number
In

,
.

of

small arms circulating the country the war

of

the end remarkable

at

is
in

, ,
it
are

that there little gun related crime Major cities safe police are lightly
so
is

the

armed and few soldiers armed security personnel are be seen Despite the
or

to

cirn
still

, .

Despiteespe
in

apparent lack violent crime however weapons are still

are
of

circulation
in
isis ,

weapons
cially rural areas Hanoi most concerned about arms
most conce the central high
in

in
.

land provinces Hanoi

where there has been unrest between ethnic minority groups
,
100 Small Arms in SE Asia

the
and government July 2001 the Ho Chi Minh City newspaper Tuoi Tre

,
In
.
reported the province residents had voluntarily

of
Youth that Kontum

in

'

'
(

)
grenades and 556kg explosives the past two

58
handed over 223 firearms

of

in
,

the
years Dak Lak province south authorities had collected 152 firearms

In

to

,
.
and 120 homemade weapons Most the weapons dated back the Vietnam

of

to
.

614
War when locals fought alongside US forces
,

.
There are also reports that anti communist group known

as
an
the Free

,
-
Vietnam Movement FVM low level insurgency operations along
maintains

),

-
(
Cambodian border The group reportedly includes members

of
the Vietnamese
-

by
the former South Vietnamese armed forces and funded expatriates the

in
is
United States and Europe armed with small quantities

of
rifles and

is
It
.

615
sidearms some which were obtained from Cambodian arms depots
of

in In
,

.
one example August 1999 fire the Cambodian navy arms depot
an

at
,

's
616
Kompong Son province was linked the FVM The Ream arms
in

to
Ream ,

.
depot was suspected being source for stolen military weapons sold clan
of

destinely The Cambodian newspaper Moneakseka Khmer reported

the FVM
to

that the fire took place after the Vietnamese embassy Phnom Penh had de

in
manded the Cambodian government reveal those responsible for selling arms
617

the FVM Vietnamese officials demanded action after seizing weapons

to

border crossing and tracing

their serial numbers
at

destined for the FVM

to
a
618

the Kompong depot According Cambodian military officials the

to

Som

,
.

Free Vietnam Movement also believed have cooperated with anti commu
619to
is

-
nist movements Cambodia and Laos
in

Transfers from Vietnam

April 1975
of

of

When the government the Republic South Vietnam fell

in

,
a
by

large quantity American supplied arms were seized

of

North Vietnamese
troops estimated that the US abandoned between and million small
It
is

.15

1
8
.

an
arms and 150000 tonnes ammunition These included
of

South Vietnam
in

, .

estimated 90000 M1911A1 pistols 791000 M16A1s 857 580 other assorted
,

'

rifles 15000 M60 general purpose machine guns and 47000 M79 grenade
',

620

by

Many these weapons were subsequently

of

launchers sold the Vietnamese

.

621

government allies and allegedly terrorist groups According the testi

to

to

to
.

mony Congress Cuba was one major buyer and

of

Cuban defector before the US

,
a

up

many American arms ended being supplied Communist rebels fighting

to
622

Central America American Vietnam war era weapons have also been
in

-
.

623

seized drug shipments coming into Hong Kong from Vietnam There are
in

also credible reports that US intelligence agency has film Vietnamese weap
of
the a

ons being provided New People Army NPA group the Philippines
to

in
(

.
's

There have also been several reported incidents the past five years
of
in
era

Vietnam War weapons being smuggled back into the United States some
,
624
for

times collectors and sometimes for more nefarious purposes 1997 US

In

,
.
 101
ASEAN Country Studies

large shipment weapons from

of
Customs stumbled across Vietnam

in
a

a
warehouse San Diego The arms included M1 and M2 carbines and M16

in

as .
as
M79 grenade launchers The age the weapons

of
assault rifles well

,
, .
together with the fact that some were missing parts suggested that they might

for
have been shipped spares

.
The circuitous path the shipment took

of
the United States indicative

to

is
the lengths arms smugglers their products Originally

go
will move con

to

a
.
signment journey Ho Chi Minh City

its
two containers the cargo began
of

in

in
,

by
March there Singapore and then

to
travelled

it
From sea

to to
1997
, .

By
Bremerhaven Germany the time the shipment left Germany had grown

it
.
San Diego two
At

three containers but third the containers were unloaded

of

a
.

was shipped back Vietnamwent over land from Ho Chi

Bizarrely
to

then

it
,
Minh City .
Thailand and then back Long Beach California before being
to

to

,
put New York City August 1997 two American citizens one
on

of
to

train
In

,
a

.
Vietnamese origin were charged with conspiracy import firearms parts into

to
the United States According prosecutors the weapons were intended for
to

,
.

625
firearms dealers California and Oregon
to

sale
in

addition the Cuban sale likely that Vietnamese weapons and

to

is
In

to it
,

ammunition were also transferred allies Cambodia and Laos during the
in

626
The TUR rifle for example has been identified both countries

In
1980s

in
,

,
1
-
.

.
addition Vietnam believed have sold North Korean made Igla SAMs
to

to
is
,

'
'
the Tamil Tigers LTTE and there have been rumours that Vietnamese weap
(

ons were supplied insurgents the southern Philippines large

to

In
1992
in

,
a
.
shipment 56mm US made rifles originating from Vietnam was reportedly
of
5

-
.

unloaded the southern Philippines island Mindanao where the weapons

of
in

,
627

were purchased by local officials

of

The government Vietnam strongly

.
628

denies these charges

.

Despite official denials smuggling weapons from Vietnamese sources

of
,

does take place small arms were seized aboard Vietnamese

of

caches
In

1994
,
.

trawlers operating
of

the South China Sea The fact that some the fishermen
in

'

'
.

these operations appear former military personnel suggests

be

arrested
to
in

that there may be leakage from Vietnamese government arms depots and
629

armouries
.

While some smuggled weapons appear originate from Vietnamese sources

to

military arsenals Vietnam trans ship

as

as

such increasingly important

is
,

ment area for weapons originating China and Russia Chinese weapons
in

porous northern border and move ports where

to

cross Vietnam Vietnamese

's

they are loaded onto cargo ships Reports Russian weapons moving through
of
.

at

Vietnam suggest they arrive directly Vietnamese ports where they are further
630

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia and possibly beyond The traffic not
is
.

all one direction Arms also move from Vietnam into southern China There
in

has been some limited cross border cooperation with Chinese authorities try
to
-
102 Small Arms in SE Asia

. For example in June 1995 , acting on Vietnamese

to prevent this trafficking
information , Chinesepolice shot dead Huang Wenya , an alleged arms smug

631
gler based in Caobinh Province . Despite this even with bilateral coopera

,
be
tion between the two countries will difficult eliminate the trade alto

to
it

of
gether customs saythat with total staff whom about

of
Vietnamese 7000

,
a
.
2000 work administrative positions impossible totally secure the

to
in

it
is
,

632
country long and often remote border regions

.
's
 Meeting the Small Arms Challenge in Southeast Asia :
Policy Recommendations

the
The previous chapters have described in some detail

is of
nature and scale
small arms production and transfers Southeast Asia They suggest that

in

it
.
extremely difficult draw clear line between the legal and illegal trade

to

in
a

by
of
small arms and light weapons Most the illicit arms used terrorists and

.
insurgent groups were one time legally produced possessed and transferred

at

.
Once these weapons fall into the wrong hands however they can present

a
serious challenge both state sovereignty and human security Large accumu
to

.
lations illegal weapons help fuel conflicts impede economic development
of

,
and foster corruption and crime This tragically clear the southern Philip

is

in
.
pines Aceh Maluku and parts Myanmar

of
,

.
But while small arms present significant threat sovereignty and good

to
a
governance parts Southeast Asia there are many simple practical steps
of
in

,
meet that challenge This final chapter outlines some initia
be

that taken
to

can
.
tives that might be taken ensure better management the production trans

of
to

,
of

fer and control small arms region steps that need be taken

to
the These are
in

by
by

by

individual states groupings like ASEAN and the ARF and the inter
,

national community including international financial institutions

,

.
National level controls
National responses by individual ASEAN
states will vital part any be

of
a
response the small arms challenge since both domestic and international
to

by

law are for the most part actually enforced

to no
states There
is
state

in
,

ASEAN that does not need take least some national action address
to

at

regulation arms production possession brokering

of

trans
its

or
weaknesses
in

fers
.

Illegal production

This monograph suggests that there comparatively little illegal produc

is

present insurgent groups have the

of

at

tion small arms Southeast Asia

in

Few
.

ability make their own arms and the only area where illegal production
an
to

is

important means through which unauthorised actors acquire military weap

ons seems be the southern Philippines Illegal production and around
to

in
.

by

Danao and Mandaue City needs the Philippines govern

be

addressed
is to
of

ment and clear statement who and who not permitted produce arms
to
is
a

the country needs be backed up with stronger enforcement measures

to
in

Given that large number people the area are dependent arms produc
of

be on
in
a
for

tion their livelihood these measures will also need matched with
to
,

assistance and investment help the region develop alternative industries

to

.
104 Small Arms in SE Asia

This could be an opportunity for various international institutions to play a

role , a possibility that is discussed in greater detail below .

If illegal production is a serious problem in the Philippines , elsewhere in

the region most weapons in illegal circulation are generally not new , but recy
cled . The most important step states can take to prevent these small arms
transfers is to improve security over weapons already lawfully in circulation .
Most of these arms reach unauthorised actors when they leak from government
arsenals , security forces and private owners . Two responses to the problem of
leakage are necessary : improved regulation of private firearms and better secu
rity and management of military and police stockpiles and holdings .

Better gun control

Several ASEAN members need to improve their regulation of firearms and

ammunition . While some states in the region , such as Singapore , have clear ,
well - established and well - enforced laws about gun ownership and posses
sion , many others do not. In Cambodia , for example , the introduction of a
comprehensive weapons law has begun , but it has been stalled by bureaucratic
disputes . The country ' s government needs to give urgent priority to resolving
this issue . Other ASEAN members need to clarify their domestic gun control
legislation to make it clear who is and who is not authorised to possess military
firearms . For example , Indonesia and the Philippines should remove excep
tions that permit special ownership rights for certain groups such as VIPs ,
senior government officials and politicians . In the Philippines , legislation
permits people to possess different types of firearms depending on their social
standing , occupation and income level. Such distinctions merely give weap
ons ownership cachet and undermine the overall effectiveness of gun control .
Clear lines must be drawn between arms that are permissible for individual
ownership and military - style weapons that have no place in the hands of un
trained civilians .

Control and security of stocks

Improving controls over small arms stockpiles is one of the most important
steps individual ASEAN states can take to reduce leakage and illicit small
arms transfers. Action to secure stocks can be divided into two distinct areas :
improving controls over arms manufacturing facilities in producer states , and
improving the security of weapons in national military holdings and arsenals
in both producer and non - producer states .

Generally , leakage directly from production facilities in Southeast Asia is

not a significant problem . Unlike arms industries in the developed world , most
small arms manufacturers in Southeast Asia are owned or effectively control
led by governments . In ASEAN , only the Philippines has a large private gun
industry producing near -military quality weapons for sale . Of the five national
 Policy Recommendations 105

weapons producers in Southeast Asia , only Pindad PT is known to have had

facilities with the reported use explosive materials from

its
leakage

its
of
from

,
factory Bandung used bombings Jakarta last year Even this dis

in

is
in

in

.
puted According the company the illegal transfer may have occurred once

to

,
.
the materials had already left the company for the Indonesian military The

.
important reminder however that ASEAN governments need
an
incident

to
is

,
closely monitor their own arms industries ensure that weapons and ammu

to
go
nition produced only authorised recipients

to

.
Leakage from military stockpiles armouries and magazines much more

is
a
of
serious problem This kind transfer probably the single most important

is
.

the
for

source illegal weapons reaching unauthorised actors region com

in

A
.
prehensive response this challenge will require multiple steps The first and
to

.
for

most basic step will

work out just what they already own

be
some states

to

.
the weapons they believe

of
All ASEAN states should detailed recordcompile
a
by

military police

of

an
are held their and forces The results such audit should

.
then be compared weapons actually deposited armouries police stations
to

in

,
An

and stockpiles accurate picture the possession the authori

of

of
what

is
in
.

ties and what missing necessary foundation for further action Govern
is

is
a

.
ments also need make clear who exactly responsible for the security and
to

is

accounting weapons and ammunition

of
all

Second states should ensure that they only maintain hold

take action
to
,

ings weapons actually

for national security and policing As
of

those needed

.
ten

was indicated the country studies many regional militaries still hold
in

large stocks obsolete arms some dating back These weap

of

World War
to
,

II
ons have no practical value modern military
.
police force but could still
or
to

,
of a

present threat the hands criminals insurgents Any weapons surplus

or
in
a

national needs should be identified and destroyed Obviously such plan

to

a
.

surplus
of

requires the development some criteria for what constitutes

a
'

'
weapon The Organisation Security Cooperation Europe OSCE has
on

in
up.

)
be

come with some basic indicators that could applied within ASEAN One
.

how many troops does An

of

the size armed forces have

—

state
is

it
i.e
a

?
's

weapons needed for legitimate defence needs

of

other indicator the number

is

',
'

including external defence internal security and participation peacekeep

in
,

for

ing operations Each state would have decide this figure itself but shar
to

,
.

be

ing the information with other states the region could useful confidence
in

to a

building measure Producer states could then choose only supply states that
.

commit these principles

to

.“
are

Once surplus weapons

be

identified they need destroyed rather than

to
,
be

left where they can stolen m isplaced transferred criminals and insur
or

to
,

gents weapons straightforward and relatively inexpen

of

The destruction
is
.

sive According the Bonn International Centre for Conversion BICC sev
to

),
.

eral cost effective options for destruction are available ranging from cutting
,
-
106 Small Arms in SE Asia

arms with an oxy -acetylene torch to simple crushing or shredding . In Cambo

dia , the EU -ASAC program prefers to use the even cheaper method of burning
surplus arms in what they call a ' flame of peace '. ?

can
While destruction programs offer a simple way to reduce the arms that
unauthorised hands funding can issue for some developing

be
an
leak into

,
currently international fund for providing assistance with

no
states There

is
.

by
surplus arms although one has been suggested the Brit
of
the destruction

,
ish government

be
Such fund would useful Southeast Asia where several

in
a
.
states lack the resources needed organise demobilisation destruction and

to

,
reintegration DD programs
&
R

.
(

)
be
Third there must better security for those weapons that are deemed nec
,

essary for national security purposes Some effective measures that could be

.
taken here would cost very little Weapons not use should be separated from

in
.
or

their magazines

be
bolts and these should stored safe and secure area

in
a

ar
away the principal arms storage area Access military and police

to
from

.
mouries and ammunition storage magazines should

be
restricted author

to
be
ised personnel only All weapons should stored separately from ammuni
.

foreign military assistance

be

tion Other steps that could taken with the help

of
.

include improving the physical security armouries and weapons storage

of

depots Arms need be held secure buildings preferably concrete struc

to

in

,
.

be
tures lined with pressed steel Armouries need adequately secured with
to
, .

appropriate fencing guards locks and where possible alarms The weapons
,

.
inside should be stored cage and preferably should be locked onto gun
in
a

racks Sidearms should be kept locked safe

in
a
.

.
for

There also need better weapons control practices There little point
is
is

havingsecure physical environment for weapons storage weapons can

if
in

armoury by soldiers police without proper permission

an
of

be out
signed
or

and without detail records being kept who has what weapon Ideally mili
of

,
.

tary small arms should only signed out specific personnel for specific
be

to
be
of

purposes fixed periods time and must returned immediately after

or

possible noting which individual

as

as
be

wards Records should detailed

,
.

weapons are out by serial number Regular audits

of

arms and ammunition

.

Specific personnel should held responsible for

be

be

stocks should arranged

.

permitting access armouries and magazines and keys should not

be

given
to

be

other personnel changed regularly

on

out Combinations locks should

be to

these steps will prevent the most determined thief from

To

sure none
of
,

putting gun someone head and demanding access but they make gain
to

,
a

's

ing unauthorised access weapons much more difficult Developing adequate

to

weapons control procedures and record keeping important part

of
an
is

professionalising regional militaries and police forces States that have mili
.

tary assistance and defence cooperation programs with ASEAN members might
want consider funding initiatives help develop these habits
to

to

.
 Policy Recommendations 107

Another area be addressed is control of ammunition at the

that needs to
national level . As United Nations Panel of Experts report noted , 'attempts to
a

address small arms and light weapons would be incomplete if they did not
include due regard for ammunition ' .' Ammunition is the vital ingredient that
makes the misuse of small arms possible . It is impossible to mass -produce
reliable , military quality ammunition without precise industrial equipment ,
special conditions and imported raw materials . Insurgents and criminals there
fore either need to acquire it through leakage or by direct sales from private
producers and states .

Stricter controls on ammunition sales , storage and possession represent a

potential point of intervention in the cycle of illicit small arms proliferation . In

addition to the controls on military stocks noted above, ASEAN states should
enact regulations requiring that privately owned ammunition be stored se
from weapons and that it must be properly marked with
curely and separately
an identifying Some ASEAN states also lack basic legislation specifying
code .
the amount of ammunition a person can own at any given time.10

Record keeping and marking

The marking or stamping of weapons and ammunition with a distinguish

ing symbol or number allows illicit or unauthorised transfers to be traced to
their point of origin . This aids law enforcement personnel in their work , pre
vents the diversion of lawful transfers and helps foster greater accountability
on the part of states for their weapons transfers. " Switzerland and Canada
have both proposed an international agreement to require such marking, al
though this has yet to be acted upon . In ASEAN , currently only Singapore ,
Malaysia and Thailand specifically require that weapons have a unique iden
tifying mark . 12 The other members should follow suit , as anticipated in the
Program of Action that came out of the United Nations meeting in July 2001 . 13

Any marking scheme needs to work hand in hand with an information

gathering and information - sharing mechanism , so that suspect arms and am
munition can be checked against a record of legally owned and transferred
arms . The UN Program of Action urges states to ‘ensure that comprehensive
and accurate records are kept ... on the manufacture , holding and transfer of
small arms and light weapons within their jurisdiction '. 14 Currently , only six
of ASEAN ' s
ten

members maintain national registers small arms and light

of

weapons and only two ingapore and Brunei are computerised

of

ten 15

those
.
)
(S

The development privately held small arms

of

national registers all

If of

in
, -

priority possible
be

ASEAN countries should this information should be

a

be

easily accessed and

an

recorded and stored

so

electronic form can

in

it

shared among law enforcement officials Electronic records however should

,

,
.

only
be

addition traditional paper records Financial constraints some

to
in

in
.

ASEAN states will mean that well kept paper records kept local police
in
a
-
108 Small Arms in SE Asia

station will probably be a more useful resource for law -enforcement personnel
than an expensive but inaccessible computer -based system far away in the
national capital . National measures should also be complemented with ap
propriate regional action , such as steps to make this information available to
other ASEAN states .

Brokering

Another legislative initiative that could to be adopted by states in the region

is stricter control of arms dealers and brokers . 16 As the previous chapters noted ,
brokers and intermediaries play an essential role in the movement of arms into
several Southeast Asian conflict zones. Better regulation of brokering is essen
tial if state policies on the transfer of arms and other lethal technologies are to
have meaning . National registration of authorised arms dealers would be one
simple step , as would the adoption of legislation criminalising all illicit
brokering activities . 17 Brokers and arms dealers are adept at exploiting incon
sistencies in national regulations concerning arms transfers . Consequently ,
there is a particular need for regional harmonisation of national laws on
brokering in ASEAN to prevent arms dealers from arranging transfers in a
neighbouring state that would be unlawful in their home jurisdiction .18 One
solution is for states to pass legislation giving themselves extra -territorial con
trols over their citizens . This has been done in the United States and , although
it is unlikely to find unanimous support in ASEAN , some states may be pre
pared to enact such laws .

Capacity building

Even if adequate gun control and import / export legislation were introduced
all

by ASEAN states the much bigger challenge enforcing those laws would
of
,

The primary obstacle here capacity and the prevalence

of

the lack

of
remain
is
.

weak states Southeast Asia Even assuming there political will sup
to
is
in

press illicit arms trafficking states like Indonesia Cambodia Laos Vietnam
,

and Myanmar all lack the resources

be

able effectively control their fron

to

to

tiers secure and destroy surplus weapons and enforce gun control laws They
,

.
do

often not have the funds needed hire train and adequately pay the cus
to

toms officials and police needed for these tasks

.

political will but clear lack

of

Where there resources enforce laws aid

to
is

,
a

donors and international institutions can play role Historically interna

,
a

tional financial institutions IFIs like the International Monetary Fund IMF
(

and World Bank have been reluctant link their restructuring programs
to

to

what might be perceived national security issues but given the influence
as

they could have many ASEAN states development assistance seems

an
in

important option for encouraging steps reduce the proliferation weapons

of
to

illegal small arms manufacturing Davao might

be
of

The problem one

in
 Policy Recommendations 109

instance where an international development program , whether funded

through the IFIs or individual donors , could make a contribution to reducing
the number of illegal weapons entering the marketplace . Some of the 'weapons
for development models might be applicable here . Likewise , using loans and
aid to secure weapons stockpiles , to destroy weapons deemed surplus to na
tional requirements , or to improve the professionalism and salaries of specific
civilian law enforcement personnel , are all ideas worth considering . Given the
proven link between weapons proliferation and serious challenges to develop
ment , this would seem a reasonable and judicious use of funds.

Regional measures

While national level measures are important, tackling the illicit trade in
small arms will also need to be supplemented with greater levels of regional
cooperation . Here , the first steps should focus on developing greater levels of
cooperation between ASEAN officials at the working level .
law

Cooperation between enforcement personnel will obviously espe

be
cially important While there already regional institution ASEANAPOL
is

,
a
.

which brings together senior police officers from around the region more atten

,
the operational level Too often
be

tion needs given better cooperation

at
to

to

.
or

cooperation here non existent Regularised

ad

either hoc and substantive

is

.
contacts and exchanges need be established between the customs justice
to

,
and police officials who are charged with enforcing existing laws and regula
day day basis
on

tions
to
a

by

better exchanges

. of
These links also need
be

matched information
to

about state export controls and authorised small arms transfers Here some
by

relatively untaxing proposals could be adopted ASEAN states immediately

.
of

Simply identifying and exchanging the names the officials each state who
in

contacted with questions about small arms shipments would constitute

be

can
positive development clear national policy statement from each ASEAN
A
a

member listing the people and institutions within that state that are authorised
issue export permission and End User Certificates EUCs would also be
to

)
-

helpful preventing illicit transfers

in

some cases intelligence and military cooperation between states pre

to
In

vent arms smuggling will be possible

There some regional precedent here
is

, ,
.

with the four nation security arrangement signed between Thailand Sri Lanka
,
-

India and Bangladesh April 1999 The agreement seems require little
.19

to
in

more than exchanges information between intelligence officials but

of

is
it
,

step forward promoting regional cooperation against trafficking small

in

in
of

arms and other illicit goods There are clearly other parts the region that
.

The kidnap
of

could develop similar hopefully stronger forms cooperation

,

ping during Philippines

of

tourists 2000 and the violence the southern and

in

that the Philippines Malaysia and Indonesia

all

Maluku shows have

,

preventing the movement illegal groups

of

common interest arms

to
in

.
110 Small Arms in SE Asia

ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF )

The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF ) has discussed small arms issues through
itsExperts Group Meetings EGM Conven

on
and track two seminar

at
),

a
'

‘
(
tional Arms Transfers and Small Arms Cambodia February 2001 The

in

in
'

.
on on
the ARF context was

an
one substantive initiative taken small arms

so
far

in
Australian proposal for the responsibilities

of
declaration member states

a
concerning small arms transfers While the wording the declaration was

of
.
only aspirational and not especially demanding China Russia and several

,
ASEAN states worked hard progress After some debate the ARF

its

at
block

to

.
Senior Officials Meeting SOM meeting Vietnam May 2001 the initiative

in

in

,
by '

)
was opposed Indonesia and other ASEAN members and not passed

on

to
the Foreign Ministers meeting Hanoi This reflected very poorly

on
the ARF

in

.
'

regional initiative

no
and meant the Asia Pacific had take the UN Confer

to

to
-

ence New York July While progress even less likely now than before the
in

in

is
.

pressure

be
ARF action
of

on
conference for some sort small arms should sus
,
by

as
members like Australia Canada Japan and New Zealand

as
tained well
,

,
more sympathetic ASEAN members like Malaysia All ARF members should

.
be

UN
set

urged adopt the measures out the Program

to

of
Action
in

.
International action
important recognise that regional action small arms Southeast on
to

in
is
It

Asia will some extent depend what happens the wider international
on

on
to
,

stage small arms fade away

of

of
the issue allowed the wake the
to
is

in
If
.

