Stylistic 5 seminar

Discussion
1а. Metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical
meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or
features of the two corresponding concepts: "He smelled the ever-
beautiful smell of coffee imprisoned in the can' embodied in all the
meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and
sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech, as in prepositions.
Metaphor as any stylistic device may be classified according to the degree
of unexpectedness. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the
addressee, metaphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or
original). Dead metaphors are fixed in dictionaries. They often sound
banal and hackneyed, like clichés: to prick up one's ears; the apple of one's
eye; to burn with desire. Original metaphors are not registered in
dictionaries. They are created in the speech by speakers' imagination. They
sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable, e.g.: The wind
of darkness the gusty trees. Metaphors may be also classified according to
their structure. There are such metaphors as simple and prolonged (or
sustained). A simple metaphor consists of a single word or word-
combination, a sustained metaphor is elaborated in a series of images
logically connected with one another producing a general description of a
character, a scene.

B) Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the

dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but
some kind of association connecting the two concepts which meanings
represent, e.g.: This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel. The most
common relations are: 1) a concrete thing used instead of an abstract
notion; 2) the container instead of the thing 3) the material instead of the
thing made if it; 4) the instrument the doer uses in performing the action
instead of the action or the doer himself; 5) the relation of proximity.

C)A type of metonymy namely, the one, which is based on the relations
between the part and the whole synecdoche.

D) The irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous

realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the
two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the
opposite of the intended meaning, One thing is said and the other opposite
is implied: Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day). is often viewed
independently as

2. Antonomasia – is a literary term in which a descriptive phrase

replaces a person’s name. We have types of antonomasia 1) when
the proper name of a person who is famous for some reason , is put
for a person having the same feature. 2) when a common noun is
used instead of a proper name.
4.

Assignment for self control

1. The lexical meaning of the word can be of two types: denotational and
connotational.
One of the functions of the words is to denote things, concepts, etc. Users
of a language cannot have any knowledge or thought of the objects or
phenomena of the real world around them unless this knowledge is
ultimately embodied in words which have essentially the same meaning
for all speakers of that language. This is the denotational meaning, i.e. that
component of the lexical meaning which makes communication possible.
There is no doubt that a doctor knows more about pneumonia than a
dancer does but they use the word and understand each other.
The second component of the lexical meaning is the connotational
component which has some stylistic value of the word, the emotive charge.
Words contain an element of emotive evaluation as part of the
connotational meaning. The word hovel denotes a small house or cottage
and besides implies that it is a miserable dwelling place, dirty, in bad
repair and unpleasant to live in.
Many connotations associated with names of animals, birds, insects are
universally understood and used.
e.g.: calf (теля)– a young inexperienced person;
donkey (осел)– a foolish person;
monkey (мавпа)– a mischievous child;
serpent (змія)– a treacherous, malicious person.
Sometimes words in different languages can have different meanings.
Metals possess well-established connotations, derived from their
individual qualities. The word gold is associated with great worth. Iron and
steel connote strength, brass - audacity, lead – sluggishness or weight.
Words may also contain an element of emotive force as part of the
connotational meaning. Such are, for example, stylistically coloured words
synonymous with their neutral counterparts: child – kid – kiddie; girl –
lass – girlie – lassie.
There are some other types of lexical meaning. They are abstract and
concrete (hope, love - window, book); primary and secondary (wall of the
room - wall of misunderstanding); bookish and colloquial (young man -
chap, lad).

2. Metaphor is a word or phrase that takes on the meaning of something

else. For instance, a person may say that a job is a dream, or that a football
coach is a business manager (even though neither statement is true). It's a
figure of speech often employed in poetry.
Personification is a figure of speech that attributes human nature and
characteristics to something that it not human—whether living or
nonliving. When the wind howls, when pastries tempt, when the sun
smiles, and when stars wink; these are all personifications. And it's
applicable to living creatures too: Ants marching; hyenas laughing; and
trees hiding.
examples:
Metaphor: His face was stone.
Personification: The stone ignored us.
Metaphor: The leaves are dancers.
Personification: The leaves danced in the wind.
There are times when metaphor and personification cross over. For
instance, metaphor becomes personification with a little push: The leaves
are dancers twirling with abandon. The "leaves are dancers" is a metaphor;
the "leaves twirling with abandon" is personification.

3. Metonymy – is the use of a linked term to stand in for an object

or concept. You’ll find examples of metonymy used frequently in
both literature and everyday speech. You might use it yourself
without even realizing it.
Sometimes metonymy is chosen because it’s a well-known
characteristic of the concept. A famous example is, "The pen is
mightier than the sword," from Edward Bulwer Lytton's play
Richelieu. This sentence has two metonyms:

 "Pen" stands for "the written word."

 "Sword" stands for "military aggression."

Metonyms are members of the figurative language family, so they

serve as colorful ways to take the ordinary and dress it up in
something poetic or beautiful.

,Synecdoche takes an element of the object and uses it to refer to

the whole.

4. The irony – is a stylistic device also based on simultaneous

realization of two logical meanings—dictionary and contextual, but
the two meanings are on opposition to each other. Irony is a
literary device in which contradictory statements or situations reveal
a reality that is different from what appears to be true. There are
many forms of irony featured in literature. The effectiveness of irony
as a literary device depends on the reader’s expectations and
understanding of the disparity between what “should” happen and
what “actually” happens in a literary work. This can be in the form of
an unforeseen outcome of an event, a character’s unanticipated
behavior, or something incongruous that is said.

7. Structural types of epithets

1. Semantically, epithets may be divided into two groups:
a) associated is a point to a feature, which is essential to the object; they describe
the idea which is to a certain extent inherent to the concept of the object [Dark Forest
- the idea of the colour]
b) unassociated are the attributes used to characterize the object by adding a feature
which is not inherent in it; it will surprise the readers by unexpectedness and novelty;
as a rule they are used to describe humour [bread-and-butter letter, stock question].
There is no clear barrier between associated and unassociasted epithets.
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between these two notions [restless sea].
2. We distinguish figurative and non-figurative epithets based on their figurative
basis. Figurative epithets are metaphorical [foxy fates], metonymical [Cold War,
Golden Years], ironical []
3. From the structural point of view epithets can be simple, compound [heart-burning
smile], phrase [good-for-nothing boy], sentence [he spoke in what-are-you-going-to-
do-about-it manner].
4. Originally, epithets can be trite <expressive means of the language> [dark forest,
Cold War] and geniune <a stylistic device which is always subjective, new, renders
evaluation and modality, is stronger than trite>. [a joyful mountain top - an epithet
based on metonymical periphrasis].
5. From the point of view of distribution of the epithets we distinguish transferred
epithets which are originally logical attributes and describe a state of a human being,
but they be referred to an animate objects [sleepless pillow].
String of epithets which gives a many-sided depiction of the object [rosy-cheecked,
aple-faced young woman].
Original unassociated epithets are used in belles-lettres style and poetry in
abundance. In newspaper style we can come across a lot of cases of phrase and
sentence epithets. Tried epithets are most powerful expressive means of the
language in abundance.

8.
9. Epithet is an interplay of logical, emotive, evaluative and
figurative meanings. It has the following structure:
10. adjective + noun [wild wind, loud ocean]
11. verb + adverb [he laughed hartedly]
12. There is a difference between the logical attribution and