United Nations conference ASEAN states may feel less compelled take posi

to
,

tive collaborative steps tackle problems the region therefore impor

to

is
It
in

press for the adoption

of
tant that like minded states continue the measures
to
-

set out the UN Program They should also work agenda

an
build
of

Action
to
in

.
of

additional measures be tackled the future

to

in

There are already several initiatives that could incorporated

be

an
such
in

agenda They include the Swiss and Canadian proposals for

an

international
.

marking regime mentioned above tougher action control brokering and arms
to
;

dealing measures regulate and control the proliferation

of

craft
so

called
to
;

'
-
for

weapons especially where they are involved conflicts support the de

in
',

velopment
of

or

international norm against transfers

an

non state actors

to

(
-

non state like entities badly needed overhaul the highly problematic
of

and
);

a
-

as

End User Certificate EUC system Small arms measures should also be seen
.
(

complementary other conventional arms control and transparency meas

to

All
as

ures such the United Nations Conventional Arms Register UNCAR

).
(

ASEAN and ARF members should be encouraged make timely and detailed
to

submissions the register

to

.
 Policy Recommendations 111

Conclusion
Small arms production and proliferation in Southeast Asia present a com
plex and multi- faceted challenge . The illicit trade alone includes leakage both
large and small from state arsenals and stockpiles , illegal production , domes
transfers criminal groups well organised commercial size shipments
tic

to

,
-
state authorised covert transfers Steps address the

to
and non state actors

to
-

.
by
small arms will therefore require action

at
problems presented

of
range

a
the state level while necessary and important will

on
its
levels Action at own

,
.

national regional and international responses

of
be insufficient combination

,
A
.

of
needed better regulate the legal trade reduce the illegal supply small
for to to

to
is

of
arms and begin remove the underlying causes insecurity that create the
to

demand these weapons the first place

in

.
UN

that many states continue

on

The conference small arms demonstrated

have serious concerns that effective measures control illicit small arms
to

to
will impinge proposals improve the management
on

of
their sovereignty If

to
.
way that
as be

be
small arms are successful ASEAN they must presented
in
to

in
a
not perceived threatening regional norms which place premium

to on
is

be
sovereignty and non interference The best approach for advocates will
-

adopt building block model focusing immediate efforts the proposals

on
,
a

'
be

This should not

as

outlined above that can framed sovereignty enhancing

-

.
especially difficult Given that the requirements statehood are usually
be

of
.
as

including control territory and borders and control over the

of

understood
be

foreign relations the region that

of

conduct needs made clear states

it

to

to

in
,

the current activities illicit arms traffickers actually undermine their sover
of

eignty Once these states accept the need for action control small arms the

at
to
.

can

building
on

national level work begin more substantive and more struc

,

tured regional small arms regime

.
 Notes

Introduction

1 These factors are set out in Keith Krause , Norm - Building in Security Spaces :
The Emergence of the Light Weapons Problematic , paper prepared

for
the
the International Studies Association Washington DC

of
Annual Conference

,
March 1999

.
On small arms and civilian casualties see Lora Lumpe Curbing the Prolifera

',
2

Small Arms and Light Weapons

of of
paper presented the 5th Confer

to
tion

',

on
ence the Center for Preventative Action Council Foreign Relations

,
December 1998
.
Lora Lumpe Transparency the Legal Small Arms Trade paper presented

in
,

',
3

workshop Small Arms Geneva February

18

20
on
the Swiss Government
at

,
's

-
1999
.

Jeffrey Boutwell Michael Klare Small Arms and Light Weapons Control
&

- ', ',
4

:
ling the Real Instruments War Arms Control Today September 1998
of

A
.
org
at
http
/ of

on
version the article available line www armscontrol ACT
is

:/
/

/
.

.
augsep98 mkas98 htm
.

Department

for
See Freedom From Fear Canada Foreign Policy Human Security

,
5

's

(
of

Foreign Affairs International Trade Ottawa 2000 Small Arms Japan

.9p
&

of ,

),

's
:
Role Disarmament and Development Ministry Foreign Affairs Tokyo 2000
in

29 ,

);
(

also Kavi Chongkittavorn Tackling new global agendas The Nation Octo
' “,

',

, ,
ber 1998 AAP Newsfeed No

13
Howard backs move limit small arms to
,
;

vember 1999
.

of

For the full text the ECOWAS moratorium see Jacqueline Seck West Africa
,

,
6

the Imple

for
Small Arms Moratorium High Level Consultations
on

the Modalities
-
:

the PCASED United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research

of

mentation
(

and the United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament Africa

in

,
Geneva and Lomé 2000
,

).

Inter American Convention Against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking Fire
in
7

, -

of
arms Ammunition Explosives and Other Related Material The full text the
,

www oas org prog juridico english

en

Convention
at

available http
is

:/
/

/
/

/
.
.

treaties 63 html
a

.
-
/

Small Arms Survey 2001 Oxford University Press London 2001 For more
,

,
8

).
(

about the work Small Arms Survey see http

of

information
,

:/
/

www smallarmssurvey org

.

.
.

Sarah Meek Combating Arms Trafficking Progress and Prospects Lora

in
,

',
9

'

Lumpe Running Guns The Global Black Market

ed

Small Arms Zed Books

in

,
(
)

(
:

London 2000 199

.p
,

' .
)

Arms United Nations General Assembly Document

10

52

Cited Small 298

in

,
A
'

/
/

August
27

11

1997
p
,
.
.
.pp
12 11

11
12

Ibid
,

-
.

Antipersonnel mines APMs most definitions small arms

of

areincluded
in

,
(

but are usually empirical studies the grounds that they are
on

excluded from
already addressed their own This was the approach adopted
of

literature
of in
a

by
be

the UN Panel Governmental Experts and will followed here For

a
.
 Notes 113

detailed study of landmine production and transfers , see Landmine Monitor

2000 (Human Rights Watch , Washington DC , 2000 ) .

13 Some early scholarly accounts include light anti - tank weapons and shoulder
fired anti -aircraft weapons as 'small arms '. See for example the contribution of
Stephanie Neuman , cited in Swadesh Rana , Small Arms and Intra - State Conflict ,
UNIDIR Research Paper No . 34 (UNIDIR , Geneva , 1995 ), pp . 3-4 . In 1996 the
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR ) defined small
arms as including ‘ certain types of heavy machine guns (HMG ) with a calibre
not exceeding 12.7mm , man -portable anti- aircraft and anti- tank missiles and
mortars ,mines and grenades '. See UNIDIR , Small Arms Management and Peace
keeping in Southern Africa (Geneva , UNIDIR , 1996 ), p . 8 . This definition appears

to have been discontinued in the wake of the Panel of Experts report.

1997
Lumpe, ‘Curbing

the
Small Arms and Light Weapons

of
14 Lora Proliferation

'.
51
16 15

Article United Nations Charter United Nations New York

,

,
1948

).
Au

52
Small Arms United Nations General Assembly Document

27
298
',

,
A
'

/
/
gust 1997 para para
34

57
,

.
the regional regulation

of
firearms United
on
17

For more information see the

,
Nations International Study
on

Firearm Regulation United Nations New York

,
(
by
see also the excellent summary Katherine Kramer Legal Controls

on
1998

,
);

Small Arms and Light Weapons ASEAN Small Arms Survey Non Violence
in

&

). -
(
International Small Arms Survey Working Paper No Geneva 2001
,

,
2
.
see
18

www
to

For the Canadian draft and reactions prepcom org docu

. it,

/
/

.
/
ments gov nov proposal htm
99

canada
_

.
, /

Small Arms and Light Weapons

20 19

Krause
.

The distinction between legal state transfers and illegal transfers

by
non state

-
American States regional convention
of

actors used the Organisation

is

in

'
regulating arms trafficking well the UN Protocol against the Illicit Manu
as
in as

facturing and Trafficking Firearms Ammunition and Other Related Ma

of

terials The OAS convention defines illicit trafficking the import export
as

, ,
'

'
.

or

of

acquisition sale delivery movement transfer firearms ammunition

, ,

explosives and other related materials from across the territory

or

of
one
State Party
of

another State Party any one

of

that
to

the States Parties

if
,

concerned does not authorize Inter American Convention Against the

Il
it

-
.

licit Manufacturing and Trafficking Firearms Ammunition Explosives and

14 in

Other Related Materials signed emphasis

on

November 1997 Article

,

1,
2
.

added
).

Chapter
2

Krause Small Arms and Light Weapons

,

, , p,
1

.v
.

Interview with Abdul Hadi Lochman Production Manager Small Arms Am

,
2

munition SME Ordnance Damansara Kuala Lumpur October 2000

,

Anne Naylor Schwartz Third World Military

of

David Louscher Patterns

&

, ,
3

J.

Technology Acquisition Kwang Baek Ronald McLaurin Chung

in

or in
Il

&
',

D
-

-
.

Moon eds The Dilemma Third World Defense Industries Supplier Control
of

:
(

.)

Recipient Autonomy 1989 pp

32

34

Westview Press Boulder Co

,

,
?

.
(

)
114 Small Arms in SE Asia

4 Bilveer Singh & Kwa Chong Kuan , “ The Singapore Defence Industries :
Motivations , Organization and Impact ,' in Chandra Jeshurun (ed ), Arms and
Defence in Southeast Asia ( Institute for Southeast Asian Studies , Singapore , 1989 )
pp .21 -22 , 96.
5 Although , as Singaporean commentators frequently note , Singapore ' s goal
has not been complete self - sufficiency , which would be unrealistic for a small
state . With the exception of sidearms such as pistols , however , Singapore is
completely self -sufficient in small arms and ammunition .

6 Quoted in Andrew L . Ross , “ The International Arms Trade , Arms Imports , and
Local Defence Production in ASEAN ,' in Jeshurun (ed ) , Arms and Defence in
Southeast Asia , pp .21 - 22.

7 See Singh & Kwa , . .

p 97

8 Interview with Professor Dato ' Zakaria Haji Ahmad , Institute of Diplomacy
and Foreign Relations, Kuala Lumpur , 17 October 2000 .
9 Singh and Kwa , p . 98 .
10 Although it should be noted that price was not the only consideration identi
fied by
Indonesian military officials when they announced their intention to
seek Chinese mortar ammunition . They also complained that mortar rounds
produced by the Indonesian defence manufacturer Pindad were unreliable
and of low quality . Unfortunately for Pindad , China also offered the Indone
sian government cheap loans with which to finance the purchase . See ‘Defence
Developments ', Asia - Pacific Defence Reporter , June / July 2000 , p .47 .
11 See for example , the interview with the then Malaysian Defence Minister Datuk
Seri Syed Hamid Albar in Jane's Defence Weekly , 26 November 1997 ; see also
the comments of Kamaruzzaman Shariff , then Secretary General of the
Malaysian Ministry of Defence in ‘ Towards a Balanced and Credible Defence
Capability ', Military Technology , No. 8 (1993 ) pp .65 -69 , 67 .

12 Towards Tomorrow : The Singapore Technologies Story (WordMaker Design , Sin

gapore , 1997 ) , p . 37; 'Singapore buys Longbows and grows
its

defence indus
.pp
'try

21
20

Asia Pacific Defence Reporter December 1999

,

,
-

-
.

Singh
14 13

98

Kwa
,
.p
&

, .

For more details see Pindad website http www pindad com
,
's

:/
/

/
.

Company Profile company profile html

_

.
/
15

its

William Ashton Burma receives advances from silent suitors Singapore

in
',

',

Jane Intelligence Review March 1998

,
1
's

Abel Manufacturing Trends Globalising the Source Lora Lumpe

16

Pete
in
,

'

Running Guns The Global Black Market

ed

Small Arms Zed Books London

in

,
(
)

(
:
94
),

2000
.p
.

The licensing agreement required that third party sales could only proceed
17

Burma receives ad
of

with the assent the Swedish government See Ashton

',
.

vances
'.

not deny that the shipment was made but have said that
do
18

Swedish officials
,
an

investigation into the matter concluded that Singapore had not breached
of its

licensing obligations Interview with Paul Beijer Director Swedish Ministry

,

,
.

Foreign Affairs Phnom Penh February 2001

18
,

.
 Notes 115

19 A list of national inventories of small arms can be found in Jane ' s Infantry
Weapons 1999 - 2000 (Jane ' s Information Group , Coulsdon , 2000 ) .

20 '
Jane s Infantry Weapons , 1999 - 2000 , p. 579 .
21 Hawke , ' Exposed — Burma' s weapons industry ', Jane 's Intelligence Review , 1
December 1998 .

Chapter 3

1 One complication , however , is that often news reports do not accurately iden
tify the weapons they refer to . For example , few newspaper writers are able
to distinguish between the Soviet / Russian AK47 and the Chinese copy of the
AK47 , the Type 56 assault rifle . Many reports that refer to the use of AK47s
might actually be referring to Type 56s . While there are few differences in
terms of the guns ' capabilities , the precise identity of the weapon obviously
provides important clues about where it may have come from .
2 According to one survey , of
major conflicts fought since 1990 , small arms
49
and light weapons were the only arms used in 46 . See Jeffrey Boutwell &
Michael Klare , 'Small Arms and Light Weapons: Controlling the Real Instru
ments of War ', Arms Control Today , August / September 1998 .
3 Raymond Bonner , ‘ A Tamil Tiger Primer on International Arms Bazaar ', Inter
national Herald Tribune , 10 March 1998 , p .4 ; Peter Chalk , “'Liberation Tigers Of
Tamil Eelam ' s (LTTE ) International Organization And Operations – A Pre
liminary Analysis ', Canadian Security Intelligence Service , Commentary No.
77 (Winter 1999 ) .

4 The exception is Islamic fundamentalism , which is discussed below under ex

egional suppliers
tra

.
-r

Interviews with informed sources Bangkok November 2000 see also David
,

,
;
5

Lamb Ethnic Karen Losing Myanmar Struggle Los Angeles Times No

24
in
,

',

,
'

vember 2000 Nelson Rand Nothing Left Lose Life and Death the Karen
47 to

in
,
;

Fortune July 2001

.pp
of

44

State Soldier
',

-
.

James East Thais fighting losing battle with Myanmar drug lords The Straits
',

',
6

's

March 2001 AFP Cash guns paid for hostages Philippine Daily
13

Times
,

, ' ',
; ;

Inquirer August 2000 Armand Nocum and Donna Cuesto AFP chief admits
,

,
2

P245M paid for hostages release Philippine Daily Inquirer August 2000
',

;
8
'

In
Carlito Pablo Abu Sayyaf shopping for heavy weapons Philippine Daily
‘,

',

quirer August 2000

,
7

all

The Canadian government offered draft treaty that would outlaw trans
7

by

fers between states and non state actors but this was strongly opposed the
-

United States among others For the draft and reactions see http
to
,

it
,
.

:/
all /

www prepcom org documents gov nov canada proposal htm Not
99

_
_

.
/

/
.

/
.

states support this norm Bangkok claim that the

of

course and sources

in
,

re

UWSA purchases weapons directly from Norinco factories China also

It
in

, .

sells them various other groups excluding the SSA Interview source
to

in
,

contact with Burmese insurgents February 2001

,

Keith Krause Small Arms and Light Weapons emphasis original

,

in
p
8

7
(
.

).

Michelle Vachon Ana Nov Unreliable Gun Statistics Agree Only that Nation
&

',
9

Well Daily February

20

Armed The Cambodia 2001

.p
',

,
8
-

.
116 Small Arms in SE Asia

10 A Philippine Center on Transnational Crime ( PCTC ) paper published in 2000

claims there are 633 ,607 licensed firearms in the country . Other reports cite the
figure 714 ,757 ('Curb those guns ', Asiaweek , 8 September 2000 ). The 700 , 000
figure is based on the PCTC report' s figure , taking into account

its
claim that

,
average average increase 802 registered firearms each

‘, 65
on

& an

of
there

is
,

on
PP
year Rodrigo Gracia Camilo Cascolan PCTC Paper Illegal Manu

an P
.

.
facturing Trafficking Firearms paper presented the Jakarta Re

to
of

in

',
the Illicit Trafficking Small Arms and Light Weapons

on
gional Seminar

in

,
3
of 4
-
May 2000 According separate 1998 PNP intelligence report

12

13

56
to

%
,

% ,
a
.
in -
weapons the Philippines are

21
all

23
Mindanao are Luzon are

%
in

in

in
,

,
the Visayas See PNP reports 137 645 guns loose nationwide Business World

',

,
.
September 1998
'
28

.
11

Carlito Pablo Gov vies with Sayyaf Mindanao arms market Philippine

in
, ,

',
'
't
Daily Inquirer August 2000
8

.
PCTC Paper
13 12

15
Gracia Cascolan
',

’,
.p
7

EU .
Curbing Small Arms

on
Interviews with representative
from Assistance

-
and Light Weapons

EU
February 2001

19
Cambodia ASAC Phnom Penh
in

),

;
-
see also the presentation by Brig Gen (
ret Henny van der Graaf Project

,
.

)
Manager the ASEAN Regional Forum Seminar
EU

on
ASAC Conven
to
,

,
-

tional Weapons Transfers and Small Arms Phnom Penh Cambodia

21
Febru
,

,
ary 2001
.

February
17 16 15 14

Interviews with informed sources Phnom Penh 2001

,

.
Calls for intl troops Maluku brushed aside The Jakarta Post August 2000
in

',

, 7

.
' '

after guns missing The

go

Sampit tense again

12
Jakarta Post March 2001
',

', ,

, .
AG

Pindad police give conflicting account

on

office bomb The Jakarta Post

,

8
July 2000
.

solider arrested for Aceh weapons sales Broadcasting

18

Indonesian Australian
',
'

Corporation January 2000

,
6

Senator confirms military supplied Abu Sayyaf

19

arms Manila Standard

to

',

,
1
'

October 1994
.2p
,
.

rebels raid Quezon town hall seize guns Philippine Daily Inquirer De
20

60

',

,
8
'

cember 2000 Cynthia Borgueta Joey Gabieta 200 NPA rebs attack Samar
&

,
;

22 A

“
.

cops troops Philippine Daily Inquirer September 2000 Gerry Baldo Shoot
,

',

',
, ;

ers lose guns rebels Philippine Daily Inquirer October 1999 Delfin Mallari
27
to

',

,
;

NPA rebels raid Laguna police station seize guns Philippine Daily Inquirer
,

',

,
8
‘

August 2000 Lax management and lost weapons also major problem For
is

a
.

.
'
'

example October 2000 120 police officers from Negros Occidental were
in
,

114

sued for failing return several hundred weapons including Armalite

54 to

Garand rifles 122 M1 and M2s and large number

of

pistols
13

rifles 14s
M
,

a
-

and shotguns See Carla Gomez Policemen sued for failing return pistols
to
‘,

,
.

rifles Philippine Daily Inquirer October 2000 The same article quotes the
',

,
4

police director for the Western Visayas ordering the return 600 weapons
of
the

police who were longer assigned region

no

issued
to

to

.
big
21

Dave Veridiano Government men eyed arms haul Philippine Daily

M

‘,

in

,
, .

Inquirer September 2000

2

.
22

There were minor differences news reports about the exact quantity
of
in

for

weapons seized Military combs Malaysian jungle

Cf

missing weapons
',
.
‘
 Notes 117

The Straits Times ,5 July 2000 ; Thomas Fuller , Malaysia Armory Thieves Sur
rounded ', International Herald Tribune , 5 July 2000 .
23 Jestyn Cooper , 'Rebel group threatens Malaysian security ' , Jane 's Intelligence
Review , 1 September 2000 ; Wan Hamidi Hamid , Mahathir : Arms heist gang
out to topple government ' , The Straits Times , 11 July 2000 ; ‘Nine more soldiers
involved in arms heist questioned ' , The Straits Times , 13 July 2000 .

24 Bernama News Agency , 'Two cases of theft at army camps in last five years ',
22 November 2000 .
25 'Audit check at military camp armouries after Steyr thefts ', The New Strait
Times , 8 August 1999 ; Bermana , ‘All four stolen Steyr automatic rifles recov
ered ', 19 January 2000 .

26 Ibid See also Ghazemy Mahmood , 'Security Tightened at Military Weapons

.
Stores ,' Bermana , 19 January 2000 ; M . Jeffri Razali ,'No cover - up of arms thefts ',
New Straits Times , 4 February 2000 ; Tony Emmanuel , 'Steyr Gang 'master
mind ' nabbed in police ambush ’, New Straits Times , 31 August 2000 ; Leslie Lau ,
'Gang leader was eager to rob again ', The Straits Times , 10 September 2000 .
27 ‘Arms cache for minority groups seized in Northeast ', The Bangkok Post , 6
September 1996. On the Hong Kong and Taiwan connection , see Lilian Wu, ' 12
Arrested in Connection with Arms Smuggling', Central News Agency , 10
December 2000 ; ‘Hong Kong seizes arms on ship from Thailand ', Deutsche
Presse Agentur , 31 August 1997 .
28 Tony Gilotte , The $8 assault rifle ', World Press Review , vol. 40, no . 11, ( 1993 ), p . 1.

Bonner , ‘A Tamil Tiger Primer on International Arms Bazaar ' ( op note

cit
29

3
).
Craig Skehan Thais run huge arms trade The Sydney Morning Herald
30

14
',

',

,
August 1999
.
by

Thai Navy destined for Indian rebels The Thailand Times

31

18
Arms seized
',

,
‘

March 1997 Anthony Davis Thailand tenders anti trafficking plan others

to
;

',
-
“

April
21

Jane Defence Weekly 1999

,

.
's

Interviews with NGO representatives and diplomats Penh and Bang

32

Phnom
,

kok November 2000 and February 2001

,

Thai Army officer August 1998

35 34 33

13
of

Cache ammunition seized from The Nation

',

,
'

.
op

Thailand tenders anti trafficking plan

31
cit

Davis note
,

,
(

)
'
-

May 1999 Robert

29
on

Chuan pledges watch Tamil arms link The Nation

',

;
'

Karniol Sri Lanka says Tigers are trading arms Cambodia Jane Defence
in
, ,

',

's
'

Weekly October 1996 Bertil Lintner LTTE purchases link with Cambodia
‘,

',
;
2

Jane Intelligence Review December 1996 For detailed chronological sum

,
1

a
's

Disrupting
of

mary LTTE smuggling operations see Rohan Gunaratna the

,

,
‘

International Arms Pipeline Guerrilla and Terrorist Groups The Asian Case
to

with Special Emphasis Sri Lanka paper presented the workshop organ
to

to
',

ised by the Swiss and German militaries

28 on

Industrial Aspects
of

Limitations
'
on

no

Small Arms Light Weapons Baden year given

30

June
',

(
/

).

foster defence cooperation April

37 36

Thailand Sri Lanka The Nation

to

1999
,

,
9

.
' '

Army
29

chief insists rebels have local base The Nation March 2000 Tamil
', , ',

';

Tigers extend net Thailand The Nation August 2000

in

',

.
"

"

captured weapons linked 1997 Navy

38

13

pirates
of

Leader March
for to

Thailand Times
;
,

seizes weapons reportedly

12

destined Tamil Tigers Thailand Times March 1997

',

.
118

SE
Small Arms Asia

in

op

31
39
Davis Thailand tenders anti trafficking plan Unless other

cit
note

,
'

'
(

).
all
wise indicated dollar amounts are US dollars

.
Kyodo News Service investigate Tamil weapons depots Janu
40

11
Thailand

to
,

',
ary 1999

.
41
Navy seizes weapons reportedly destined

for
Tamil Tigers

12
Thailand Times

',

,
March 1997

.
FOKUS Cara GAM Mengail Dana Forum Keadilan No
42

31
November 2000

',

,
5
.
'

. :
pp
80
86
-
.

An
Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta
43

Interviews in Aceh based official cited inter

in
-
.
notes provided
the author See also John McBeth Nate Thayer

to to
view

&
, ,
.
July 1999

29
Bertil Lintner Worse Come Far Eastern Economic Review
,

',

.p .
Aiming for legitimacy January
45 44

19

29
Alexandra Seno Asiaweek 1996
,

',

,
A

, '
.

.
by
Justin Morozzi Rest work and play the gun Firearms ownership dealership
,

,
:
are

and production sleepy Danao Financial Times April 1997

19
routine in

',

.
Interview with Philippines Ambassador Francisco Atayde
46

Cambodia

to

,
H
E
.
.

big
February 2001 Disraeli Parreño Danao City supplier
22

Phnom Penh
,

.p ',
;

Y
.
alleged weap
of

Yakuza guns Manila Chronicle January 1995 21

an
183 On
',

.
ons for drugs partnership between Abu Sayyaf and the Hong Kong

14
-K
-
-

crime syndicate see Donna Cueto Abu links int drug ring probed

to
,

.pp. ,

',
S
.

'l
Philippine Daily Inquirer July 2000
17
,
49 48 47

PCTC Paper
17

19

Gracia Cascolan
‘,

',
&

-
.
20

Ibid
p
,
.
.

of

FE
Summary January
11

BBC World Broadcasts 2000 D3734 S1

,

.
/

/
RP

for

ship captured running guns January

50

16
The Jakarta Post 2001
',

.
The
51

Abu Sayyaf weapons capabilities foreign supporters listed Philippines

12 ,

',
“

.1pp

Daily Inquirer July 1994

31
,

,
.

Libya trained rebels blamed for current Aceh

52

to 30
violence The Jakarta Post
, ',

't ,
-
‘

July 1999 Cathy Rose Garcia Manolette Payumo MILF tells gov
&
;

C
A
.

.
or

peace February
22

choose Talk resume war Business World 2000

',

,
:

.
Bin
53

Laden funds Abu Sayyaf through Muslim relief group Philippine Daily
',
‘

Inquirer August 2000

,
9

getting weapons via Malaysia May

55 54

23

Rebels The Straits Times 2000

',

,
'

"

""

Rahul Bedi Turf wars muddy the waters Intelligence

of

Indian inteľ Jane

,

's
'

38

Review March 1999

p
,

,
1

.
.
59 58 57 56

Ibid
.

Ibid
.

Ibid
.

by

reforms prompted this and other Indian intelligence

of

For discussion
a

failures Rahul Bedi Failures prompt India intelligence sery

to

see reform
,

,
"

"

.pp
ice

no

Intelligence Review vol

13

20
22

Jane June 2001

,

),
6
's

(
'

-
.

.
AL

TNI Eastern Fleet heightens security against arms smugglers

60

Jayapura
',
-

August 2001
29

Infopapua
,

.
 Notes 119

Chapter 4

bin
Interviews with Mohd Shahrul Nizam Umar Research Officer Ministry

of
1

,
Pg
Foreign Affairs and Dk Dalo Shariffuddin Shazainah Research Officer Min

,
istry regional

. at
Foreign The interviews took place

of
Affairs Brunei Darussalam

a
-

.
on

19
conference small arms Phnom Penh Cambodia February 2001

in

at
called 655 reporting data available

on
This drawn line

so
is
from

,
2

-
am
www fas org very grateful Maria Haug for originally providing me

to
.
.
.
I
with this information

.
Brunei Jane Sentinel Security Assessment Southeast Asia March August
.p ',

,
3

's

-
'

41

2000
,

for
James Coflin Small Arms Brokering Impact Options Controls and Regulations
,

,
4

:
report prepared for the Canadian Department Foreign Affairs and Interna

of
tional Trade Ottawa May 2000

11
,

.p s p,
.
.
(

)
The embargo that wasn Iran arms shipments into Bosnia Jane Intelli

',
5

's
"

't

, '
:
gence Review December 1997 538
,
1

.
White House admits knew other countries sent weapons Bosnia Deutsche

to
it

',
6

Presse Agentur May 1996 James Riesen Senate Rebukes Administration

13

;
,

. 's
'
on

OK Iran Arms Bosnia The Los Angeles November

to

1994 Times 1996

',

,
8
's

Michelle Vachon Ana Nov Unreliable Gun Statistics Agree Only that Nation
The&

',
7

Well Armed Cambodia Daily February 2001 summary

of
20

For

.8p
',

a
-

.
Chinese transfers the Khmer Rouge and other opposition factions which
to

included B40 rockets AK47s and 60mm mortars see Anne Gilks and Gerald
,

Segal China and the Arms Trade Croom Helm

,

48
London 1987

.p
,

),

.
(

Vachon Nov Unreliable Gun Statistics

&

,
8

'

'.

by
as

The study was problematic however was carried out government

,

it
9

officials whom many people would not admit they owned unregistered
to

guns Interview with Cambodian government official Phnom Penh

19
Feb
,

,
.

ruary 2001
.

The Disarming
of
11 10

Cambodia Asian Defence Journal June 1999 60

',

,
.p
.
for

Interview Edgar Janz Secretariat Advisor Working Group Weapons Re

,

February 2001 Yeshua Moser

22

duction Cambodia Phnom Penh

in

Puangsuwan Disarmament solutions can

be

found beyond Cambodia Phnom

',

',

July 1998
24
30

Penh Post
,
-

Neb Sinthay and Janet Ashby Cambodian May July 1998

12

Disarmament Survey
,

,
at -

Working Group for Weapons Reduction http

on

available line
,

:
/
/

www igc org nonviolence niseasia salwp forward htm

.
.

.
/

Kyodo News Service Phnom Penh bans sales toy guns knives
of
13

curb
to
. . ‘,

August 2000
28

theft
',

Edgar Janz
16 15 14

Interview
,

Sinthay Ashby Disarmament Survey

,

Cambodian
&

Neb Sinthay Small Arms and Light Weapons

of

The Problem Cambodia

in
,

',
'

paper presented
on

the International Conference Small Arms Proliferation

to

and Trade the Asia Pacific Sofitel Cambodiana Hotel Phnom Penh Cam
20 in

,
-
19

bodia February 2001

,
-

.
120 Small Arms in SE Asia

17 Forecast International, Ordnance and Munitions Forecast (Newtown , Connecti

cut , 2000 ) , pp . 11- 12; see also their ‘Military Sidearms' section in Ordnance and
Munitions Forecast (January 2000 ) , p .5 .
18 Interviewswith Major -General Nem Sowath , Deputy Director of Defense Serv
ices, Ministry of National Defence , Phnom Penh , 18 February 2001 , and with
Cambodian Interior Ministry officials .
19 ' Cambodia signs $ 15m Accord with North Korea', Jane' s Defence Weekly , 2 July
1994 .

20 Jane's World Armies , Issue 8 (Jane 's Information Group , Coulsdon , December
2000 ) , p .121 .

21 Interview with informed source , Cambodia , February 2001 . Mai Sek timber
apparently has a range of uses , including the manufacture of rifle butts , but it
is not clear what proportion of the future harvest will be devoted to making
the butts and what (if any ) for other products .
22 This list is drawn from Jane's Infantry Weapons , 1999 - 2000 and Edward Ezell
Clinton , Small Arms Today : Latest Reports on the World ' s Weapons and Ammuni
tion (Stackpole Books , Harrisburg , PA , 1984 ) ; and Jane ' s Sentinel - Security As
sessment , Southeast Asia , March -September 2000 .

23 Taras Kuzio , 'Ukraine ' s arms sales continue to expand ’, Jane s Intelligence
' Re
108

view , 1 March 1997 , p.

.

capital cracks down illegal weapons

25 24

12
Xinhua Cambodian of on October 1998
,

',

.
'

Police Colonel SarMoline Acting Director International Relations and ASEAN

,

Department Cambodian Ministry the Interior Report

of

Small Arms Con

on
,

,
‘
trol and Law Enforcemenť paper presented the International Conference
to
,
on

Small Arms Proliferation and Trade the Asia Pacific Sofitel Cambodiana
in

,
-

February 2001
19

20

Hotel Phnom Penh Cambodia

,

,
.2p
-

.
26

Ibid
.

Ad
for

Dr Robin Edward Poulton Weapons Development

27

Interview with
,
-
EU

February
19

viser ASAC Phnom Penh 2001

,

.
-

Weapons seized Cambodian province destroyed Cambodian

30 29 28

June 1999
in

', ’,

8
,
' '

.
Over 800 illegal weapons collected Sihanoukville Cambodian July 1999
in

7
,

.
EU

Brig Gen ret Henny van der Graaf Project Manager ASAC untitled
,

,
.

(
to )

presentation the ASEAN Regional Forum Conventional Weapons

21 on

Seminar
Transfers and Small Arms Phnom Penh Cambodia February 2001
.3p
,

,
.

Curbing Small Arms

31

EU

Interviews with representative from

on

Assistance
-

and Light Weapons

EU

February 2001
19

Cambodia ASAC Phnom Penh

in

),

;
-
(

see also the van der Graaf presentation

.

April 2001
by

Eyewitness account
33 32

Steven Martin Personal communication

,
1
.

Interviews with journalists NGO representatives and business people Phnom

,

February
18

22

Penh 2001
,
-

BBC News Online April 1999

35 34

Gun ban starts Cambodia

in

’,

, 7
"

Prime Minister and Interior Minister Sar Kheng

Deputy
at
of

Comments
,

,
a

weapons destruction ceremony Phnom Penh July 1999 Reuters Gun theft
in

'

July 1999
of
( rid

29

threatens effort Cambodia arms

# to

',

.
36

50

Announcement GGC December 2000

),
1

.
 Notes 121

37 Aun Pheap , Police Blotter , The Phnom Penh Post , February 16 - March 1 2001 , p . 14.

38 Joshua Kurlantzick , War 's residue fuels culture of violence ', The Washington
Times ,6 August 2000 , p . C9 .
39 James East, ‘Need a gun ? It ' s easy to get one in Cambodia ' , The Straits Times , 26
November 2000 ; ‘ Violent crime thrives in wounded society ' , Inter Press Serv
ice August 1998
25
,

.
AFP Rebels raid army base city centre The Bangkok Post
41 40

25
November 2000

', .p
,

of ',

,
1 .
AFP Eighty two arrested

27
fighting police hunt

46
wake Cambodian

in
,

,
-
‘

November 2000

.
48 47 46 45 44 43 42

February

21
an
Interview with ASEAN ambassador Phnom Penh 2001

.
February

18

22
Interviews Phnom Penh 2001
,

,
-

.
Interviews with informed sources Phnom Penh February 2001

.
Sinthay The problem small arms
of
',

',
p
3
.
.
Personal observation Phnom Penh April 1997 and again February 2001

in
,

.
of
Kurlantzick War residue fuels culture violence
',

'.
's

Lon Nara Phelim Kyne Handgun brings travel ban for top official daugh
&

, , ,

's
‘

Daily March 2001 Kevin Doyle pore Gun Arrest

21

ter The Cambodian

',

,
S
;

'
'
Brings Issue Forefront The Cambodian Daily

22
March 2001 This was not the
to

.
first incident involving Cambodian officials April 1999 RCAF Deputy Com

In
mander Chief Kun Kim was temporarily banned from Singapore after be .
in
-
-

ing found with pistol his briefcase Changi airport

at
in
a

', .
Arms cache for minority groups seized
49

Northeast The Bangkok Post

in

, ', ,
10 12 6
‘

September 1996 On the Hong Kong and Taiwan connection see Lilian Wu

,
.

Arrested Connection with Arms Smuggling Central News Agency

in

',

December 2000 Hong Kong seizes arms

on

ship from Thailand Deutsche

',
, ;
‘

Presse Agentur August 1997

31

Tamil Tiger Primer

51 50

on

Bonner International Arms Bazaar

'A,

'.
John McBeth Nate Thayer Bertil Lintner Worse Come Far Eastern
to
&
,

',
‘

July 1999 Robert Karniol Sri Lanka says Tigers are

29

18

Economic Review
p
,

,
;
's .

'

trading arms Cambodia Jane Defence Weekly October 1996 According

to
in

',

,
2

one account the restaurant concerned was the Ranni owned and operated by
,

Tamil rebels See Bertil Lintner LTTE purchases link with Cambodia Jane
,

‘,

',
a
.

one point the LTTE was thought to s'

At

Intelligence Review December 1996

,
of 50 1

.
as

as

many agents working

60

have Penh
to

Phnom
in

.
52

unnamed Indian army commander based

for an

See the comments Assam

in

in
,
on

rebel arms shipment

12

AFP India alert December 2000

,

.
'

The

Craig Skehan Thais run huge arms trade Morning Herald

53

14

Sydney
', . ,

',

,
‘

August 1999

Rahul Bedi Turf wars muddy the waters

of
54

Indian inteľ Jane Intelligence

,

's
38

Review March 1999

' ,

,
for .p
1

rebel arms shipment

57 56 55

12
on

AFP India alert December 2000

,

',

.
Sri
cut

May 1999
26

promises Lanka rebel gun link

to

Reuters Cambodia
‘,

',

the information that follows drawn from the luridly titled but highly
of

Much
is

informative Guns Girls Gambling Ganja Thailand Illegal Economy and Public
,

's

Policy by Pasuk Phongpaichit Sungsidh Piriyarangsan Hualnoi Treerat Silk

&
,

worm Books Chiang Mai 1998 147

p
,

)
.
.
122 Small Arms in SE Asia

58 Ibid .
59 Ibid .

60 Ibid , pp . 147 -148 .

61 , p .137 .
Ibid

62 Ezell , Small Arms Today , p . 113.

63 Hogg , Jane's Gun Recognition Guide , p. 297 ; Ezell,
Small Arms Today , p .113 . Some
sources also refer to the importation of AK47s and AKMs , but it is not clear if
the AK47s refer to Soviet -made Kalashnikovs or to the Finnish variant. On the
Carl Gustav Model 45B , see James Marchington , Handguns : Semi- Automatic
Pistols , Revolvers and Sub-Machine Guns (Brassey 's, London , 1997 ) , p . 99 .
64 Forecast International , Ordnance and Munitions Forecast (October 2000 ), p . 12 .
65 Jack Taylor , 'Canberra approves plan to export rifles to Indonesian military ' ,
Agence France Presse (Lexis -Nexis ) 17 January 1995 ; Cf. Paul Jacob , No rifle
deals with Australia : Jakarta ’, The Straits Times , 21 January 1995 .
66 According to forensic ballistic investigations carried out in Canada, one of the
students killed by the military in the Trisakti University slayings in 1998 , was
shot with a bullet from a Steyr AUG . See ‘Canadian ballistics report reveals
Trisakti gun types ', The Jakarta Post , 31 May 1999 ; and 'Guns at Trisakti "match
police weapons " , The Jakarta ,
Post 7 July 1998 .
67 Stephen Blank , ‘Playing with fire : Russian sales in Asia ', Jane 's Intelligence Re
174

view , 1 April 1997 , p .

.
68

Pete Abel Manufacturing Trends Globalising the Source Lumpe Run

, ,

',

,
in
-

ning Guns
93
.p
.

Up
69

Its
Hasnan Habib Indonesia Defence Industry Role Mission and Set
',

,
in A

's

-
.

'
:
ed

Chandra Jeshurun Arms and Defence Southeast Asia Institute for

91 in
(

(
Southeast Asian Studies Singapore 1989
. .p
,

,
.p )
:

Defence Industry
71 70

76

Habib Indonesia
',

',
's

the

This background information taken from company website http

,
is

:/
/
's

www pindad com

.

The Sterling Years Leo Cooper Books Barnsley

76 75 74 73 72

25

Edminston
,

),
.p
.
(

92

Habib Indonesia Defence Industries

',

; 'p,
's

.
.
202

Hogg The Sterling Years

25
Jane Gun Recognition Guide Edminston
,

,
.p
.
's 's

Hogg Jane Gun Recognition Guide 366

,

,
.p
.

Habib says that Pindad modified the FNC suit the special conditions speci
to

'

fied by the users and the local environment Indonesia Defence Industries
',
's
.'

According one senior TNI officer the barrel

92

on

the SS1 V1 has been

to to

-
.

altered slightly make better able function the difficult conditions

to

in
it

experienced tropical jungle environment Interview with Indonesian army

an
in

colonel Singapore October 2000 newspaper article published Singa

in

in
;

a
,

pore 1995 then Defence and Security Minister Edi Sudradjat said the FNCs
in

of

had been adjusted the size Indonesian armed forces members They are
to

.
'

short and light See Jacob No rifle deals with Australia Jakarta Jane Infan
,

's
“

'.
.'

:
try

Weapons also notes that the muzzle velocities

SS
of

the differ from the

1
-

Belgian FNC but says these likely reflect difference the Indonesian propel
in
,

lant Jane Infantry Weapons 1999 2000 163

p
,

,
's

-
.

.
.
 Notes

77 ‘SS1 Pindad Assault Rifle publication of PT Pindad , author ' s copy .

78 Ibid .

79 Forecast International, Ordnance and Munitions Forecast (October 2000 ) , p . 8 .

80 Ibid , p . 8 ; cf Ezell, Small Arms Today , p . 112 , who suggests the P1A9mm pistol is
an unlicensed copy of the FN35 .

81 Forecast International , Ordnance and Munitions Forecast (October 2000 ), p .12 .

82 Interview with Yeshua Moser -Puangsuwan , Non - Violence International (NVI )
Southeast Asia , Bangkok , February 2001 .
83 Forecast International , Ordnance and Munitions Forecast (October 2000 ), p . 12.
84 Jane s Infantry Weapons, 1999 - 2000 , p.579.
'
85 All this information is detailed in an assortment of Pindad publications and
brochures '
in the author s possession .
86 'DefenceDevelopments ’, Asia - Pacific Defence Reporter , June / July 2000 , p.47 .
The TNI complained about the quality of the Pindad ordnance as well as the
price .

' Tight budget April May

for

87 Indonesian military Pacific Defence Reporter

',

,
Asia

/
.pp
59
60

2000
,

.
-
89 88

Ibid
.

of

An additional piece come out the Pindad survey was

of
information
to
Ibid
.

Indonesian soldiers views about their existing rifles Of those

-1 % of

reflection
a

.
'

. fa
as
surveyed said they preferred the M16 weapon
SS 48

.p - 26
of
first choice

%
,

, FN ,
the

the
for
16
no

variants were specified while only opted FNC

%
voured
),
(

Defence Developments June July

92 91 90

47
Reporter
,

Asia Pacific Defence

, 2000
.) -

.
/
Interview with Brig Gen Ret Jeanne Mandagi Jakarta
23
November 2000
,

,
.(
.

.
Light Weapons information sheet dated
of

Illicit trafficking and Production

'

. '
by

April provided Brig Gen Jeanne Mandagi

28

author Ret
23 to

1999 the
,

,
(

)
.

Indonesian Police Jakarta November 2000

,

the very selective individuals that are allowed possess and use
93

of

list
to
A

a
'

firearm provided conference paper by Brig Gen Ret Jeanne Mandagi

in
is

.
'

as (
.)

According the list these select individuals include typed Government

to

'
(

officials like Cabinet Ministers Secretary General Inspector General Director

,

General Ministry Governor Province Members Parliament Offi

of

of

of
,

;
a

the Military Police with the rank Colonel Senior Superintendent

of

, of

cial
,

,
/

who has special task President Directors President Commissioner Direc

,
;
a

important Companies and Banks Retired Mili

of

tors and Commissioners

;

tary impor
an

Police officials with the rank

General Colonel who has
or
of
,

,
/

tant within the Government office Private Companies Brig Gen Ret
job
.

', .
.'

.)
/

Jeanne Mandagi Illicit Trafficking

of

Firearms and Control Measures paper

,
“

on

presented Small Arms Proliferation

to

the International Conference and

Trade the Asia Pacific Sofitel Cambodiana Hotel Phnom Penh Cambodia
in

,
-

February 2001
20
19
-

The
of

daughter gun laws

94

Devi Asmarani Suharto falls afoul Straits Times

,

',

,
's
“
24

November 2000
.

family
95

26

Ibid See also Police seize firearms from Soeharto The Jakarta Post
,

',

,
's
.

September 2000
.
124 Small Arms in SE Asia

Light Weapons

do
of
Illicit trafficking and Production

96
These numbers not

'.
'
reconcile with numbers provided Brig Gen Mandagi Phnom Penh confer

in

's
.

.
ence paper February 2001 While these numbers are presumably more

in

.
recent they are considerably higher some categories and lower others

in

in
,

.
According the conference paper there are 5846 licences for sport 1618 are

to

(
handguns and 4228 are shoulder guns 7918 licences for security guards and

;
'

')
special police 3074 handguns and 4844 shoulder guns and 891 licences for self

)
as
described simply pieces

11
defence

'),
. .p
.
(

“
98 97

21
Interview , Jakarta November

,
2000

are
Dewi Loveard Arms sales handle their own security

as
brisk citizens
',

';
April 1999
30

Asiaweek
,

.
with Brig Gen Jeanne Mandagi
99

Interview Ret Jakarta

,
.

.
(
.)
100 Five Indonesian companies illegally importing firearms Xinhua Lexis Nexis

',

),
-
‘

(
March 1999
5

report was being written areas Central Kalimantan also erupted

Mo
While

of
101 this

,
Kaliman
as

as

ead
many

, of
violenceleaving 400 people dead Most the carnage carried
in

, ,

.
out far has been with knives machetes and spears not small arms al
so

,
though there have been some reports arms seizures by militants AFP

, of
reporichetes

,
.
The
ne

Terror grips Madurese The Bangkok Post February 2001 Sampit tense

26
',

;
'

'
missing The Jakarta Post
go

12
again after guns March 2001
,
',

.
Far

Giving No July 1999

29

, 18
102 Bertil Lintner Quarter Eastern Economic Review
",

',

,
.p
.
Libya trained

30
103 rebels blamed for current Aceh violence The Jakarta Post

',
-
‘

July 1999
.

by

figure was given senior security analyst Jakarta November

15

104 The 000

It ,

,
a

the higher figures given Others put the total closer

of

one

to
is

2000 5000

,
.

Nisid Hajari Anger December 1999 and Heading for the

13

Aceh Time
in
,

; ',

,
‘

November 1999 See also Margot Cohen Captives '

22

Exiť Time

of
the Cause
,

',

',
September 1999 On the oppressive tactics
16

Far Eastern Economic Review

p
,

,
2

.
.
by

used forces particularly Operation Red Neť see David Liebhold

Indonesian
,

,
; ; ‘

Spreading Fire January 1999 Jose Manuel Tesoro On Mecca

18

Time Front
',

',

‘, 's
“
'

September 1998 Tony Emerson Maggie Ford Polish

18

Porch Asiaweek
&
,

,
"

ing Brass Newsweek September 1998 An Army Re

24

John McBeth
in
',

,
;
7

‘
19

11

treat Far Eastern Economic Review November 1998 soldiers arrested for
',

;
'

January 1999 Military court convicts four more

12

murder The Jakarta Post

',

February 1999
23

officers Aceh The Jakarta Post

in

’,

American M3 submachine gun For

an

105 One picture shows GAM fighter with

a

reports AK47 use and seizures see Wiranto pledges pardon separatist
of

to
,

'

rebels Aceh The Jakarta Post 21 August 1999 Military kills 41 latest Aceh
in

in
;
, , ',

strife Report The Jakarta Post July 1999 Many civilians have firearms
27

in
,

, ‘;
:

troubled Aceh military says The Jakarta Post February 1999 Rebels kill six
11
',

,
;
“

injure others May 1999 Two soldiers one civilian

26

Aceh The Jakarta Post

in

',

,
'

June 1999 Separatists deny role

10

killed Aceh The Jakarta Post Aceh

in

in
’,

;
'

June 1999 Wiranto denies oppression

11

violence The Jakarta Post Aceh

in
',

',
;
“
30

The Jakarta Post June 1999 For M16 use see Aceh rebels kill nine more
,

,
.

May 1999 Abducted Army member found dead

31

people The Jakarta Post

in
',

';

ditch The Jakarta Post July 1999

',

,
5

.
 Notes 12

106 ‘FOKUS : Cara GAM Mengali Dana ', FORUM Keadilan , No. 31 , 5 Novem
ber 2000 .
107 ‘Military kills 41 in latest Aceh strife: Report .'; ‘Aceh rebels kill nine more
people ' (op

cit
note 105

).
108
Many civilians have firearms troubled Aceh military says The Jakarta Post

in

',

,
‘
February
11
1999

, .
109 Interview Jakarta November 2000 Pindad says not fault for confiscated

at
,

;
‘
bullets The Jakarta Post March 2000 Indonesian solider arrested for Aceh
',

;
9

‘
weapons sales Australian Broadcasting Corporation January 2000

',

,
6

.
110 Interview Jakarta November 2000
,

.
Paul Harris No solution sight anarchic Aceh Jane Intelligence Review

in
111

in
,

',

,
‘

's
May 2001
29
p
,
.
.

112 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism September December 2000 169

.p
,

,
's

.
113 Interview Jakarta November 2000
,
,

.
114 John McBeth Nate Thayer Bertil Lintner Worse Come Far Eastern

to
&
,

',

',
pp
July 1999
29

16

18
Economic Review
,

,
.

.
Interviews Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta Worse

al
et
See also McBeth

to
115
in

.,
.

'
Come
'.
116

Jakarta agree peace deal February

26
AFP Aceh rebels The Bangkok Post
to
, ,

',

,
p ‘

2001
7
.
.

analyst Jakarta
22

117 Interview security November 2000

,

.
kill five injure July
22 20

20
118 Aceh rebels soldiers others The Jakarta Post 1999
,

',

,
‘

.
119 Interview security analyst Jakarta November 2000
,

.
120 Ambon residents flee after overnight raid The Jakarta Post July 2000 Five
',

;
8
‘

‘
injured
on

26
fresh clashes Ambon island The Jakarta Post September 2000
in

',

;
Violence continues Maluku province The Jakarta Post October 2000
in

',

,
9

.
The

23
of

Violence rocks Maluku after weeks February 2000

’,

,
121 calm Jakarta Post

. .
122

int

Calls for troops Maluku brushed aside The Jakarta Post August 2000
',

,
in

7
'l
'

123 Ibid
.

The

Govt work harder Maluku Post September 2000

to

124 told Jakarta

in

',

,
8
' '

.
Civil emergency
12

Maluku fails restore order The Jakarta Post October

to

125
in

',

2000 Other military representatives strongly rejected the charge pointing out
,
.

that the ammunition could have been part the consignment seized during
of

the Tantui police arsenal

on

the raid
.
126

aid

Australian groups urge Indonesian army leave Ambon Japan Eco

to

',
'

January 2000 There have also been reports

12

nomic Newswire Lexis Nexis

),
-

.
(

military uniforms attacked villagers the Christian village

of

that soldiers
in

in

Waai July 2000 See Intelligence chief visits

28

Ambon
of

kilometres south
in
,

,
.

. '

Ambon violence rages The Jakarta Post August 2000

,

',

,
2

Holy war the Spice Islands The Economist

17

32

127 March 2001

in

’,

', ,

, .p,
' '

Calls for intl troops Maluku brushed aside The Jakarta Post August
in

128 2000
7

129 Interviews Jakarta November 2000 Jihad Force chief faces questioning The
;
, ,

',
-

September 2000
11

Jakarta Post
.
126

SE
Small Arms Asia

in
with regional diplomat Jakarta

22
130 Interview November 2000

.
Maluku Govt DPR The Jakarta Post July 2000

15
131 No martial law

in

',

,
“

.
National rights body team visits devastated Maluku July

28
132 The Jakarta Post

',

,
‘
The Dobonsolo belongs the Indonesian state shipping line PT Pelni

to
2000

In
.

.
August 2000 the Dobonsolo along with four other state owned vessels were

,
-
barred from carrying passengers into Ambon and other ports

an
Maluku

in

in
by
attempt prevent arms smuggling passengers See Reconciliation efforts

to

. ',
.
up
stepped August 2000 The ban was lifted

11
Maluku The Jakarta Post

in

in
',

,
September 2000

.
Port security foils smuggling Septem

30
arms munitions

of
133 The Jakarta Post

',

,
‘

ber 2000
.

National rights body July

28
134 Quoted team The Jakarta Post 2000
in

',

.
S1
FE
135 BBC Summary January 2000

11
World Broadcasts
of

D3734

,
/

, . in' /
.
136 North Maluku Military Commander Colonel Sutrisno q uoted Calls for int

'l
troops Maluku brushed aside The Jakarta Post August 2000
in

',

, ', ,
7

July
National rights body

28
137 team visits devastated Maluku The Jakarta Post 2000

.
RP

for

captured running guns January

16
138 ship Jakarta Post 2001
',
I ‘

.
139

am

grateful Herman Kraft for first drawing this possibility my attention

to

to

.
140 John Martinkus Militias sell weapons arm Ambon religious conflict AAP
to
,

,
Newsfeed Lexis Nexis February 2000 Joanna Jolly Militia sells arms

to
,
, ;
8
(

)
-

Ambon fighters South China Morning Post

on
February 2000 available line
',

,
9

-
http www scmp com News Asia Article FullText asp ArticleID
at

_
:/
/

/
.

20002090305309
.
RI

for

Pro Militiaman Facing Death Sentence Illegal Arms Trading Antara

',
141
-
“

News Agency February 2000 Hogg Jane

12

Lexis Nexis Gun Recognition

),

,
;

, 's
(

211 According Portuguese colonial authorities 000 G3

15
Guide some
to
p
,

,
.
12 .
15

rifles and 60mm and 80mm mortars were abandoned in the territory
-

when Portuguese forces departed See 213 Cablegram Canberra from

to
.

'
:

Lisbon September 1975 Secret Priority reproduced Documents on Austral

in
',

,
4

ian Foreign Policy Incorporation Portuguese Timor

of

Australia and the Indonesian

:

Department Foreign Affairs and Trade Canberra

of
76

1974 2000 384

.p
,

’, ,

),
-

.
(

142 Reuters Indonesia Army Denies Arming Timorese Loyalists February 1999
',

.
Jakarta urged stop arms supply East Timor groups FBIS January
to

to

143 1999
',

,
'

no

has full date

).
(

UN

Troops
27

Reuters Girl leads Massive Timor Arms Cache September

to

144 1999
',

',

Damien Kingsbury The TNI and the Militias paper presented North
at

145 the
,

',
'

University
of

American Southeast Asian Studies Conference British Colum

,

bia Vancouver November 1999 The paper the book East

of

draft version
is
,

,
a
.

.pp

Timor The Price Freedom Monash Asia Institute Melbourne 2000

of

),

3
4
.
(
:

-
.4pp
146

Ibid
,

-5
.

by

147 UN report lists anti Timorese crimes carried out Indonesian army officials
',
'

Monitoring Asia Pacific Political April 2001

20

BBC
,
-

148 Lindsay Timor says what others will not The Sydney
of

Murdoch Old friend

',

Morning Herald April 2001 Indonesian forces plotted Timor destruction

20
,

',
;
'

The Sydney Morning Herald April 2001

20
,

.
 Notes 127

149 Interview with diplomats from several embassies in Jakarta , 21 - 22 November 2000.

150 Ibid .
151 Interview , Jakarta , 21 November 2000 .
152 Tom Fawthrop , ‘FALINTIL : guerrilla army to professional force ', Jane 's Intelli
gence Review , vol. 12 , no . 7 , July 2000 , pp . 26 - 27.
153 ‘Militia Timor could be dead NZ soldier ' s', The New Zealand Herald ,
weapon in
30 October 2000. This was confirmed in an interview , Jakarta , 21 November 2000 .
154 Marianne Kearney, 'Defiantmilitia leader hands in weapons' , The Straits Times ,
1 October 2000 ; UN ‘sceptical ' about will to disarm militias ', The Straits Times ,
1 October 2000 ; ‘Militia chief arrested for defying arms surrender ', The Straits
Times , 5 October 2000 .

155 Interview , Jakarta , 22 November 2000 .

156

see
Mandagi Illicit trafficking

92
Firearms and Control Measures

of
note
,

'(

).
for
RI

157 Pro Militiaman Facing Death Sentence Illegal Arms Trading Antara

',
-
‘

News Agency Lexis Nexis February 2000

12
),
-

.
(

Martinkus Militias sell weapons arm Ambon religious conflict Jolly Mili

to
158

';
,

‘,
‘

Ambon fighters
tia

sells arms
to

'.
159 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism September December 2000 170

p
,

,
's

.
.
Sorong clash August

23
160 Three civilians shot dead The Jakarta Post 2000
in

',

,
‘

.
161 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism 170
,
.p
.
's

162 Interview with Brig Gen Ret Jeanne Mandagi Jakarta November 2000
,

,
(
.)
.

.
An
163 Jenny Mouzos International Traffic Small Arms Australian Perspective
in
,

, ,
:
Australian Institute Criminology Trends and Issues No 104 Canberra
In of

,
.

(
:
an

February 1999 March 1991 Indonesian national born Irian Jaya

in
p
),

.4
.

and living Australia purchased and stored rifles and 2000 rounds ammu

of
in

transporting them He was sentenced

of

nition with the aim the OPM

to

to
9
.

months jail August 1998 two Indonesian nationals born Irian Jaya and
In
in

on in
,
.

living Papua New Guinea bought arms and ammunition Yam Island
in

in
supplying them
of

the Torres Strait with the goal the OPM They were
to

caught and sentenced months jail See Ian Wing Fighting Other Peo
to

in
5

,
.

'

ple Wars The Balance Sheeť Beno Boeha John McFarlane eds Australia
in

&
,
's

and Papua New Guinea Crime and the Bilateral Relationship Australian Defence
,
:

Studies Centre Canberra 2000 226

p
,

, ,
),
.
.

164 Interviews Port Moresby October 2001

,

.
The

165 Police probe Irian guns Jakarta Post July 2000 Arms smuggled into
;
', ,

,
4
'
‘

. ‘

Irian Jaya Jakarta warned The Straits Times July 2000

,

,
4
21
23

166 Interviews November 2000

,
-

Verrier West Papua Another Timor Department the Parliamen

), of

167
Is
, ,

',
R

?
J.
.

'

tary Library Current Issues Brief No Canberra July 2000

14
p
,

,
1

.5
n
(
.

168 These weapons are listed Jane Sentinel Security Assessment Southeast Asia
in

,
's

March ugust 2000 233 and Jane Infantry Weapons 1999 2000 785 The
. .p
,

,
's

.
-A

inventories are not identical and the above simply merges the two Some
of

the weapons are extremely old and seems unlikely that the MAT
49

for
it

,
,

-
am

example still very grateful Steven Martin for the informa

to

service
in
is
,

I
.

tion about the M1s

.
128 Small Arms in SE Asia

232
'
169 Jane s Sentinel Security Assessment - Southeast Asia , March -August 2000 , p.

.
Laos Russian agreement July 1997

13
170 Jane Defence Weekly

21 p
,

,
2
's
-
‘

.
.
171 Interview with Lao PDR official Phnom Penh Cambodia February 2001

.
172 Jane Sentinel Security Assessment Southeast Asia March ugust 2000 234

.p
,

,
's

.
-A
Bangkok February 2001

25
173 Interview with Steven Martin

.
of
174 Matthew Pennington Bomb explosion shatter illusion Southeast Asia last

‘,

's
April

10
Eden
', Associated Press 2000

', .
Laotian police arrest weapons dealers Deutsche Presse Agentur Septem

23
175

,
‘

ber 2000
.
176

Personal communication with Steven Martin April 2001

, 7

.
Report Shows NSC Used POW Groups Fund Laotian

to
177 Richard Cole Senate
,
'

January

13
Rebels Associated Press 1993
',

‘ 175
178 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism September December 2000

,
.p
-

.
's

179 The 4000 diplomatic sources cited

figure given Steve Kirby
by Laos

in
is

'
hidden rebellion the mountains Agence France Presse August 2000
in

',

,
6

.
Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism September December 2000 puts the
's

)
-
figure
at

2000
.

180 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism September December 2000 175
,

,
p
-

.
.
's

181 Interviews with diplomats Vientiane August

1998 Denis Gray Rebels
,

,
D
;

, .
threatenCommunists Laos Associated Press Lexis Nexis August 2000
in

',

.
(

)
-
182

Bertil Lintner Political and tribal dissent Laos Jane Intelligence Review
in
,

',

, 1
's
April 2000
.

183 Kirby Laos hidden rebellion Agence France Presse August 2000 Mat
,

',

;
6
's
‘

thew Pennington Laotian exiles United States Canada Europe funding

in
,

,
‘

anti communist rebels Associated Press July 2000 One California based
',

,
7

.
-

-
group the United Lao Nation Resistance for Democracy Laos
is

in

.
Laos sells itself July
as

184 Ibid James East safe The Straits Times 2000

‘,

',

, 5
.

.
185 Carlyle Thayer Regional Military Modernization Strategies and Trends
,

',
A

presentation Security and Societal Trends

on

the conference Southeast

to

in
'

Asia White Meyer House Meridian International Center Washington

D
C
',

.,
.
-

September 2000
,
6
7

.
-

186 Lintner Political and tribal dissenť Jane Intelligence Review April 2000
‘,

,
1
's

187 Laos and the mysterious bombs The Economist August 2000
',

,
5
‘ '

.
188

by

Lao rebels backed monarchy Thai military Agence France Presse

',

exiled
:

July 2000
5

The identity the group remains unclear According initial reports

of

the
to

189
in
.

Thai newspaper The Nation the group called itself the Neutral Justice and Demo
cratic Party The Bangkok Post reported that Thai police captured documents
in
.

the United Lao Nation Resistance for De

as

which the group described itself

California based Lao fundraising
of

mocracy Laos which also the name

in

is

a
,

organisation Security tight

on

AFP Thailand Laos border after rebel clash

',

',
4
.

at

July 2000 An AFP story quoting Thai army sources the border also gave the
.

name United Lao Nation Resistance for Democracy Laos AFP Lao rebels
as

in

‘,
.
to by

backed exiled monarchy Thai military The Kyodo News Service report
's
'.
:
as

referred the group the United Lao Freedom Fighters Insurgents claim
—

'
 Notes 129

Thai , Lao officials helped ', 4 July 2000 . Whatever name the group

its
in attack

,
by Sisouk

led
reportedly Salyasaeng and hasbetween 300 and 600 members

is

.
July 2000

on
See AFP New fighting breaks out Laos Thailand border

',
9
-
‘

.
190
Border raid Ragtag rebels duped scramble for cash They didn know

in

“
‘

't
:

:
July 2000 Gray Rebels threaten Commu

19
an
AK47 The Bangkok Post

to
how use

,
, ,

;
',
"'
nists Associated Press Lexis Nexis August 2000

, ', ',

7
(

)
-

.
192 191

fighting breaks out July 2000

on
AFP New Laos Thailand border

',
9
-

.
AFP Thailand questions rebels after border clash July

',
2000

.
by
193 Lao rebels backed exiled monarchy Thai military Agence France Presse

',

,
‘

:
July 2000 New fighting breaks out July

of on
Laos Thailand border AFP

,
‘ ‘ ‘;
5

9
-
, , .

', '
2000 AFP Thai police raid house Laotian rebel leader July 2000
;

;
8
Pennington Laotian exiles Associated Press July 2000

',

,
7

.
Thai police Pennington

of
194 raid house Laotian rebel leader Laotian exiles

‘,

',
.'
‘

Associated Press July 2000

, 7

.
195 Deutsche Presse Agentur Officials deny Laotian rebels based Cambodia

in
',

'7,
July 2000
.

196 Ibid
.

no

197 AFP Cambodia says Lao rebels bases reports July 2000
,

',
7
:

.
.pp
Support Industry Firsť Malaysian Business February

16

, 19
26 21

20
198 1986
,

,
'

.
199 Christopher Foss Malaysian Modernisation Jane Defence Weekly No
38 ,

',

's
vember 1997
.p
,

200 Interview with Abdul Hadi Lochman Production Manager Small Arms Am
,

,
SME Ordnance Sdn Bhd Damansara Malaysia

18
munition October 2000
,

.
201 Ibid
, .
202

Malaysian armsmaker February 2001

16
AFP close down after decade
to

',
a

.
203 The HK33 was soon discovered have serious problem with jamming
to

, a

.
After modifications by Heckler and Koch the new HK33e entered service

.
Interview with Professor Dato Zakaria Haji Ahmad Institute Diplomacy of
,
'

and Foreign Relations Kuala Lumpur

17

October 2000
,

. on

204 Edward Clinton Ezell Small Arms Today Latest Reports the World Weapons
,

's
:

and Ammunition Stackpole Books Harrisburg PA 1984 147

', pp .p
,

, ),
(

and Steady Malaysian Business February

16

11
15

12

205 Slow 1996

',

,
'

-
.

AFP Malaysian armsmaker February

16

close down after decade

to

206 2001
,

a
, ‘

.
285

207 Hogg Jane Guns Recognition Guide

,
.p
.
's

208 See the SME Technology website for details http www smetech com my
:/
/

/
.

AUG htm
P
_

.
.

209 Telephone interview with Ismail Kadir Chief Executive Officer SME Tech
,

nologies Sdn Bhd Kuala Lumpur

17

October 2000
,
,

210 Ibid
.

211 Ibid
.

212 Ibid
.

figure comes from

70

The Ismail Kadir Other interviews Kuala

%

213
in
.

Lumpur suggest that the optics are the only major components SME does
not make itself
.
130 Small Arms in SE Asia

214 Interview with Ismail Kadir .

215 Interviews with security analysts , Kuala Lumpur , 17 October 2000 .
216 Jimmy Yeow , Malaysia , Thailand studying fishing venture , says PM ', Business
Times , 23 December 1995 .

217 Interview with Abdul Hadi Lochman . Given that Pakistan has

its
own large
small arms production capacity and exporter these weapons

of
an
itself

is
is

it
,

,
possible that Pakistan was not the final destination for the Steyrs

.
218 Interview with Ismail Kadir

.
219 Ibid
Malaysian armsmaker February

16
AFP down after decade

to
220 close 2001
,

',
a

.
221 Hogg Guns Recognition Guide
,

,
Jane 174
's

222 Ibid
.

223 Interview with Abdul Hadi Lochman

.
224 Ibid
.

13
225 Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Forecast October 2000

.p
,

),

.
(
226

619
.pp
Jane Infantry Weapons 1999 2000
,
620
-

-
.
's

Reliable Defence SME Ordnance publicity materials author copy

',

,
227
‘

.
's
228 Ibid
.

229 Ibid
.

230 Interview with Abdul Hadi Lochman

.

231 Ibid
.

232 Ibid
.

security analyst Kuala Lumpur

17

233 Interview with October 2000

,

.
234 Interview with Abdul Hadi Lochman
.

235 Ibid
.

May
10
236 Bermana Two China made rifles and ammo found bushes 1999
in
,

',

;
-
'

Cops uncover firearms smuggling ring June 1999 Aliens attempt

24

sell
to
',

. ‘;
‘

smuggled firearms plantations

21

November 1998
in

',

weap
are

of

237 There minor differences news reports about the exact quantity
in

ons seized Cf Military combs Malaysian jungle for missing weapons The
to

',
.
.

Straits Times July 2000 Thomas Fuller jungle

Malaysia Armory Thieves Sur
Fuller
,

,
;
5

rounded leathomas
International Herald Tribune July 2000
',

,
5

ternational
Agency Malaysia
238 Xinhua News Weapon
Heist Drama Ends With Surrender
‘,

's

July 2000
27
of

',
6

239 Reuters Malaysia Checks Border and Seas for Arms Looters July 2000
,

's 3,

;
'

Jestyn Cooper Rebel group threatens Malaysian security Jane Intelligence

,

',

Wan Hamidi hay

'

Teorien opetembre 280 Wan

Review September 2000 Hamidi Hamid Mahathir Arms heist gang
,

,
', ;
1

topple government The Straits Times July 2000 Nine more soldiers
11

out
to

armsheist questioned July 2000

13

involved The Straits Times

in

',

240 Cooper Rebel group threatens Malaysian security Jane Intelligence

,

Review
'

'
's

September 2000
1

at

army camps
of

last five years

22

241 Bernama Two cases theft November

in
,

',
'

Some reports say the robbery took place July See Steyr Gang
26
on

2000
'
.

.
 Notes 131

"mastermind ” nabbed in police ambush ', New Straits Times , 31 August 2000 .
242 'Audit at military
check camp armouries after Steyr thefts ', The New Strait
Times , 8 August 1999 .

243 Bermana , ‘All four stolen Steyr automatic rifles recovered ', 19 January 2000 .

Ibid
Ghazemy Mahmood Security Tightened Military Weapons Stores

at
244

',

',
.
Bermana News Agency January 2000 Jeffri Razali No cover up

19

of
M
,

,
;

-
.

‘
arms thefts New Straits Times February 2000

’,

, 4

.
245 Tony Emmanuel Steyr Gang mastermind nabbed police ambush New

in
,

,
'

'

'

.'
August 2000 Leslie Lau Gang leader was eager

31
Straits Times again

to
rob

;
,

',

',
September 2000

10
The Straits Times
,

.
via
getting weapons Malaysia May

13
Rebels

,
246 The Straits Times 2000
' '

, .
"
“

No part Defence and Diplomacy August 2000

10
247 Moro arms deal Asian
in

p
.
.
with informed sources Kuala Lumpur

18
248 Interviews October 2000

.
Whether call the country Burma Myanmar not without controversy

or
to

is
249
‘

.
'

'
July 1989 the State Law and Order Restoration Council SLORC officially
In

.eg
changed the name the country along with several other large cities
of

(
Rangoon became Yangon and districts The United Nations and many gov

.
)

ernments subsequently recognised these name changes although some coun

,
the United States and Australia still refer the country Burma
as

as
to
tries such

.
(

)
While the SLORC SPDC claims that has simply instated the original translit

re
it

-
/

erations for the country political opponents regard the name change
its

as
ille
,

gitimate and continue use the name Burma this report use both names
to

In
.

I
without intending any political preference but simply avoid repetition

to
,

.
This list drawn from Jane Infantry Weapons Sentinel Secu
is

250 1999 2000 Jane

;
's

's
, -

-
rity Assessment Southeast Asia March ugust 2000 Ian Hogg Jane Guns
,

,
V

's
.
:

, -A

Recognition Guide and Andrew Selth Burma Arms Procurement Programme

,
's

SDSC Working Paper No 289 1995

on An
11
12

of
and Burma Order

In
Battle
,

. 's

:
-
.

terim Assessment SDSC Working Paper No 351 2000 Selth writing the
,

's
.

Burmese military

of
unmatched for comprehensiveness and detail Much
is

drawn from several working papers .

he

what follows below wrote for SDSC

is
as

well
as

other articles
.

Arms Procurement Programme SDSC Working Paper No

11
251 Selth Burma 289
,

),
p
.

.
.
's

(
252

Andrew Selth Burma Expenditure and Arms Industries SDSC Work

,

Defence
(
's

ing Paper No 309

.9p
),
, .

253 Bruce Hawke Exposed Burma weapons industry Jane Intelligence Re

',
's

's
–
‘

view December 1998

, 1,

254 Selth Burmese Defence Expenditure SDSC Working Paper No 309

),
. .p
.

. 9.
(

SDSC Working Paper No 289

11

255 Selth Burma Arms Procurement

p
,

),
's

256 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute The Arms Trade with the Third
,

WorldPaul Elek London 1971 452 cited Selth Burma Arms Procure
. in
p
,

. ,

's
.
(

ment SDSC Working Paper No 289

34
p
),

,
.3
n
(

The Burmese way

19

on

257 Martin Smith rack and ruin Article Index

to

in
,

',

,
“

Defence Expenditure SDSC

10

.9p 45

Censorship vol 1991 cited Selth Burma

in
,

's
.
(

), )

Working Paper No 309

.

.
Sa

on

258 Ka the initials for the Burmese name Defence Product

Pa

of

based
is

Industries
.
132 Small Arms in SE Asia

259
West German involvement detailed Burma Secret Military Partners

in

,
Selth

is

's
136
SDSC Canberra Paper No Chapter

),

2
.

.
(
Defence Expenditure SDSC Working Paper No 309

10
260 Selth Burma

.p
,

),
's

's .

.
261 Bruce Hawke Exposed Burma weapons industry Jane Intelligence Re

,
's
'

–
view December 1998

,
1

.
Arms Procurement SDSC Working Paper

.pp
262 Selth Burma No 289

),

5
-6
.

.
's

(
14
263 Ibid
,
.p
.
Rangoon February

11
264 Bertil Lintner Rubicon Far Eastern Economic Review

',

,
's
'
BBC report quoting Western defence analysts estimates that
28
1993
p
,

A
.
.
1994 the Burmese military obtained

10
000 assault rifles from
to
from 1990

,
China worth nearly US 500 000 See Defense Links Between Rangoon Beijing

,
$
', '

'.
‘
August 1994

19
Viewed BBC Burmese
in

.
265

289
Arms Procurement SDSC Working Paper No

15
Burma
,

),
Selth

.p
(

.
's
28

266 Ibid
.p
,

vie
267 Rahul Bedi India and China for regional supremacy Jane Intelligence
,

',

's
'

pp
September 2000 Rahul Bedi Turf wars muddy the waters

of
37
40
Review

;
,

,
-
.

intel Jane Intelligence Review

38
Indian March 1999

.p
’,

,
1
's

.
268

332
Security
Jane Sentinel Southeast Asia March August 2000

.p
-

-
(

.
's

of

copy the Chinese 62mm Type copy

of of
56
269 The M21 Carbine the Soviet
is

7
a

(a
.
of

SKS45 The M22 copy the Type assault rifle replica 56

the AK47
is
a

56 (a
).

)
the export version the Chinese Type machine gun copy
. 39 of

and the M23

is

(a
the Soviet RPD light machine gun See Selth Burma
of

Arms Procurement
,

,
's
n .

SDSC Working Paper No 289

63
.p
.p ),

,
(

.
.

270 Jane Sentinel Southeast Asia 355

,
-
's

its

271 Ashton Burma receives advances from silent suitors Singapore Jane
in
,

's
‘

Intelligence Review March 1998

,
1

Burma Arms Procurement Programme

,

272 Selth
.4p
.
's

273 The licensing agreement required that third party sales could only proceed
the Swedish government See William Ashton Burma re
of

with the assent

,
.

'
silent suitors Singapore
its

ceives advances from Jane Intelligence Review

in

',

,
's

March 1998
1

Interview with Paul Beijer Director Swedish Ministry Foreign Affairs

of

274 Phnom
,

February 2001
18

Penh
,

275 Selth Burma Arms Procurement SDSC Working Paper No 289

.4p
,

),
's

276 Ibid
.

277 Ibid
,
.7p
.

has never been established whether the Israeli consultants were serving
or

278
It

policy
of
As

former employees the Israeli defence manufacturer

of

matter
,
its a
.

the Israeli Defence Ministry refuses deny involvement

or
to

confirm
in

other states See Arieh Report Israelis Helping Produce Arms

to

Sullivan
O

,
.

'

July 1998
28

Burma The Jerusalem Post

in

’,

, .

no

279 Burma making small arms The Irrawaddy vol 1998

',

,
.6

.4
‘

).
(

280 Ibid
.

its

281 Ashton Burma receives advance from silent suitors Singapore Jane
,

in

',
'

's

Intelligence Review March 1998

,
1

.
 Policy Recommendations 133

282 Selth , Burma's Arms Procurement ( SDSC Working Paper No.289) , ..

p 4

283 Ibid , p .13 .

284 Ibid , p . 14.

285 Shishir Gupta , 'Pak set to woo Myanmar with weapons , soft loans ', The
Hindustan Times Online , 17 December 2000 .
286 Ibid .

136
287 Selth , Burma's Secret Military Partners ( SDSC Canberra Paper No . Chapter

),

4
.
Ibid

23 50
,

288
.p
. .
289 Ibid
,
n
.

Arms Procurement SDSC Working Paper No 289

10
290 Selth Burma

.p
,

),
's

.
291 William Ashton Myanmar and Israel Develop Military Pacť Jane Intelligence
,

's
Review March 2000
,

292 Smith The Burmese Way Rack and Ruin Selth Burma Arms

to
cited

in
,

.p ,

's
“

Procurement SDSC Working Paper No 289

42
100

),

, n,
(

.
According the transfer included 120mm 81mm and possibly 60mm
to

293 Selth
,
as

mortars well mortar bombs and artillery ammunition See the appendix
as

.
Arms Procurement SDSC Working Paper No 289

33
Burma
in

p
),
's

.
.
(

Portuguese Men No
of

12
294 Bertil Lintner War Far Eastern Economic Review
, ,

',

,
‘

vember 1992
', .p
8
.

295 Bruce Hawke Exposed Burma weapons industry Jane Intelligence Re

',
's

's
–

view December 1998

,
1

296 Ibid
.

Myanmar making small arms Jane July 1998

22
297 Hawke Defence Weekly
,

',

,
's
‘

.
298 Bruce Hawke Myanmar making small arms imported factory Jane De
in
‘,

',
's
July 1998
22

fence Weekly
,

Burma making small arms

no

The Irrawaddy vol

',

299 1998
.6

.4
(
‘

).

300 Ibid
.

301 Interview Bangkok February 2001

,

Sentinel Southeast Asia March August

,

302 Jane 2000 355

.p
-

.
, , , 's
303

)351
), 309 pp

Battle SDSC Working Paper No

.p ), 14
; .pp 15

Burma Order
of

. ,

Selth
-
(

.
's 's 's

Expenditure SDSC Working Paper No

10

304 Selth Burma Defence

9
-
(

Burma Defence Expenditure SDSC Working Paper No 309

12

305 Selth Hawke

(

Exposed Burma weapons industry

's

'
–
‘

306 Hawke Exposed Burma weapons industry Jane Intelligence Review

,

',

,
1
's

's
–
'

December 1998
.

by

307 For example survey conducted Non Violence International Southeast

,
a

Asia NVI SEA concluded that there were

32

non state militaries active

in
-

-
(

of

am

Burma the middle very grateful Yeshua Moser Puangsuwan

to

2000
in

-
.

for sharing this and other NVI SEA information with me For complete list
a
-

anti government insurgencies Myanmar see Bertil Lintner Burma

of

in

), in
,

,
: -

Revolt Opium and Insurgency Since 1948 Silkworm Books Chiang Mai 1999
,

,
(

Appendix
3
.
134 Small Arms in SE Asia

308 Although the former drug baron Khun Sa ' s Mong Tai Army were also equipped
with a large number of SAM - 7 surface - to -air missiles and heavy mortars . See
‘Khun Sa Reportedly Surrenders SAMs, Other Weapons ,

The
Bangkok Post '

,
9
January 1996

, .

by
309 For example according report Myanmar Network that Khun

TV

Sa
to
a

s
'
Mong Tai Army gave up several weapons factories when the group surren

'

'
dered early January 1996 According the network one factory produced

to
in

,
.

'
various types launchers mortars projectiles anti personnel mines and hand

of

-
grenades Another weapons factory was reportedly surrendered

to
'. the

'

'
Burmese military

, . of
the east bank region the Salween River the eastern

in

in
January

, . of
12 12
Shan State between and 1996 See Radio Details Surrender

‘
by

by
Troops January
Sa
Arms Khun 1996 Burmese translated FBIS

in
',

,
(

)
see
of private armies Anthony
an

310 For overview these Davis Bruce Hawke

&
,
Burma Country that Won Kick the Habiť Jane Intelligence Review March 1998

,
A

's

.
't
:

of
more detailed summary the weapons the various rebel

of
311 For inventories
a

groups see Selth Burma Order Battle SDSC Working Paper No 351

28
of
,

),
.p
.

.
's

(
312 Karen Rebel Arms Cache Seized Near Border The Bangkok Post September

',

,
2
‘

1996 Interview with informed source Bangkok February 2001 Arms

.4p
,

,
.

.
‘
August

29
cache discovered near Burma border Radio Thailand Network

,
',
these weapons presumably makes ammunition
of

1995 The different calibre

.

supply more complicated

.

KNU struggles January 2000

31
overcomedivisions The Nation
to

313
',

,
‘

.
Radio Myanmar rebels exchange weapons for peace May 1997
27

16
314

in
',

',

,
(
by

Burmese translated FBIS The report claims the rebels surrendered small
,

a
).

quantity arms including M16s AK47s BA63s am

of

well carbines and

as

as
,

'

'
munition
.

315 Nelson Rand Karen rebels overrun Myanmar camp dawn raid Associated
in
,

',
10

Press Lexis Nexis November 2000

),
-

.
(

316 Pasuk Phongpaichit Sungsidh Piriyarangsan Nualnoi Treerat Guns Girls

&
,

, ,
Gambling Ganja Thailand Illegal Economy and Public Policy Silkworm Books
,

's

(
:

pp

Chiang Mai 1998 138 139 Corrupt police blamed for smuggling The
,

',
;
-
.

‘
)

July 1998
31

Nation
,

317 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism September December 2000 141 Re
;
,

,
's

‘
ports May 1995
14
on

Issues Related Burma Border The Sunday Nation

to

',

,
by

transcribed FBIS and available through Lexis Nexis

-

).
(

According press reports seized arms caches contain small calibre rifles light
to

318
,

mortars recoilless rifles machine guns and various types rocket launchers
,

and small arms and mortar ammunition See Army finds big Karen National
.

Union arms cache Matichon March 1997 arge Arms Cache Seized on Thai
3

;
',

'L

Burma Border The Bangkok Post May 1998 reports finding assault rifles and
, ',

, 4

machine gun ammunition belonging KNU

23

more than 000 rounds

to
of

forces that had surrendered Yangon See also Thais seize weapons Jane
to

',

's
.

‘
26

Defence Weekly March 1997

,

319 Alan Dupont Transnational Crime Drugs and Security East Asia Asian
in
,

',
'
vol

pp

Survey XXXIX No May June 1999 433 455

,

3,

-
.

.
, /

320 Rodney Tasker Shawn Crispin Frustration over Burma illegal drug trade
&

's
‘

reaching dangerous levels Thailand Far Eastern Economic Review June

in
is

',

,
1
 Notes 135

2000 . They quote a Thai general describing the Wa as Khin Nyunt' s ' private
army.' Cf ' Troubled regime ', Far Eastern Economic Review , 29 June 2000 where
Khin Nyunt 's main rival in the SPDC, General Maung Aye, is reported as
telling the Wa in future they would have to report to him .

321
goal

be
Cartel security seen February

26
Burma The Bangkok Post

to

,
2001

'

.
's
Rangoon can help should The Bangkok Post September 2000

it

to
322 care

',

, 6

.
12
323 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism estimates the UWSA has 000 members

,
's
others put the figure much higher See for example James East Thais fighting

,
.
losing battle with Myanmar drug lords

13
The Straits Times March 2001

',

.
The one billion baht figure given Rangoon uneasy alliance with Wa

in
324

is

'

's
April 1999

30
Viewed The Nation
',

.
325 Ethnic rebels launch arms spree Wa move upgrade their potent arsenal

to

',
'

-
The Bangkok Post July 2000
,
1

.
326 Ibid
.

327 Interview with sources close Burmese insurgents Bangkok February

to
2001

,
328 Tasker and Crispin Frustration over Burma illegal drugs
‘,

's

'.
329 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism

.
's

330 Tasker Crispin Frustration over Burma illegal drugs Far Eastern Economic
&

‘,

',
's
Review June 2000
,
1

331 Jane World Insurgency and Terrorism 145 Tasker Crispin Frustration
p

&
,

,
;
's

‘
over Burma illegal drugs Far Eastern Economic Review June 2000
',

,
1
‘, 's

.
Light arms trading
SE

332 Peter Chalk Asia Intelligence March

in

Jane Review
',

,
's
, 43

2001
p
,
.
.

333 Interview Bangkok February 2001

,

334 Myanmar denies militants smuggling arms into India Asia Pulse Lexis Nexis
',

-
(

)
July 1999
16

.
335

for

12
on

AFP India alert rebel arms shipmenť December 2000

',

336 Bedi Turf wars muddy the waters Jane Intelligence Review March . 1999
,

',

,
1
's

.
'

337 Ibid
.

338 Ibid
.

339 Curb those guns Asiaweek September 2000

',

,
8
'

340 Carolina Hernandez Arms Procurement and Production Policies the

in
G

,
' .

Philippines Southeast Asia Insti

ed

Chandra Jeshurun Arms and Defence

in

in
(
)

tute for Southeast Asian Studies Singapore 1989 130

,

),
.p
.
), on

341 Edward Clinton Ezell Small Arms Today Latest Reports the World Weapons
,

's
:

tackpole Books Harrisburg

PA

and Ammunition 1984 165

.p
,

,
,

.
(S

.pp
21

Ordnance and Munitions Forecast January 2000

22

342 Forecast International

,

', ,

-
.

343 Jerry Esplanada Army seeks P2B arms without public bidding Philippine
in
',

Daily Inquirer July 2000 AFP officials wanted million pesos

10

42

worth
,

(P
.

grenade launchers and P99 million squad automatic weapons exempted

of

of
.2

from competitive bidding processes

.
An

344 Robert Karniol internal affair Jane Defence Weekly August 2000 Robert
;
‘,

, ,
8
's '
', ’

Karniol Modernisation muddle Jane Defence Weekly August 2000 see also
‘,

;
8
136

SE
Small Arms Asia

in
Prasun Sengupta AFP Force Modernisation Aims and Plans Asian De

',
K
.

'
), :

, .pp
No

12
18
fence Journal 1999

, .6

-
.
(
345

133
Republic Act 1884

22
June Hernandez Arms Procuremenť

',

,
1957 cited

in

.p
.op
cit
Note 341

).
.
(
346

133

.op
. cit
Hernandez Arms Procurement Note 341

',

, ,
.p
(

. ).
347 Government Arsenal website http www angelfire com ga3 arsenal

:
/
/

/
backgrd html.
348 Hernandez . Arms Procuremenť 133

p
,

,
‘

.
349 Ibid
.

350 Ibid
.

351 Ibid
.

352 Ibid
.

353 Ibid
.

op

.cit
354 This information taken from Hernandez Arms Procuremenť Note 341
is

‘,

).
(
Implementing Instructions Relation the Government Arsenal Moderni

to
355
in
'

zation Program Department National Defense Philippines April 2000

of

24
',

,
para
D
.1
.

356 Ibid para

,

D
2 .
.
See

Historical Background
on

357 the Government Arsenal website

‘

.
Manufacturing Capability
on on

358 See the Government Arsenal website

',

.
at

359 The annual report available line http www angelfire com ga3
is

.
:/
/

/
/
-

aresnal bulletin htm

.

.
/

on

360 Modernization Thrust the Government Arsenal website

‘

.
361 See the company website http www armscor com ph
,

.
.
.
's

:
/
/

362 The Kalashnikov copies are designated MAK22 and MAK47FS They are

.
identical except that the latter has folding stock Likewise the M16 replicas
,

,
a

the M1600 and M1600R also differ only that the latter has hooded barrel
in

and retractable stock

a

.
All

363 this information taken from the company website

is

.
's

364 Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Forecast January 2000

p
,

,
.6
.
365 Ibid
.

366 See the ARMSCOR website for details

.

367 Ibid
.

According the company International Marketing Director

its

website
to

368
is
,

's

Mr Henri
as

named Nahoum
.

369 Shooters Arms Manufacturing has offices Quezon City and Mandaue City
in

.
as

produces range nine pistols based revolv

on

well
as
of

the M1911 frame

It

PB

ers bullets and spares Dionisio Co was established 1946 and the
in

is
&
,

the Philippines See Identify

of

oldest distributor firearms and ammunition

in

'

ing new opportunities crisis Business World Publishing January

16
of

times
in

',

2001
.

370 Merliza Makinano Alfredo Lubang Disarmament Demobilisation and

M

&

' ,

,
‘

Reintegration the Mindanao Experience Dipankar Banerjee

ed

South Asia
in

(
)
:
 Notes 137

at Gun Point : Small Arms and Light Weapons Proliferation (Regional Centre for
Strategic Studies , Colombo , 2000 ), p . 145 .

371

op for
Aiming

29
legitimacy January

19
Alexandra Seno

',

,
Asiaweek 1996

.p
A
.

, ‘

.
cit
372 Makinano Lubang 152 note 371

,
.p
&

).
(
Philippine Center Transnational Crime PCTC paper published

on
373 2000

in
A

)
claims there are 633 607 licensed firearms the country Other reports cite the

in
,

.
figure 714 757 Curb those guns Asiaweek September 2000 The 700 000

',

, ,

,
8
('

.)
on
figure the PCTC report figure taking into account

its
based claim that
is

,
's

of
average there average increase 802 registered firearms each

65
on

an
is
,

,
year Police Superintendent Rodrigo Gracia and Police Inspector Camilo PP

P
.
.

TransnationalCrime Paper Illegal Manufactur

on

on
Cascolan Police Center
‘,

ing Trafficking Firearms paper presented the Jakarta Regional

an
of

to
in

',
the Illicit Trafficking Small Arms and Light Weapons May
12 on

Seminar

in

,
% , 3
56 4
-
2000 pp According separate 1998 PNP intelligence report

of
in 13

to

%
a
,

.
-

all weapons the Philippines are

23

21
Mindanao are Luzon are

%
in

in

in
,

,
the Visayas See PNP reports 137 645 guns loose nationwide Business World

',

,
.

September 1998
28

374 Carlito Pablo Gov vies with Sayyaf Mindanao arms market Philippine

in
, ,

,
'
't

Daily Inquirer August 2000 Curb those guns Asiaweek September 2000
‘;

',

,
8

.
.op
Gracia PCTC Paper 15

cit
375 Cascolan note 374
‘,

',

,
.p
&

).
(
28

376 Ibid
.p
,

by

377 Justin Morozzi Rest work and play the gun Firearms ownership dealership
,

,
“

and production sleepy Danao Financial Times April 1997 :

29 19
are routine
in

',

.p ,

.
for

Seno Aiming legitimacy January 1996

19

378 Asiaweek
',

',

.
379 Ibid
.

380 Ibid
.

381 Simon Ingram Philippines guns crackdown BBC website Asia Pacific
,

',

),
7
(
'

-
‘

July 2000
.
382

Allan Nawal Davao gun supply can meet rising demand Philippine Daily
‘,

',
't

Iwan
Inquirer August 2000
18
,

383 Ibid
.

op

Makinano Lubang
cit

384 146 note 371

.p
&

).
(

Interview with Philippines Ambassador Cambodia Francisco Atayde

Y to

385
“ ,

,
H
E
.
.

February 2001 Disraeli Danao City big supplier

22

Phnom Penh Parreño

,

, ,
;

alleged weap
21
of

Yakuza guns Manila Chronicle January 1995 183 On

an
',

ons for rugs partnership between Abu Sayyaf and the Hong Kong
14
K
-

-
-d

see

crime syndicate Donna Cueto Abu links int drug ring probed
to
,

. ,

',
S

'l
.

Philippine Daily Inquirer July 2000

, 17
: ,

000
For

guns
10

386 Nirmal Ghosh sale month The Straits Times September 1996
,

',

,
1
a

.
387

.pp

op

cit

PCTC Paper
17

19

Gracia Cascolan note 374

',

',

,
&

-
(

).
20

388 Ibid
.p
,

389 Interview with Philippines Ambassador Francisco Atayde Phnom Penh Feb
,

ruary 2001
.

FE

January
S1

390 BBC Summary

of

11

World Broadcasts 2000 D3734

,

,
/

/
.

National rights body team July

28

391 Quoted The Jakarta Post 2000

in

',

.
138 Small Arms in SE Asia

392 Ibid .

393 ‘RP ship captured for running guns ', Jakarta Post , 16 January 2001 .

394 In some reports the RPA is identified as the Revolutionary People ' s Army .
395

for
Abu Sayyaf shopping heavy weapons

In
Carlito Pablo Philippine Daily

‘,

',
quirer August 2000

, 7

.
396 Jerome Aning Michael Ubac Reds launch attacks Manila Negros Philippine

in
&

',

, ,

',
Daily Inquirer M203s see Associated Press Philippine Com

on
March 2000

,
;
17 3
munists Kill August 2000

22
Attack International Herald Tribune

in

',

', ,

.
Forever Fighting the Philippines Janu

of
397 Mike Winchester Soldier Fortune

in
,

,
, ‘
ary 2001 pp

71
36

, ', 41
,

.
-
.

the Abu Sayyaf group

of
398 Rohan Gunaratna The evolution and tactics Jane

',

's
July

pp
Intelligence Review

29

32

30

, 31
2001

,
,
-
.

.
399 Private armies threaten Philippines polls The Straits Times March 2001

,
8
‘

.
"

"
400 Carlito Pablo Gov vies with Sayyaf Mindanao armsmarket Philippines

in
, ,

,
'
't

Daily Inquirer August 2000 Citing intelligence reports the newspaper claims
8

, .
Abu Sayyaf was offering P48 000 for M16 rifle while the Filipino govern

an

,
of
an

ment lists the value

at
M16 P25 000 See also Carlito Pablo Alexander
,

,
.
Young and Noralyn Mustafa Thousands want join cash rich Abu Sayyaf

to
, ',

-
gang Philippines Daily Inquirer August 2000 Arnold Tenorio The Mindanao
11
',

,
;
Question How the rag tag rebel group Abu Sayyaf was transformed into
”

a
"
:

terrorist organization May 2000

19

BusinessWorld
',

, .
Light arms trading Jane

44
401 Chalk Intelligence Review March 2001
,

,
p
.
.
's

According the South China Morning Post Hostages exchanged for cash and
to

402
('

guns August 2000 two Filipino journalists were swapped for five million
'2,

),

pesos and weapons including five M16s and five M203 grenade launchers

In
.
July 2000 the group received fiveM16s five M203s and
an

earlier incident
in

,
of

one M60 machine gun exchange for the release two teachers and school
in

boy kidnapped from Basilan See also Cash guns paid for hostages Philippine
,

',
“
.

Daily Inquirer August 2000 Cueto Abu links int drug ring probed
to
;
,

',
2

'l
'

Philippine Daily Inquirer July 2000

17
,

403 Julie Alipala Inot Carolyn Arguillas Muslim Rebels Admit Having Fire
O
&

‘,
-

arms Factory Philippine Daily Inquirer January 1999

11
',

404 Ibid
.

405 Ibid
.

406 Abu Sayyaf weapons capabilities foreign supporters listed The Philippines
, . ,

',
‘

Daily Inquirer July 1994

31

cit 12
,

,
,
op p
1

.
407

148

Makinano Lubang note 371

,
.p
&

).

Libya trained rebels blamed for current Aceh violence

to 30

408 The Jakarta Post

, ',

't ,
-
‘

July 1999 Cathy Rose Garcia Manolette Payumo MILF tells gov
&
;

C
A
.

.
or

choose Talk peace February 2000

22

resume war Business World

',

,
:

409 Jose Almonte Intra state conflict and Arms Proliferation East Asia
in
,

',
T
.

-
'

paper presented Small Arms Proliferation

on

the International Conference

to

and Trade the Asia Pacific Hotel Sofitel Cambodiana Phnom Penh Cam
20 in

,
-

February 2001
19

bodia
,
-

410 Jerome Aning

25

000 bullets for Moro rebs Philippine Daily Inquirer June 2000
,
,

',

,
2

.
 139
Notes

op
Intra

cit
411 Almonte state conflict note 410

‘,

,
-

, ).
(
for
3000 guns rebels arriving February 1999

22
Manila Bulletin

',
412

‘ '

.
?
Bin
413 Laden fund Abu Sayyaf through Muslim relief group Philippine Daily

',
Inquirer August 2000

,
9

.
414 Ibid

.41
Fighting January

of
415 Winchester Forever Fortune

',

', ,

,
Soldier 2001

p
.
416 Breakaway group vows more Manila terror attacks March 2000 The Manila Times

4
,

.
417 Carlito Pablo MILF buying weapons from Korea says AFP Philippine

',
, N
‘

.
Daily Inquirer 21 June 2000 Dona Pazzibugan Christine Avenda Cynthia

&
,

;
Balana Government urged postpone ties with North Korea Philippine

to
,

',
'

22
Daily Inquirer June 2000 Deutsche Presse Agentur North Korea assures

it
,

,
;

-
no

Filipino Moslem rebels July 2000

14
has sent arms
to

',

.
418

Noralyn Mustafa Chinese looking foreigners sighted Abu Sayyaf camp

',

',
in
-
Philippine Daily Inquirer August 2000 25
,

.
Dona Pazzibugan chief says was misquoted Philippine Daily Inquirer

he
419 Spy
',

’,

,
23

June 2000
.

420 Alipala Inot Arguillas Muslim rebels Senator confirms military supplied
&

',
-

'
arms Abu Sayyaf Manila October 1994
to

Standard

.2p
',

,
1

.
421 Ibid
.

rebels raid Quezon town hall seize guns Philippine Daily Inquirer De
60

422
,

',

,
8
'

, In
cember 2000 Gerry Baldo Shooters lose guns rebels Philippine Daily
to
,

',
;

'

October 1999 Delfin Mallari NPA rebels raid Laguna police station
27

quirer
,

,
;

seize guns Philippine Daily Inquirer August 2000 Lax management and losť
',

,
8

, .

'
120
weapons are also major problems For example October 2000 police
in

,
.

officers from Negros Occidental were sued for failing return several hun
to
114

dred weapons including Garand rifles 122 M1

13

54

Armalite rifles 14s

M
,

,
-

and M2s and large number pistols and shotguns See Carla Gomez
of

,
a

Policemen sued for failing return pistols rifles Philippine Daily Inquirer
to

',

,
4
‘

October 2000 The same article quotes the police director for the Western
.

Visayas ordering the return 600 weapons issued police who were

no
of

to

longer assigned the region

to

423 Cynthia Borgueta Joey Gabieta 200 NPA rebs attack Samar cops troops
&

',

',
A
.

Philippine Daily Inquirer September 2000

22
,

424 Communist Rebels Raid Philippines Military Detachment Business World

,

,
7
‘

January 1998
.

big

425 Dave Veridiano Government men eyed arms haul Philippine Daily
in
M

',

,
, .

Inquirer September 2000

2

426 Ibid
.

427 Up arms over Manila gun ban The Straits Times January 2001
in

',

,
3
'

by
for

428 Jowel Canuday Weapons meant banana plantation seized cops Philip
',

',

pine Daily Inquirer

21

October 2000
- ,

.
Ex

429 Jonathon Ma Mayor house raided guns found Philippine Daily Inquirer
;
'; “,

',

,
's

July 2000 Solon kin held for illegal guns Philippine Daily Inquirer
28

17
',

,
's

November 2000
.
140 Small Arms in SE Asia

430 Jhunnex Napallacan & Kathy Navarro , 'Guns seized in Cebu raid ', Philippine
Daily Inquirer , 8 August 2000 ; see also Frank Cimatu & Voit Contreras ,' “ Last of
the warlords ” rules gambling empire , Philippine Daily Inquirer , 9 October 2000 .
'
431 Aida Sevilla -Mendoza , ‘Pistol - packing Metro traffic aides , Philippine Daily In '
quirer , 25 November 1999 .
432 ‘ Brawls , firing of guns taint Christmas in Cebu ', Philippine Daily Inquirer , 27
December 2000 ; Cristina Arzadon , Poll Showdown : Comelec confirms arms
buildup in Ilocos Norte , Philippine Daily Inquirer , 8 January 2001 .
'
433 'Get guns off the streets , Lacson told ', Philippine Daily Inquirer , 26 December
1999 ; Nandy Pacheco , “ There ' s a need for gun control in public places ' ,
Business World , 22 June 2000 ; 'Stick it to 'em ' , Philippine Daily Inquirer , 24 June
2000 ; Kina Jimenez - David , 'Social shunning of gun -bearers ', Philippines Daily
Inquirer , 31 August 2000 .
434 PRO -GUN stands for Peaceful and Responsible Owners ofGuns. For an argu
ment from this point of view , see 'Gun , balance of terror ' , Philippine Daily
Inquirer , 8 August 2000 .

435 ' Double threat , The Philippines Daily Inquirer , 24 November 1999 .
436 Ingram , Philippines ' guns ', BBC website (Asia -Pacific ) , 7 July 2000 .
437

Pro

Alcuin Papa

22
gun group hits Lacson plan Philippine Daily Inquirer
,

',

,
-

November 1999 's

.

164

438 Makinano Lubang

,
.p
&

439 Pablo Gov vies with Sayyaf Mindanao armsmarkeť Philippines Daily
in
',

,
't

Inquirer August 2000

,
8

.p .

440 Makinano Lubang 165

&

441 Ibid
.

is on

For general background Singapore defence industries excellent now an

if
442

,
's

somewhat dated account Bilveer Singh Singapore Defence Industries Can

,

's

(
berra Paper No
Sir
70

SDSC 1990 For more historicalmaterial see Laurence

,

,
.

).

Hartnett Operation Doberman The Singapore Armaments Story Pacific De

',

's ,
'
:
.pp

April 1982 Singapore

10

12

fence Reporter Michael Richardson Defence

,

,
;

. '
-

.pp

Industry Pacific Defence Reporter May 1983

69

Howarth Singapore
75
,

,
H
;

'
-

Armed Forces and Defence Industry International Defence Review

no
11

1983
',

,
.
pp

1570 1572 Jacquelyn Porth Singapore Little Dragon Arms Produc

in
',
;

A
ed S
, ' .

) .
-

James Katz The Implications Third World Military Industrializa

of

tion
ppin

E
; .

the Ord
on

tion 225 240 Singh Defence Production Singapore Focus

in
',
B
.

:
-

January 1989
no

nance Industries Journal

',

,
1,

Asian Defence
.

443 Defence Attache magazine quoted Bilveer Singh Kwa Chong Guan The
in

,
&

Singapore Defence Industries Motivations Organizations and Impact

in
,

,
:
ed

Chandra Jeshurun Arms and Defence Southeast Asia Institute for South
in
(

east Asian Studies Singapore 1989 102

.p
,

),
:

444 Towards Tomorrow The Singapore Technologies Story WordMaker Design Sin
,
:

gapore 1997
11
,

),
's .p
.

445 Singh
13

Singapore Defence Industries

.p
,

Singh notes that government supervision ensure that the defence

to
is

446 Ibid
'
.

companies are tailored meet ingapore military and strategic require

to

's
]
(S
as

as

do

ments well ensure that they not undertake activities which could
to
 Notes 141

embarrass or compromise the Singapore government in any way Singh ', ,

Singapore 's Defence Industries , p . 13 . For an excellent account of the informal
controls on the activities ofGLCs , see Natasha Hamilton -Hart, “ The Singapore

195

216
state revisited ', The Pacific Review , vol. 13, no . 2 ( 2000 ) , pp .

.
447 The closest New Zealand equivalent the Singaporean GLC the State Owned

to

is
Enterprise SOE model On the relationship between the defence industry

.
(

)
pp

21
Small Arms

33
and the SAF see Towards See also

to
Tomorrow From

,
.

. ‘
Artillery The Emergence Military No

12

26
Technology

of
CIS 1993

p
',

),
:

.
.
(
448 See The Singapore Technology Corporation Singapore Own Military Indus
,

's
-

.pp
, no
trial Complex

11

16

27
The Pointer vol October December 1984

),
.p 1

-
.

.
"

28 (
449 Singh Singapore Defence Industries
,

's

.
450 Singapore Technologies Press Release Change
Engineering name Sub

of

of
',
sidiary April 2000 According Tan Pheng Hock the Chief Operating

to
',

,
of 5

.
ST Engineering the rationale for the takeover was

ST
Officer

to
need

s
'
market vehicles weapons systems and ammunition total integrated land

as
. ,

. a'

ST
combat system What the customer wants solution With Kinetics we

is
of a
can now provide such solution the form total package See the inter

ST in
a

.'
view with Tan Pheng Hock Engineering An Emerging World Class
in
'

:
Player the International Defence Market Military Technology No 2000
in

',

),
.6
(
140
.pp

137
.
-

451 Harnessing technology for defence SAF and the local defence industries

',
-
‘

.2pp

Pioneer July 2000

,

-3
.

pp
Singapore All Terain Tracked Carrier Pioneer July 2000

20

21
452 Made
in

',

;
'

-
.
ST

see also More about Kinetics undated press release Singapore Technolo
',

,
‘

sg

gies website http www com

.st
,

.
.
, :/
/
, 38

453 Towards Tomorrow

p
.
.

454 Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Forecast Newtown Connecti

,
(
11

cut 2000
,

),
p
.
.

This equalled 200 per weapon 1971 prices

of

455 total cost about

in
$
a

's ).
(

the

Latest Reports
Weapons
) on

456 Edward Clinton Ezell Small Arms Today

World
,

and Ammunition tackpole Books Harrisburg PA 1984 189 Forecast Inter

p
,

,
,

;
.
(S

national estimates total production 200 000 units numberwhich

of

closer
to

,
a

may simply be sum of the local production figures above and the weapons
a

exported Thailand Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Forecast

to

's ,

,
.

The SAF configuration

11

Newtown Connecticut 2000 the M16

of

also
is
,

.
(

designated the M1651

.p .
.38

Towards Tomorrow
,

457

458 The negotiations are described James Edminston The Sterling Years Leo
in

(
.pp
67

Cooper Books Barnsley

69
,

),

-
.

Charles Cutshaw Singapore rearing bullpup rifle for home and export
',

459
is
Q
.

requirement Jane May 2000 available on

31

International Defense Review

,

,
/ s
: '

line http www janes com defence land forces news idr
at

_
.

.
.p . /

idr000531 shtml
2
n
_
_
.

61

Singh
, 38

460 Towards Tomorrow Singapore Defence Industries

p
;
,

,
's

.
, .

461 Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Forecast Newtown Connecti

(
13

cut 2000 For information about Sri Lanka and Somalia see the national
p
,

,
.
.
)

inventories listed Jane Infantry Weapons 1999 2000

in

's

.
-
142 Small Arms in SE Asia

Edminston ,

The

69
462 Sterling Years

,
.p
.
463 Ian Hogg Small Arms Pistols and Rifles Greenhill Military Manuals tackpole

,
V
, .

(S
Books Pennsylvania 1994 132

p
,

),
.

.
Small Arms Round p Rifles New Wave Singapore International

—
464 from

',
‘

no :
-U

.pp
vol July

20
Defense Review 1987 916 919

, ),

,
7
(
.

.
Ian Hogg Jane Harper Collins Glasgow
465 Gun Recognition Guide 2nd edn

,
's

(
327
2000
p
),
.
.
466 Personal observation Rove Police Armoury Honiara September 2001 Papua

as ,

.
New Guinea bought about 100 weapons part

of
trials find standard

to

a
for
infantry weapon the Papua New Guinea Defence Force PNGDF While

).
the weapon was apparently popular with troops the PNGDF eventually pur

of
chased the M16A2 instead Interview with Colonel Peter llau Chief Staff

,
, .
PNGDF Murray Barracks Port Moresby October 2001
,

,
9

.
467 Ultimax 100 Singapore Technologies advertisement author copy
',

's
'

.
468 Hogg Jane Gun Recognition Guide 398

.p
,

,
's

be
listnational inventories small arms can found Jane Infantry Weapons
of

of
469
A

's
The Fiji information interview with diplomats

an
1999 2000 comes from

in
-

Suva September 2001 The author saw Ultimaxs Honiara September

in

in

in
.

2001 The Royal Solomon Islands Police apparently had about the weap

50
of
, .

ons although many were stolen from the RSIP Rove armoury during the

's
of

tensions that rocked the island Guadalcanal 1999 and 2000 Some have

in

.
since been handed the International Peace Monitoring Team IPMT
to
in

),
(
although some may still be According Chief

its

of
circulation Staff the

to
in

,
.

Papua New Guinea Defence Force also bought between 300 400 Ultimaxs

.
Murray Barracks Port Moresby
at

Interview October 2001

,

,
9

.
470 Hogg Jane Gun Recognition Guide 398
,

,
.p
', .
's

471 Ingemar Dorfer quoted Singh Kwa The Singapore Defence Industries
in

&
,

',
op
cit

120 note 443

,
.p

).
(

472 Ibid
.

473 Charles Cutshaw Singapore rearing bullpup rifle for home and export
is
Q

',
.

requirement Jane International Defense Review May 2000 available on

31
,

,
's

line http www janes com defence land forces news idr
at

_
.

.
:
/
. /

idr000531 shtml /
for _2
n
_
.

pp

Military
21

Singapore
32

33

474 SAR Technology

',

2000
2

-
'

.
/

New SAF assault rifle may fire interest CIS Singapore

',

475 Business Times

in

3
(

September 1999
,
p
2
.
.

the optical sight see the comments

On

the quality Singapore

of

of

Cutshaw
is

476
,
'

rearing bullpup rifle Jane International Defense Review May 2000

31
',

,
's

.
for

Singapore Military
21

477 SAR Technology 2000

',

2
,
/
'

478 Ibid
.

479 Ibid
.
480

Interviews with SAF members Singapore October 2000 Cutshaw Singapore

,

',
;

rearing bullpup rifle

is

'.

481 Cutshaw Singapore rearing bullpup rifle

is
',

'.

482 Interview Singapore October 2000

,

.
 143
Notes

Introducing undated press release Singapore

21
483 New Variants for the SAR

. ',

,
'

sg
Technologies
website http www

.4pp , st
com

:/
/

.
.

.
484 Singapore Technologies Engineering Singapore Technologies Engineering An
Engi

ST
nual Report 2000 ingapore 2001 On the US push see the

,
-5

-
.
)
(S
neering annual report and also Lee Siew Hua pore defence gear made

in
.1p ,
. 'S

-
'
US

19
the The Straits Times October 2000

',

,
485 Ibid
.

399
486 Hogg Jane, Gun Recognition Guide

,
p
.
.
', 's Kinetic publication
487 CIS 40GL Singapore Technologies
'

.
McGregor Barracks police armoury Port Moresby

11
488 Personal observation

,
October 2001
.

ST
of
489 This information taken from CIS 40AGL The Power One Kinetics

',
is

a
:
‘

.sg
publication available http
on
www

at
line com

st
p :
. /
/
-

.
.

.
490 Jane Infantry Weapons 1999 2000 783

,
-

.
's

491 Ibid
.

, 13
492 Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Forecast October 2000
,

.
(

)
The PNG information on
interview with the PNGDF Chief

of
based Staff
is

Colonel Peter Ilau Port Moresby October 2001

in
,

,
9

.
493 Ibid
.
494

627

Infantry Weapons 1999 2000

,

Jane
p
-

.
.
's

495 Ibid
.
496

Jane Infantry Weapons 1999 2000

-

.
's

497 Ibid 578

,
.p
.
ST

498 has had repeat orders with the Swedish manufacturer Försvaretmaterielverk
Defence Materiel See Singapore Technologies Engineering Singapore Tech
,
.

nologies Engineering Annual Report 2000

.

499 Jane Infantry Weapons 1999 2000 579

,

', ,
.p
-

.
's

500 Singapore Technologies Kinetic 40mm ABMS Enhancing Firepower for the
-

press release Singapore Technologies Engi

19

Future March 2001 see also

, ,

;
'

neering Advanced 40mm Automatic Grenade Launcher Air ursting Sys

'

-B

press release from the company

19

tem June 2000 Both are available website

',

's
.

.
501 Ibid
.
ST

An

502 Emerging World Class Player

Engineering 138
',
.p
:
' '

', .

Engineering sharply lower profit taking AFX News Lim

ST

on

503 Stockwatch
:

January 2001 Singapore Newspaper Highlights Jan

15

ited 2001 Asia Pulse

,

' ',
;

9
'

Lexis Nexis January 2001 Abdul Hahdi Singapore Technologies Net Rises
',

',
, ;
9
-
(

62 13
15

The Asian Wall Street Journal October 2000

-

.
up

the same period 1999 See Singa

86

on

504 Turnover was million

or
%

in
$
S

pore Technologies Kinetic unaudited results for the Group for the first quarter
at

http
31

on

ended March 2000 author copy Available line

,

's

-
.

:
/
/

www
sg

com
st
.
.

.
.

505 Ibid
.

506 Interview Arms and Explosives Branch Singapore Police Force October 2000
,

.
144 Small Arms in SE Asia

507 ‘Boy leads police to toy pellet guns ’, The Straits Times , 14 July 2001 .

508 Interview , Arms and Explosives Branch .

509 Ibid .
510 Katherine Kramer , Legal Controls on Small Arms in ASEAN (Non - Violence In
ternational Southeast Asia and Small Arms Survey , Geneva , 2001).
511 Ibid .
512 Jenny Mouzos , International Traffic in Small Arms : An Australian Perspective ,
CSCAP Working Group on Transnational Crime - Small Arms Project : An
Australian Perspective , p . 7. This document is available on - line through the

108 aic
Australian Institute of Criminology at http :/ / / www .

au
gov

.
.
.
513 Singh Kwa The Singapore Defence Industries
',

',
.p
&

.
514

No
Singapore Marks Significant Anniversary Military Technology

70
',

),
1992

.p
.8
a
' '

.
An
Engineering Emerging World Class Player Engineering has
ST

ST
515 140

',
p
:

.
.
offices the US Middle East Australia China Malaysia and Vietnam One
in

.
arms exporter has been the

as
important reason for Singapore

an
success

's
marketing UI was created
its

products 1978 Unicorn International

of

to
In
.

(
)
help market Singaporean defence products the highly competitive interna

in
the recognition that more often than not
on

tional armsmarket based the

is
it
,

‘
marketing and sales strategy which determines the success

of
failure

or

a
producť According the Singapore Armed Forces journal The
an

article
to

in

,
.

'
Pointer Unicorn pursues aggressive marketing policy which has meant
an
,

'
'

that over the years inroads have been made every continent Unicorn
to
,

's
.
'

primary function handle exports and sales defence materials and sup of
to
is

porting services this end Ui international sales staff

of
To

have conducted
,
's
.

numerous promotional activities attending demonstrations and exhibitions

in
,

Asia the Middle East Africa the United States and Central and South America
,

of ,

.
An

early diagram the company

an
structure shows international sales
's

wing with two separate regional sales divisions for the Middle East Africa
,

/
and Latin America and regional sales manager for Asia Unicorn Interna
a

tional also assists the Singaporean Ministry

of

sourcing for own

its
Defence
in

equipment needs saying that most manufacturers local agents are inadequate
,

of “

serving the diverse needs MINDEF UI also engages trading which

in

in

it
,
'.

bringing together the requirements

as

foreign customers and

its

describes
of
of

the capabilities foreign manufacturers This says where the company

is
it
,

,
.
'. '

'

measures success dollars and cents See Unicorn International Pty Ltd
in

, :

Service and Responsibility Midef and the Defence Industries The Pointer
to

',
pp
11

28

's 30
no

vol October December 1984

,

),
1
(

-
.

See generally Davina Miller Export

or

516 Die Britain Defence Trade With Iran and

,

. :
pp

Iraq Cassell Academic London 1997 109 119 Sideliners New Statesman
,

',

; ,
';
-
(

)
23

13

16

June 1996 The Arms Sales Scandal New Statesman June 1995
p

.5p
,

,
';
.

Sian Clare Aitken New ArmsIndustry Storm Associated Press July 1995
in

',

, 8
‘

.
.pp

517 Miller Export

or

Die 109 155

,

, ,

518 Interview Bangkok February 2001 Peter Chalk Liberation Tigers Of Tamil
,

,
;

Eelam LTTE International Organization And Operations Preliminary

A
's

-
(

Analysis Canadian Security Intelligence Commentary No Win

77

Service
',

.
(

ter 1999
).

519 Solomon Island denies arms delivery Defence Weekly May

',

Jane 1999
5
'

.
's
 Notes 145

520 Annual Summary of Export Statistics , Directorate of Conventional Arms Con

trol ,Ministry of Defence , Republic of South Africa , available on - line at http : / /
www .mil.za / SANDF /DRO /NCACC / ncacc .htm . The conversion is based on
2001 values . I am very grateful to Maria Haug of Small Arms Survey for
drawing my attention to this information .
521 Edward Clinton Ezell , Small Arms Today : Latest Reports on the World ' s Weapons
and Ammunition (Stackpole Books , Harrisburg , PA , 1984 ), p. 189.
522 Ibid .
523 Forecast International , Ordnance and Munitions Forecast (October 2000 ) 13. In
December 1991 the Thai army sued the Singaporean firm Allied Ordnance for
late delivery of a consignment of anti -aircraft guns and ammunition . See Xinhua
News Agency , ' Thai army sues Singaporean arms firms ', 12 December 1991 .
524 Forecast International, Ordnance and Munitions Forecast (January 2000 ), p . 22 .
525 The purchase of the M16A2 was made after four weapons were considered by
the Thai military . The other three were the Steyr AUG made by Australian
Defence Industries , the French -made Famas G2 , and the Israeli Karin . See ‘ Thai
army set to replace outdated rifles' , Xinhua News Agency , 21 November 1994 .
On the purchase of the M16A2, see 'Army Plans to Buy US-Made Assault
Rifles ,' Thailand Times , 14 June 1997 ; also Forecast International, Ordnance and
Munitions Forecast , p .22 . The story refers to plans to purchase 79 ,000 M16A2s ,
although there is no other confirmation of this quantity , which may have been
reduced after the regional economic crisis . According to one account , the Royal
Thai army was set to buy Australian Steyrs earlier in the 1990s , until Australian
human rights groups protested that the weapons could end up in the hands of
the Khmer Rouge . Thai Army Chief Wimon Wongwanit then abruptly can
celled the order , saying the claims “ tarnished the people of Thailand ' and showed
' that Canberra cannot control its people from making speeches (against Thai
land ) ' . See ‘ Army Chief Halts Plan to Buy Australian Weapons ', The Nation , 13
August 1994 .

526 For evidence regarding the Heckler and Koch MP5 , see the pictures taken in
the aftermath of the Samut Sakhon prison outbreak , The Bangkok Post , 24 No
vember 2000 , pp . 1, 4.
'
527 Firearms Imports : Five- Year Check on Shipments ; Dodgy Deals Come Under
Customs Eye , The Bangkok Post , 28 April 2001 .
' '
528 Hogg , Jane s Gun' Recognition Guide , p . 234 .
529 Ibid , p . 306 ; Ezell , , p. 189. There are also reports that the G3
Small Arms Today
was produced under licence in Thailand , but this cannot be confirmed . The G3
was in service with the Royal Thai Army , however. See Forecast International ,
Ordnance and Munitions Report , January 2000 , p. 12.
530 Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Report , January
, 2000 , p . 7.
531 Interview with Yeshua Moser - Puangsuwan , Regional Coordinator Southeast
Asia , Non - Violence International, Bangkok , 24 February 2001 .
International , Ordnance and Munitions Forecast , January 2000 , p . 12 .
532 Forecast

533 Doungsuda Fungladda , ' Thai military on production offensive' , The Nikkei
Weekly , 31 January 2000 .
534 Thailand 's army plans ammunition exports ' , Deutsche Presse Agentur , 2 June 1998.
146 Small Arms in SE Asia

535 Forecast International , Ordnance and Munitions Forecast , October 2000 , p. 14.

536 '
Thailand s army plans ammunition exports ',Deutsche Presse - Agentur , 2 June 1998 .
537 ‘ Thai army begins to export spare weaponry ', Xinhua News Agency , 4 Decem
ber 2000 .
538 ' Thailand 's army plans ammunition exports '; Fungladda , Thaimilitary on pro
duction offensive ’, The Nikkei Weekly , 31 January 2000 .
539 ' Thai army begins to export spare weaponry',Xinhua News Agency , 4 Decem
ber 2000 .
540 Ibid .
541 " Thai military on production offensive ', The Nikkei Weekly , 31 January 2000 .
542 Forecast International , January 2000 , p .12 .

543 Ibid , p .12 .

544 Duncan Long , Assault Pistols , Rifles and Submachine Guns (Paladin Press , Boul
der , Co ., 1986 ) , pp . 116 - 117 .
545 Ibid .
546 Interview with Yeshua Moser - Puangsuwan ,Non Violence International South
east Asia , Bangkok , 24 February 2001 .
547 Firearms Imports: Five- Year Check on Shipments , The Bangkok Post , 28 April 2001 .
'
548 For estimates on the scale of the informal economy in general , see ' Illegal
economy in Thailand , report viewed ' , The Nation , 25 February 1997 ; see also
Pasuk Phongpaichit, Sungsidh Piriyarangsan & Hualnoi Treerat , Guns , Girls ,
Gambling , Ganja : Thailand ' s Illegal Economy and Public Policy (Silkworm Books ,
Chiang Mai, 1998 )

549 Interview , Bangkok , 27 November 2000 . See , for example , " Three slain amid
family legacy feud ' , The Nation , 25 November 2000 , p . A3.
Prasong Charasdamrong , ‘Killers
for

550 Surath Jinakul & cash The Bangkok Post

',

,
July 2000
2

551 Despite the use gunmen year old female killer

40

there was one

of

the term
',
'

-
on

the list Ibid

.

552 Killers for cash The Bangkok Post July 2000

',

,
2

Airport Firearms Theft Informants Hand

25

the Stolen Glock Pistols

of

553
In

,
‘

Only Five Guns Still Not Accounted For The Bangkok Post April 2001 Of
, 16
',

. .'
The

April 2001
he

ficer who ordered pistols claims was duped

19

Nation
',

Firearms Imports The Bangkok Post April 2001

28

554
',

,
'

.pp .
133

Phongpaichit Guns Girls Gambling Ganja

al
et

555 134
.
-
556

Ibid
,

133
.p
.

557 Controversial weapons be handed back Associated Press Worldstream

to

',
'

14

Lexis Nexis December 1993

),

.
(

558 AFP Thai weapons haul takes another twisť December 1993
,

',
9

559 Tom Fawthorp Thai army linked Khmer Rouge new weapons stock
to
,

’,
's
"

May
14

Inter Press Service 1993

, ,

.
al

Phongpaichit Guns Girls Gambling Ganja

et

560 135
,
'. ,

,
.p
.

561 Fawthorp Thai army linked

,
 Notes 147

562 Phongpaichit et al, Guns , Girls , Gambling , Ganja , p . 132 .

146
Ibid
563

, ,
.p .p
. .
564 Ibid 145

by
Thai Navy destined for Indian rebels The Thailand

18
565 Arms seized Times

',

,
'
Anthony Davis Thailand tenders anti rafficking plan

to
March 1997 others

',
;

-t
April 1999

21
Jane Defence Weekly

,
's

.
the illegal arms trade between Cambodia

of
The value Thailand and Burma

is
566

,
extremely difficult but team political economists from Thai

of
to
estimate

a
land Chulalongkorn University has offered one figure Quoting police sources

,
's

.
they estimate that weapons purchased

on
the Cambodian border sell for about
three times their original price by the time they get Burma 1992 there

to

In
.
by
fore the estimated value weapons seized Thai police was over half

of
,

a
billion baht Given that Thai police chiefs have estimated they only intercept

a
.

weapons this means the total value

of
the total volume
of

of
fraction the trade

.pp
51

billion baht See Phongpaichit

al
as

as

high
be

could

et
150 151

-
.

.
567 Former officer the Thai National Security Council Phongpaichit

et
in

,
cited

in
al

132
p
,
.
.
the
568

Much that follows drawn Phongpaichit

et
of

information

al
,
from 147

in

.p
.
569 Ibid
.

570 Ibid
, , , .

148
Ibid

.p .p .pp

571 147
. . -
.

572 Ibid 149

137

573 Ibid

Thai Army officer August

of

13
574 Cache ammunition seized from
', The Nation

,
‘

1998
.

for

Corrupt police blamed arms smuggling July

31
575 The Nation 1998
',

,
'

.
Phongpaichit
al
et

576 138
,
.p
.
aim

get August
of

Police the case The Bangkok Post

to

to

577 bottom 1998

',

', ,
5
‘

.
578 Tasker Crispin Frustration over Burma illegal drugs Far Eastern Economic
&

‘,

's

Review June 2000

,
1

.
579

Anthony Davis Thailand tenders anti trafficking plan others Jane De

to
,

',
-

's
April
21

fence Weekly 1999

,

580 Peter Chalk Liberation Tigers Of Tamil Eelam LTTE International Organi
‘,

's
(

zation And Operations Preliminary Analysis Canadian Security Intelli

,
A
-

gence Service Commentary No

77

43

Winter 1999
,

),
n
.

.
.
(

Thailand denies sending arms January 1999

11

581 Tamil rebels The Nation

to

;
',

,
"

Army denies Tamil war arms report The Bangkok Post

11

January 1999 On
', ,

.
'
the

Norwegian connection see Chalk Liberation Tigers

43
,

',
n
.
.

Chuan pledges watch May

29
on

582 Tamil arms link The Nation 1999

’,

,
'

.
Sri

583 Thailand Lanka foster defence cooperation The Nation April

to
,

',

1999
21 9

.
"

584 Davis Thailand tenders anti trafficking plan Jane Defence Weekly April 1999
,

',

,
's
-

, .

Navy seizes weapons reportedly destined for Tamil Tigers

12

585 Thailand Times

',

March 1997
.
148 Small Arms in SE Asia

586 Kyodo News Service , ‘ Thailand to investigate Tamil weapons depots ', 11
January 1999 .

587 Anthony Davis , ‘ Bangkok discovers LTTE logistics cell , Jane s Intelligence Re
' '
view, 1 July 2000 .
Chalk , ‘Liberation Tigers ' (op

cit
588 note 580

).
The
Edward Tang Military rogues May 2001

16
589 Straits Times

',

.
590 Anthony Davis Thailand tenders anti trafficking plan Jane Defence Weekly

',

,
-

's
“
April
21

1999

.
Army chief insists rebels have local base The Nation

29
591 March 2000 Tamil

;
',

,
‘

Tigers extend net Thailand The Nation August 2000

in

,4

.
"

"
592 John McBeth Nate Thayer Bertil Lintner Worse Come Far Eastern

to
&
,

',
'
pp
July 1999
29

16

18
Economic Review
,

,
.

.
593 Craig run huge arms trade Morning Herald

14
Thais The Sydney
,

',

,
Skehan
"

August 1999
.

594 Interviews Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta See also John McBeth Nate Thayer
in

,
.
July

29
Bertil Lintner Worse Come Far Eastern Economic Review
to

1999
&

',

,
‘

.
run

The Sydney Morning Herald August 1999

14
huge arms trade
,

',

,
595 Skehan Thais

.
596 Andre Sauvageot Vietnam Defence Expenditure and Threat Perception
,

,
J.

:
Defending Communist Indochina

ed
Chin Kin Wah Defence Spending
in

301 in
'

(
)
for

Southeast Asia Institute Southeast Asian Studies Singapore 1988

.7p ),
, . p
.
.
(

597 Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Forecast January 2000 Some
,

,
reports refer this weapon the TUL See Edward Clinton Ezell Small
as
to

1
.
-
'

'

Weapons and Ammunition Stackpole

), on

Arms Today Latest Reports the World

's

(
:

Books Harrisburg
PA

1984 229
.p
,

,
,

the Type

50
Ezell Small Arms Today modifications included the
to

598 228 The

.p
,

the wooden butt stock and the addition the same wire sliding
of

elimination
of

the MAT the barrel jacket was also re

49

of

stock used The forward end

in

-
.

moved reduce weight

to

The Vietnamese People Army VPA may also have the ability carry out
to

599
's

larger ammunition rounds For example has displayed Russian

on
re

loads
it
,
-

tank rounds several defence expos they are not loads

re
at

manufactured
If

,
-
.

off

not clear why bothering

be

VPA would
to

the show them

it
is

600 Anne Gilks Gerald Segal China and the Arms Trade Croom Held London
&

,
(
49

1986
p
),
.
.

April 2001 the author fired Type assault rifle

as Cu

Chi outside Ho Chi

56

601
In

in

,
a

Minh City The cartridge was subsequently identified

39

62mm auto
7
a

x
.

matic rifle round commonly used the AK series weapons Close exami
of
in
,

the headstamp revealed that was manufactured 1990 by

of

nation Soviet
an in
it

now Russian still operation ammunition factory For invaluable guide

in
,
if
(

.
see

identify ammunition the declassified Defense Intelligence Agency

on

to

how
,
Up

on

report Small Arms Cartridges

To

15mm available the agency website

,

,
's

http www dia mil

:/
/

.
.
.

602 Jane Sentinel Security Assessment Southeast Asia March August 2000 571
,

,
.p
-

.
's

603 Personal observations Hanoi March 2001

,

.
 Notes 149

604 Carlyle A . Thayer , “ Regional Military Modernization Strategies and Trends ' ,
presentation to the conference on ' Security and Societal Trends in Southeast
Asia ', White -Meyer House Meridian International Center , Washington , D . C .,
September 6 -7, 2000 .
605 Ibid .
606 Ibid .
607 Jane's World Armies , Issue 7 (Jane 's Information Group , June 2000 ) p .857 .

608 BBC Asia -Pacific Service on - line , ‘Leading North Korean Visits Vietnam ', 11
July 2001.
609 Thayer , ‘Regional Military Modernization ' (op

cit
note 604

).
610 Ibid
.

611 Interview Hanoi May 2001

,

.
612 Thayer Regional Military Modernization
‘,

'.
613 Ibid
.

614 Illegal weapons Villagers surrender hundreds Viet govť The Straits Times

to

,
am :
‘

July 2001 very grateful Matthias Maass for drawing this article
14

to

to
. .I

my attention
Cambodia says reports July
no

615 AFP Lao rebels bases 2000

',

',
7
:

.
616 Gutted arms depot Cambodia linked to illegal arms sale Moneakseka Khmer
in in

',

,
'

September 1999 by
Khmer translated FBIS
,
1

).
(

617 Ibid
.

618 Ibid
.

no

619 AFP Cambodia says Lao rebels bases

, ‘,

'.

620 Ezell Small Arms Today 229

.p
,

621 Ibid
.

622 Michael Renner Small Arms Big Impact Worldwatch Institute Washington
. ,

,
(
‘ 41

DC 1997
,

),
.p

Living
of

623 Lara Wozniak the shadow the gun Hong Kong Imail July 2001
,

’,

,
in

.
624 US gun dealers have tried illegally import weapons from Vietnam back into
to
-

To
the United States for collectors See Reza Probes Early Halt
,

,
H

U
.S
' .

.
.

, .

Arms Sale Investigation Inquiry The Los Angeles Times June 1995 A1
.p
;

,
5

.
US

August
13

625 Reuters residents said smuggle arms from

to
,

. ,

Vietnam 1997
.7p '

626 Forecast International Ordnance and Munitions Forecast

,

Regional Security
its

Impact
of

on

627 Jose Olaivar Proliferation Firearms and

‘,

A
:

Perspective from the Philippines paper presented the Third CSCAP Meet
to
',

ing Transnational Crime Pasig City the Philippines May 1998

23
24

10
on

.p
,

,
-

628 Breakaway group vows more Manila terror attacks The Manila Times March
',

,4
'

Senator Alleges Smuggled Arms Come from Vietnam January

11

2000 FBIS
, ',

, ,
, ;
.p '

with Vietnamese Foreign Ministry officials Hanoi May 2001

66

1995 Interview
.

629 Weapons Found April 1994

19

Seized Vietnamese Trawlers FBIS EAS

in

',

,
-
41

Robert Bedeski Andrew Anderson Santo Darmosumarto Small Arms

p

&
,
;

,
.

Trade and Proliferation East Asia Southeast Asia and the Russian Far East Uni
in

11 ,
:

versity British Columbia Working Paper No September 1998

24
of

p
,

,
.

.
.
150 Small Arms in SE Asia

630 Bedeski, Anderson & Darmosumarto , Small Arms Trade and Proliferation in East
Asia , p. 11 .
631 ' Border Defense Units Bar Firearms, Drugs', Fazhi Ribao , 28 November 1995 ( in
Chinese , translated by FBIS ) .
632 Interview , Hanoi ,March 2001.

Chapter 5

1 Sarah Meek , ' Combating Arms Trafficking : Progress and Prospects ' in Lora
Lumpe (ed ) , Running Guns: The Global Black Market in Small Arms (Zed Books ,
London , 2000 ) , p . 183.

2 Interviews, Phnom Penh , 19-22 February 2001 .

3 Brig (Ret. ) Jeanne Mandagi , ' Illicit Trafficking of Firearms and Control
. Gen .
Measures ' , paper presented to the International Conference on Small Arms
Proliferation and Trade in the Asia -Pacific , Sofitel Cambodiana Hotel , Phnom
Penh , Cambodia , 19 -20 February 2001 .
4 Kramer , Legal Controls (Small Arms Survey & Non - Violence International , Small
Arms Survey Working Paper No. 2,Geneva , 2001 ) , p . 11 . See for example , Rocky
Nazareno , 'Armed congressmen ? Yes , says lawmaker ' , Philippine Daily Inquirer ,
1 November 1999 ; Lima Sagaral Reyes , 'Arming of journalists in South urged ',
Philippine Daily Inquirer , 30 July 2000 .
5 ‘Pindad says not at fault for confiscated bullets ', The Jakarta Post , 9 March 2000 .

6 Personal communication with Owen Greene , Phnom Penh , 20 February 2001 .

7 Presentation of Henny van der Graf, EU - ASAC to the ARF Seminar on Con
ventional Weapons Transfers and Small Arms , Phnom Penh , Cambodia , 21
February 2001 .
8 AFP , ‘ London moots international fund to fight spread of small arms', 13
February , 2001.
9 Report of the Group of Experts on the Problem of Ammunition and Explo
sives , United Nations document A / 54 / 155 .
10 Kramer , Legal Controls , . .
p 13

11 Krause , Small Armsand Light Weapons . .

p 16

12 Kramer, Legal Controls , p .13 .

13 United Nations General Assembly , Programme of Action to Prevent , Combat and
Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All
Its

16

Aspects
,

July 2001 para hereafter Programme

of

Action
,
II,

).
(
Ibid

para
15 14

,
,

9
II

These are Brunei Indonesia Malaysia the Philippines Singapore and Thai
,

, ,

,
21

land Kramer Legal Controls addition Cambodia currently under

is
In
of .p
,

,
.

taking limited registration military owned small arms and light weapons
a

-
 Notes 151

in the Kompong Cham military district. See the presentation by Lt-Gen Chau
Phirun , Director-General,General Department of Material and Technique ,Royal
Cambodia Armed Forces to the ASEAN Regional Forum Seminar on Con
ventional Weapons Transfers and Small Arms, Phnom Penh , Cambodia ,
21 February 2001 .
16 For definitions of terms like brokers ' and a more considered analysis of this
topic , see James Coflin , State Authorization and Information Sharing Concerning
Small Arms Manufacturers , Dealers and Brokers (Department of Foreign Affairs
and International Trade , Ottawa, 1999 ) .
17 Programme of Action , II , para 14.
18 This point was made by Peggy Mason at the International Conference on
Small Arms Proliferation and Trade in the Asia Pacific , organised by the Cam
bodian Institute for Cooperation and Peace and the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung ,
Phnom Penh , 19- 20 February 2001 .
19 Davis , ' Thailand tenders anti- trafficking plan ', Jane ' s Defence Weekly , 21
April 1999 .
 Glossary
Ammunition : The assembled components of complete cartridges or rounds ; i.e.
a case or shell holding a primer , a charge of propellant ( gunpowder ) and a
projectile (bullets in the case of handguns and rifles —multiple pellets or single
slugs in shotguns ) .

Automatic : A firearm designed to feed cartridges , fire them , eject their empty
cases and repeat this cycle as long as the trigger is depressed and cartridges
remain in the feed system . Examples : machine guns , submachine guns , selec
tive - fire military / police rifles , including true assault rifles .

Ball: Originally a spherical projectile , now generally a fully jacketed bullet of

cylindrical profile with a round or pointed nose .
Blank Cartridge : A round loaded with blackpowder or a special smokeless
powder but lacking a projectile; used mainly in exercises and training .
Bolt-action : A gun mechanism activated by manual operation of the breech
block that resembles a common door bolt .

can
Bullet : The projectile expelled from a gun . Bullets many materials

be
of

,
shapes weights and constructions such jacket
as

of
solid lead lead with
,

, ,

a
etc
harder metal round nosed flag nosed hollow pointed
,

,
-

.
Calibre The nominal diameter

or
projectile
of

rifled firearm the diameter

of
a

a
:

between the lands rifled barrel the US usually expressed hun

In
in

in
,
a

Europe and elsewhere

an

dredths Great Britain thousandths

of

inch
in

in

in

in
;

millimetres
.

Carbine rifle with relatively short barrel

A

.
:

Cartridge
of

single complete round ammunition

,

.
A
:

Handgun Synonym for pistol

.
:

be

Jacket The envelope enclosing the core bullet Not

of

confused with the

to
a

.
:

or

cartridge which encloses the bullet acketed not and the propellant
,

.
)
(j

military significance often

on
of

Machine Gun firearm crew served that

,

,
A
:

-
of

trigger depression automatically feeds and fires cartridges rifle size greater
or

.
for

Magazine spring loaded container cartridges that may integral

be
an
A
:

part may magazines

be

the are most

or

gun
of

mechanism detachable Box

's

commonly located under the receiver with the cartridges stacked vertically
.

Tube tubular magazines run through the stick under the barrel with the
or

or

cartridges lying horizontally Drum magazines hold their cartridges circu

in
a
.

lar mode
.
 Glossary 153

Parabellum : A German tradename used for the 9mm Parabellum or Luger pis
tol and Para Bellum meaning

its
ammunition From the Latin Vis Pacem

Si

if
,
.

'

'

'
you wish peace prepare for war

'
'; .

in be
Pistol Synonymous with handgun gun generally held one hand may

in

It
:

'

.
the single shot multi barrel repeating semi automatic variety and
of

or
,

,
-

-
cludes revolvers

up
Primer The ignition component cartridge generally made

of

of
metallic

,
a

a
:

fulminate
.

by
Propellant the chemical composition that ignited the primer

is
In

firearm

,
a
:

air
generate gas airguns the compressed carbon dioxide gas

or
to

In

,
.

.
Receiver The main body the gun and the housing for
of
firearm breech and

a
:

's
firing mechanism
.

Revolver Usually handgun with multi chambered cylinder that rotates

to
,
a

a
:

-
successively align each chamber with single barrel and firing pin
a

in
Rimfire rimmed flanged cartridge with the priming mixture located
or
rim A
:

The most famous example

22
side the rimfire
of

the case the

is
.

.
for

Round Synonym cartridge

a
:

be

Selective fire ability fully automatically semi automati

to

firearm fired

,
A
:

-
's

burst fire mode the option

or

at

cally

of
some cases the firer
in

in
,

.
Semi automatic firearm designed fire single cartridge eject the empty
to

,
A
-

case and reload the chamber each time the trigger pulled
is

.
Sub machine gun fully automatic firearm commonly firing pistol ammuni
A
-

tion intended for close ange combat

.
-r
 SDSC Publications

Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence

No. Title $ A (excl .GST )

CP43 Australia 's Secret Space Programs by Desmond Ball 15 . 00
CP44 High Personnel Turnover : The ADF Is Not a Limited Liability
Company by Cathy Downes 15 .00
CP45 ShouldAustralia Plan to Defend Christmas and Cocos Islands ?
by Ross Babbage 15. 00
CP46 US Bases in the Philippines Issues and Implications

:
by

20 15
00 00
ed
Desmond Ball

.
(
)

by
CP47 Soviet Signals Intelligence SIGINT Desmond Ball

.
(

)
Army Regularization

of
CP48 The Vietnam People Command
's

:
by

15 15
00 00
1975 1988 FitzGerald
.M
D

. .
-

by
CP49 Australia and the Global Strategic Balance Desmond Ball
the

Organising Army Australian Experience 1957 1965

an

CP50

-
:

by

20
00
Blaxland
C

.
J.
.

CP51 The Evolving World Economy Some Alternative Security

:
by

Higgott

15 15
00 00
for

Questions Australia Richard

A

. .
.
by

CP52 Defending the Northern Gateway Peter Donova

CP53 Soviet Signals Intelligence SIGINT Intercepting Satellite
(

):
by

20
00
Communications Desmond Ball

.
An

CP54 Breaking the American Alliance Independent National

by :

Gary Brown
for

Security Policy

20
00
Australia

.
CP55 Senior Officer Professional Development the Australian
in

Prepare by Cathy Downes

20
00
Force Constant Study
to

Defence

.
:

CP56 Code 777 Australia and the US Defense Satellite

:

by

22
50
Communications System DSCS Desmond Ball

.
(

CP57 China Crisis The International Implications

's

by Gary Klintworth 20 17
00 00
ed

.
(
)

by

Parliamentary Questions Gary Brown

on

CP58 Index
to

Defence
.
CP59 Controlling Civil Maritime Activities Defence
in
a
of by

Contingency
17

00

Dovers
W

G
.A
.
.

CP60 The Security Oceania the 1990s Vol Views from

in

,
.

.I
by

David Hegarty and Peter Polomka eds

30 15
00 00

the Region
.
(

)
by

Ross Babbage
of

CP61 The Strategic Significance Torres Strait

.

CP62 The Leading Edge Air Power Australia

in

's
:

by

22
50

Unique Environment Criss and Schubert

D
P

.
.

.
.J

.J

Australia Geography
of

CP63 The Northern Territory the Defence

in

,
:

History Economy Infrastructure and Defence Presence

,

by
24
50

Desmond Ball and Langtry eds

O

.
J.
.

: (

CP64 Vietnam Withdrawal from Cambodia Regional Issues

's

by

and Realignments Gary Klintworth

17
00
ed
(
)

.
for

CP65 Prospects Crisis Prediction South Pacific Case Study

A
:
by

20 20
00 00

Ken Ross
. .
by

Bougainville Perspectives
ed
on

CP66 Crisis Peter Polomka

a

(
)
:

CP67 The Amateur Managers Study the Management

of

of
A
:

by

22
50

Weapons System Projects Bennett

.N

.
F

.
 SDSC Publications 155

the
CP68 The Security of Oceania in 1990s Vol

2
,
.

.
by
Managing 15. 00

ed
Change
Peter Polomka

(
)
CP69 Australia and the World Prologue and Prospects

:
by Desmond Ball 25 .00

ed
(
)

by
CP70 Singapore Defence Industries Bilveer Singh 14. 00

byAir 's
CP71 RAAF Power Doctrine Contemporary

of
Collection

ed A
( :
Essays Gary Waters 15.00

)
CP72 SouthPacific Security Issues and Perspectives

:
by Stephen Henningham and Desmond Ball eds 20 . 00

)
CP73 The Northern Territory Australia Strategic

of
the Defence

in

:
and Operational Considerations
by

Langtry and Desmond Ball eds 24 .50

O

)
J.
.

for
CP74 The Architect Victory Air Campaigns Australia
of

:
by

Gary Waters 23 .00

for by
Gary Klintworth 23.00

ed
CP75 Modern Taiwan the 1990s
in

(
)
CP76 New Technology Implications Regional and Australian
:
by

Security Desmond Ball and Helen Wilson eds 23 .00

)
CP77 Reshaping the Australian Army Challenges for the 1990s
:
by David Horner 24 . 00
in ed
.
)
(

by

CP78 The Intelligence War the Gulf Desmond Ball 17 .50

for
Critique US Strategy Maritime
of

CP79 Provocative Plans

A
:

20 .00
by

Conflict the North Pacific Desmond Ball

in

by

CP80 Soviet SIGINT Hawaii Operation Desmond Ball 17.50

:

CP81 Chasing Gravity Rainbow Kwajalein and US Ballistic Missile

's

, :
by

22
50
Testing Owen Wilkes Megan van Frank and Peter Hayes

.
CP82 Australia Threat Perceptions Search for Security
A
's

:
by

17
00
Alan Dupont

.
An

CP83 Building Blocks for Regional Security Australian

:

Perspective Confidence and Security Building Measures

on

by

. 17
00 00 50 00
CSBMs the Asia Pacific Region Desmond Ball
in

.
(

by

. 17 18
CP84 Australia Security Interests Northeast Asia Alan Dupont
in
ands
'

Lee
by

CP85 Finance Financial Policy Defence Contingencies Paul

in

.
by

23

Mine Warfare Alan Hinge

of

CP86 Australia First Line Defence

in

's

CP87 Hong Kong Future Regional Transport Hub

as
a
's

by Peter
20
00

Rimmer
.
J.

The Conceptual Basis Defence Planning and Force

of

CP88 Australia
's

Structure Development by Paul Dibb

17
50
.

CP89 Strategic Studies Changing World Global Regional

in

,
a

and Australian Perspectives

by

28
00

Desmond Ball and David Horner eds

.
(

CP90 The Gulf War Australia Role and Asian Pacific Responses
's
:

by Mohan Malik
00 00

21
. .
J.

20
by

CP91 Defence Aspects Space Activities Desmond Ball

of

Australia
's

CP92 The Five Power Defence Arrangements and Military Cooperation

among the ASEAN States Incompatible Models for Security
in
:

Southeast Asia by Philip Methven

00
23
.
?

Infrastructure and Security Development

of

CP93 Problems
:

by

26 23

00

the West Sepik Province Papua New Guinea Boyce

of
in

.TM

. .
.
by

CP94 Australia and Space Desmond Ball and Helen Wilson eds 00
(

)
156 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

CP95 LANDFORCE : 2010 : Some Implications of Technology

for ADF Future Land Force Doctrine , Leadership and Structures
by David W . Beveridge 15.50

CP96 The Origins of Australian Diplomatic Intelligence in Asia ,

1933 - 1941 by Wayne Gobert 17 .50
CP97 Japan as Peacekeeper : Samurai State , or New Civilian Power ?
by Peter Polomka 16.00

CP98 The Post -Soviet World : Geopolitics and Crises by Coral Bell 15 .00
CP99 Indonesian Defence Policy and the Indonesian Armed Forces
by Bob Lowry 20 .00
CP100 Regional Security in the South Pacific :
The Quarter - Century 1970 - 95 by Ken Ross 23 . 00

CP101 The Changing Role of the Military in Papua New Guinea

by R .J. May 15 . 00

CP102 Strategic Change and Naval Forces : Issues

for
Medium

a
by

Level Naval Power Sam Bateman and Dick Sherwood eds 23 .00

(
of )
CP103 ASEAN Defence Reorientation 1975 1992 The Dynamics

J. :
by
Modernisation and Structural Change Mak 24 .00

: N
.
CP104 The United Nations and Crisis Management Six Studies
by

17 .50
ed

Coral Bell
(
)

CP105 Operational and Technological Developments

in
for

Maritime Warfare Implications the Western Pacific

:

by Dick 20 .00
ed

Sherwood
(
)

More Than Little Heroes Australian Army Air Liaison

CP106
:

Officers the Second World War by Nicola Baker 23 .00

in

CP107 Vanuatu International Responses

to
1980 Santo Rebellion

a
's

:
by

14
00
Microstate Security Crisis Matthew Gubb

.
CP108 The Development Australian Army Doctrine 1945 1964
of

by

15
00
Welburn
M
.C

.
.
.J

CP109 The Navy and National Security The Peacetime Dimension

:
by

15 16
00 00
Dick Sherwood
. .
Its by

CP110 Signals Intelligence SIGINT South Korea Desmond Ball

in
(

)
An

CP111 India Looks East Emerging Power and Asia Pacific

-
:
by

Sandy Gordon and Stephen Henningham

24
00
Neighbours eds
.
(

CP112 Nation Region and Context Studies Peace and War

byin
,

. :

24
00
of

ed

Honour Professor Millar Coral Bell

in

.
B
T

(
.)
.

CP113 Transforming the Tatmadaw The Burmese Armed Forces

:

since 1988 by Andrew Selth

00

23
.
the

CP114 Calming Waters Initiatives for Asia Pacific Maritime

:

Cooperation by Sam Bateman and Stephen Bates eds

23
00
.
(

)
for

CP115 Strategic Guidelines Enabling Research and Development

to
by

17
00

Support Australian Defence Ken Anderson and Paul Dibb

.

CP116 Security and Security Building the Indian Ocean Region

in
by

Sandy Gordon
24
00
.

CP117 Signals Intelligence SIGINT South Asia India Pakistan

in

,
(

:
by

17
50

Sri Lanka Ceylon Desmond Ball

.
(

CP118 The Seas Unite Maritime Cooperation the Asia Pacific Region
in
:
In by

25
00

Sam Bateman and StephenBates eds

.
(

CP119 Maritime Strategy The Maritime Element

of

Search
ed in
a

24
00
by

Australian Defence Planning since 1901 David Stevens

.
(
)
 SDSC Publications 157

CP120 Australian Defence Planning : Five Views from Policy Makers

by Helen Hookey and Denny Roy (eds) 15 .00
CP121 A Brief Madness : Australia and the Resumption of French
Nuclear Testing by Kim Richard Nossal and Carolynn Vivian 15. 00

CP122 Missile and Taiwan ' s Future : Innovations in

Diplomacy
Politics and Military Power by Greg Austin (ed ) 25 . 00
CP123 Grey - Area Phenomena in Southeast Asia : Piracy , Drug
Trafficking and Political Terrorism by Peter Chalk 17 .50
CP124 Regional Maritime Management and Security
by Sam Bateman and Stephen Bates (eds) 24 .00
CP125 The Environment and Security : What are the Linkages ?
by Alan Dupont ( ed .) 17 .00
CP126 ‘ Educating an Army' : Australian Army Doctrinal Development
the

Operational Experience

72
and South Vietnam 1965

in

-
by

Bushby 17 .50
.N
R

CP127 South Africa and Security Building the Indian Ocean Rim

in
20 .00
by

Greg Mills
CP128 The Shape Things US Japan Security Relationship
of

Come The
to

-
:
by
the

New Era Maree Reid 17.50

in

CP129 Shipping and Regional Security

by Sam Bateman and Stephen Bates eds ( 20 .00

)
CP130 Bougainville 1988
of 98

Five Searches for Security the North

in
-
:

Solomons Province Papua New Guinea by Karl Claxton 23 .00

CP131 The Next Stage Preventive Diplomacy the Asia Pacific Region
in
:

by Desmond Ball and Amitav Acharya eds - 25 .00

(

)
the

CP132 Maritime Cooperation Asia Pacific Region Current Situation

in

:
by

23
00
ed

and Prospects Sam Bateman

.
(
)
the

CP133 Maintaining Strategic Edge The Defence Australia

of
:

2015 by Desmond Ball

ed

30
00
in

.
(

)
An

CP134 Independent Command Command and Control

of
:

by
1st

17
50
Australian Task Force Cable
.W

the Vietnam
in

.
.

CP135 Armed Rebellion the ASEAN States Persistence and

in

18 23
50 00
Implications by Andrew Tan . .
by

CP136 Burma Secret Military Partners Andrew Selth

's

CP137 Where Are They When You Need Them Support

?
by

26
00

Arrangements for Deployed Air Power Peter McLennan

.

CP138 ASEAN the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon Free Zone

,

and the Challenge

of

Denuclearisation Southeast Asia

in

:
by

18
50

Problems and Prospects Bilveer Singh

.
for

CP139 The Council Security Cooperation the Asia Pacific CSCAP

in

):

Record and Its Prospects by Desmond Ball

Its

18
50
.

Human Rights National Security

of

CP140 Wars Conscience

,
:

by

26
00

and Australia Defence Policy John Hutcheson

.
's

CP141 Civil military Relations Democratising Indonesia

in
-

:
by

26

00

The Potentials and Limits Change Bilveer Singh

to

.
CP

142 Giving Peace Chance Operation Lagoon Bougainville 1994

,

,
a

Military Action and Diplomacy by Bob Breen

22
50
of

Case
A

CP 143 The Real Cubed Culture Careeers Climate and how

&
,

,
C
-

:
by

22 26
00

they affect capability Nick Jans with David Schmidtchen

.
144
CP

by

The Human Face Security edited David Dickens 50

of

.
158 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

CP145 Masters of Terror : Indonesia ' s Military & Violence in East

Timor in 1999 by Hamish McDonald and others 30 . 00

Working Papers on Strategic and Defence Studies

All at the one price of $ A6 .60 ( including cost of packaging & postage )
WP225 India ' s Strategic Posture : ‘Look East ' or ‘Look West ' ? by Sandy Gordon

by
for
WP226Index to Parliamentary Questions on Defence Gary

to
the Period 1989 1990
Brown

by
WP227 Australia and Papua New Guinea Foreign and Defence Relations Since 1975

:
Katherine Bullock

by
WP228The Wrigley Report

An
Exercise Mobilisation Planning Langtry

in

O
J.
.
:

by
WP229 Air Power the Defence Australia and Regional Security

of
Desmond Bali
,

by
the
for
WP230Current Strategic Developments and Implications Aerospace Industry
Desmond Ball

by
WP231 Arms Control and Great Power Interests the Korean Peninsula Gary

in
Klintworth
WP232 Power the Gun and Foreign Policy China since the Tiananmen Incident by lan

in
,

Wilson

by
WP233 The Gulf Crisis Testing New World Order Amin Saikal and Ralph King
a

?
:

by
the
An

on

WP234 Australian Perspective Maritime CSBMs Asia Pacific Region

in

-
Desmond Ball and Commodore Sam Bateman RAN

by
WP235 Insurgency and the Transnational Flow Case Study
of
Information Andrew

A
:
Selth

by
WP236India Security Policy Desire and Necessity Changing World Sandy
in
a
:
's

Gordon
the

for
WP237The Introduction Civilian National Service Scheme Papua New
of

Youth

in
Guinea by Lieutenant Colonel Boyce
.M
T

by
WP238 Command Control Communications and Intelligence the Gulf War Shaun
in
,

Gregory
Political History
R on

WP239 Reflections Backgrounder Recent Developments

to

Cambodian
:

by Stephen Heder
.

by
WP240 The Asia Pacific More Security Less Uncertainty New Opportunities Gary
,

,
:
-

Klintworth
by

History Space Involvement

of

WP241 Australia Matthew James

A

L
's

.
by

WP242 Antarctic Resources Dichotomy Interest John Wells

of
in A
:

by
the

WP243 The Right Gary Klintworth

to

of

Intervene Domestic Affairs States

'

by
An

WP244 Isolated Debating Society Australia Southeast Asia and the South Pacific
in
:

Greg Johannes
WP245 Recent Developments China Domestic and Foreign Affairs The Political and
in

's

Strategic Implications for Northeast Asia by Di Hua

by

US Maritime Power
of

WP246 The Evolution the Pacific Olsen

in

.A
byE

Parliamentary Questions Gary Brown

on

WP247 Index
to

Defence 1991
,
An

for

WP248Call Out the Troops the Legal Basis

of

Examination Australian Defence

:

by

Force Involvement Non Defence Matters Elizabeth Ward

in

-
'

'

by

WP249 The Australian Defence Force and the Total Force Policy Charles Heller
E
.
by

WP250 Mobilisation The Gulf War Retrospect James Wood

in
: :

by

WP251 Mobilisation The Benefits Experience James Wood

of

by

WP252 Strategic Studies and Extended Deterrence Europe Retrospective

in

A
:

Andrew Butfoy
WP253 Geographic Information and Remote Sensing Technologies
of

the Defence
in
by

Australia Ken Granger

 SDSC Publications 159

WP254 The Military Dimension of Common Security by Andrew Butfoy

WP255 Taiwan 's New Role in the Asia - Pacific Region by Gary Klintworth
WP256 Focusing the CSBM Agenda in the Asia /Pacific Region : Some Aspects of Defence
Confidence Building by Paul Dibb
WP257 Defence and Industry : A Strategic Perspective by Stewart Woodman
WP258 Russia and the Asia - Pacific Region by Leszek Buszynski
WP259 National Security and Defence Policy Formation and Decision -Making in India by
Bruce Vaughn

and
WP260 A Question of Priorities : Australian New Zealand Security Planning the

in
1990s by Stewart Woodman
Peipul

by
WP261 Papua New Guinea Australia Defence and Security Relations Peter

I.
by
An
WP262 The Regional Security Outlook Australian Viewpoint Paul Dibb

, by
WP263 Pakistan Security Concerns Chinese Perspective Liu Jinkun

A
's

:
WP264 The Military Build up
the Asia Pacific Region Scope Causes and Implications
in

:
-

-
Security by Andrew Mack and Desmond Ball
for

WP265 Principles Australian Maritime Operations by

of

Bateman and

.G

R
.S
.

.
.J
Sherwood

by
WP266 Sino Russian Detente and the Regional Implications Gary Klintworth
-

by
WP267 Australia and Asia Pacific Regional Security Peter Jennings
-

Gary Klintworth
by
WP268 Cambodia Past Present and future
,
bys 's

the
WP269Australia Aerial Surveillance Programme South Pacific Review and New

in
'

:
Options Wing Commander Grey
.W
R

for
WP270Strategic Culture the Asia Pacific Region With Some Implications Regional
in

(
-

Security Cooperation by Desmond Ball

)

by
WP271Australian Security Planning the Crossroads The Challenge the Nineties
at

of
:

Stewart Woodman
Gary Brown
by
Parliamentary Questions
on

WP272Index
to

Defence 1992
,

for
WP273Trends Military Acquisitions the Asia Pacific Region Implications
in

in

:
Security and Prospects for Constraints and Controls by Desmond Ball

by
Wing
for

WP274A Proposal Cooperation Maritime Security Southeast Asia

in

in

Commander Grey
.W
R

WP275The Preparation and Management Australian Contingents

of

UN Peacekeeping
in
of by

Operations Captain Russ Swinnerton RAN by

WP276The Future Australia Defence Relationship with the United States Paul
's

Dibb
the

WP277 Russia Military and

by

Northern Territories Issue Geoffrey Jukes

's

for

WP278A Regional Regime Maritime Surveillance Safety and Information Exchanges

,
by

Captain Russ Swinnerton RAN and Desmond Ball

the Singapore Armed Forces Officer Corps Towards Mili
of

WP279The Political Role

a
'

:
Tim
by

tary Administrative State Huxley

?
-

WP280 The East Coast Armaments Complex ECAC Location Project Strategic and
(

Defence Aspects by Desmond Ball

by

WP281 Rules Engagement Maritime Operations Captain Russ Swinnerton RAN

of

in

WP282The Political and Strategic Outlook 1994 2003 Global Regional and Australian
,

,
-

:
by

Perspectives Paul Dibb

by

Parliamentary Questions Gary Brown

on

WP283Index
to

Defence 1993
,
bythe

WP284New Dimensions Japan Australia Relationship From Economic Preference

to

to
:
-

Political Cooperation Nobuyuki Takaki

WP285 Winners and Losers South Asia After the Cold War by Sandy Gordon
:

Jim
by

WP286Australia and New Zealand Towards More Effective Defence Relationship Rolfe
a
:
160 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

WP287China ' s Policy Towards the Spratly Islands in the 1990s by Sheng Lijun
WP288 How to Begin Implementing Specific Trust - Building Measures in the Asia -Pacific
Region by Paul Dibb
WP289Burma 's Arms Procurement Programme by Andrew Selth
WP290Developments in Signals Intelligence and Electronic Warfare in Southeast Asia by
Desmond Ball

the

the
WP291 India ' s Naval Strategy and

by
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Christie

of
Role

D
.N
.
WP292Japan and Australia New Security Partnership by Naoko Sajima

?
:
WP293Chinese Strategy and the Spratly Islands Dispute by Brigadier Chris Roberts

by
WP294Transnational Crime The New Security Paradigm John McFarlane and

:
Karen McLennan

by
WP295 Signals Intelligence SIGINT North Korea Desmond Ball

in
(

by
WP296 The Emerging Geopolitics the Asia Pacific Region Paul Dibb

of

by
the

for
WP297 Maritime Strategy into Twenty First Century Issues Regional Navies

:
Jack McCaffrie

by
WP298 The Cold War Retrospect Diplomacy Strategy and Regional Impact Coral Bell
in

,
:

by
WP299 Australia Indonesia Security Cooperation For Better Bob Lowry

or
Worse

?
-

by
John Chipman
on

WP300 Reflections American Foreign Policy Strategy

by
for

WP301 New Requirements Multilateral Conflict Management UN and Other Forces

:
by

Nordic Responses Jaana Karhilo

by
WP302 Developing Army Doctrine the Post Cold War Era Bill Houston
in

for

by
WP303 The Joint Patrol Vessel JPV Regional Concept Regional Cooperation
A
):
(

Desmond Ball

by by
WP304 Australian American Relations after the Collapse Harry Gelber
of
Communism

G
-

.
in for

WP305 Policy Coordination Asia Pacific Security and Stability Yukio Satoh
: -

WP306 Force Modernisation Asia Towards 2000 and Beyond by Paul Dibb
WP307 PMC ARF and CSCAP Foundations for Security Architecture the Asia

in
,

a
:
by

Pacific Jörn Dosch

?

by

WP308Burma Intelligence Apparatus Andrew Selth

's 's

by

WP309 Burma Defence Expenditure and Arms Industries Andrew Selth

WP310 Australia Vulnerability Attack Towards National Information
to

Information
a
s
by'

Policy Adam Cobb

by
the

WP311 Australia US Alliance and Multilateralism Southeast Asia Desmond Ball

in
,

by

Distant Countries Partners the Japan Australia Relationship Yukio Satoh

to

WP312From
:

WP313The Burma Navy by Andrew Selth

by

WP314 Problems and Issues Malaysia Singapore Relations Andrew Tan

in

-
by

WP315 The Burma Air Force Andrew Selth

by
the

WP316 Australia National Security into Twenty First Century Brigadier Mike Smith
's

WP317 Alliances Alignments and the Global Order The Outlook for the Asia Pacific
,

Region the Next Quarter entury by Paul Dibb

in

-C

WP318 The South African National Defence Force Between Downsizing and New
:
by

Capabilities Greg Mills

?

by

WP319The Evolution China Perception Sheng Lijun

of

of

Taiwan
's

by
Jim

WP320UN Peacekeeping UNIFIL and the Fijian Experience Sanday

,

by

Dupont
An

WP321 The Future the ASEAN Regional Forum

of

Australian View Alan

:

by

WP322 Singapore Defence Policy the New Millennium Andrew Tan

in
's

by
by

WP323 Responses NATO Expansion Alexei

to

Eastward the Russian Federation

's

Mouraviev
by

WP324 The Remaking Asia Geoppolitics Paul Dibb

of

's

by

WP325The Nuclear Crisis Asia The Indian and Pakistani Nuclear Programmes
in

:
 SDSC Publications 161

Desmond Ball and Mohan Malik

WP326 Researching Security in East Asia : From 'Strategic Culture ' to 'Security Culture '
by Pauline Kerr
WP327 Building the Tatmadaw : The Organisational Development of the Armed Forces in
Myanmar , 1948 -98 by Maung Aung Myoe
WP238 Drugs , Transnational Crime and Security in East Asia by Alan Dupont
WP329 The Relevance of the Knowledge Edge by Paul Dibb
WP330 The US- Australian Alliance : History and Prospects by Desmond Ball
WP331 Implications of the East Asian Economic Recession for Regional Security
Cooperation by Desmond Ball
WP332 Strategic Information Warfare : A Concept by Daniel T. Kuehl

the
for
WP333Security Developments and Prospects Cooperation Asia Pacific Region with

in

,
-
by
of the
Mekong River Basin Desmond Ball
to
Particular Reference

by
WP334 Burma and Weapons Mass Destruction Andrew Selth
WP335Transnational Crime and Illegal Immigration the Asia Pacific Region

in

:
by
Background Prospects and Countermeasures John McFarlane
,

by
WP336Burma and Drugs The Regime Complicity the Global Drug Trade

in
's
:

Desmond Ball

by
WP337Defence Strategy the Contemporary Era Paul Dibb
in

by
WP338The Burmese Armed Forces Next Century Continuity Change Andrew Selth

or

?
:

by
WP339Military Doctrine and Strategy Myanmar Historical Perspective Maung
in

A
:
Aung Myoe

by
the

WP340 The Evolving Security Architecture Asia Pacific Region Desmond Ball
in

WP341 The Asian Financial Crisis Corruption Cronyism and Organised Crime -
,
:
by

John McFarlane

by
An

WP342The Tatmadaw Myanmar since 1988 Interim Assessment Maung Aung Myoe
in

:
by

WP343Cambodia and Southeast Asia Tony Kevin

WP344The Principle ASEAN Evolution and Emerging
of

Non Intervention and

-

:
by

Challenges Herman Kraft

by Paul
the

WP345 Will America Alliances Asia Pacific Region Endure Dibb

in

?
's

by
the

WP346 Officer Education and Leadership Training Tatmadaw Survey Maung

in

A
:

Aung Myoe
by
for

WP347 The Prospects Southeast Asia Security Paul Dibb

's

WP348 The Army Capacity Defend Australia Offshore The Need for Joint Approach
to

a
's

by John Caligari
WP349 Interpreting China Indonesia Relations Good Neighbourliness Mutual Trust
',
:
'

'

'
-

-
by
All

and round Cooperation He Kai

“

'

by

WP350 Strategic Trends the Asia Pacific Region Paul Dibb

of in

An -

by

WP351 Burma Order Battle Interim Assessment Andrew Selth

's

by

WP352 Landmines Burma The Military Dimension Andrew Selth

in

by

WP353 Japanese Airborne SIGINT Capabilities Desmond Ball and Euan Graham
WP 354 The Indonesian Military Business Complex Origins Course Future
&
,
:

by Bilveer Singh
355

WP Professor Trendall and His Band Classical Cryptographers

of
D
A
.
.
by

Merrillees
R
S
.
.

by

WP 356 Factionalism and the Ethnic Insurgent Organisations Des Ball Hazel Lang
&

by Ron Huisken
vs

WP 357 ABM BMD The Issue Ballistic Missile Defence

of
:

WP
for

358 South Africa Defence Industry

Template Middle Powers
A

?
's

by Greg Mills Martin Edmonds

&

WP 359 The New Submarine Combat Information System and Australia Emerging
's
162 Strategic and Defence Studies Centre

Information Warfare Architecture by Desmond Ball

WP 360 Missile Defence : Trends , Conflicts and Remedies by Desmond Ball
WP 361 Indonesian Security Responses to resurgent Papuan Separatism :
An Open Source Intelligence Case Study by Matthew N . Davies *
WP 362 ANZUS : Life after 50 : Alliance Managament in the 21st Century
by Ron Huisken

by
WP

for
363 A Strategic Framework Missile Defence Ron Huisken
the 21st Century Asymmetric Hostilities and the Norms

of

of
WP 364 The First War

':
'

Conduct by Coral Bell

WP Utility and Limits The International Coalition against Terrorism

of
365 The
by

Paul Dibb

this publication
of

The price

12
is
$
*

Miscellaneous Publications

A
$

*
for
Australian Paper Practical Proposals
on

Security Cooperation the Asia Pacific Region

in
by

11
50
Gareth Evans and Paul Dibb 1994

.
Armies and Nation Building Past Experience Future Prospects
:
-

by David Horner

28

00
ed

.
(

.)

for
Planning Defence Force Without Threat Model Middle Powers
A
bya

12
50
Paul Dibb 1996

.
Restructuring the Papua New Guinea Defence Force Strategic Analysis
:

and Force Structure Principles for Small State

a

by Paul Dibb and Rhondda Nicholas

34
50
1996

.
of

includes cost packaging postage

&
*

Ordering Information
off

We will accept either one standing orders

or
-

.
by

all

Cost packaging and postage surface mail book prices

of

included
in
is

.
discount allowed for books collected personally from the Strategic
15
%

is
A

and Defence Studies Centre

.

payment Cheque
or

money order payable

of

Method
to

Australian
,
:

National University OR Bankcard Mastercard Visa American Express

,

.
/

GST payable books supplied within Australia

on
is

Method payment for overseas customers Bank draft

of

Australian
in
:

dollars payable Australian National University OR Bankcard

to
,

Mastercard Visa American Express

.
/

Please include payment credit card details with your order and forward
or

to
it

Publications Sales
Strategic and Defence Studies Centre
Building Fellows Road
,
6

Australian National University

Canberra ACT 0200 Australia
61

au

Fax 6248 0816 mail sdsc anu edu

@
,
(0
2

e
)
:

:
-

.
.
.

are

recent SDSC publications and list publications print

of

of

Abstracts available
in
a

publications will
be
au

through the centre home page http

of

sdsc anu edu full list

<

>
A
's

.
.
.
.
:

:/
/
on

sent out request

.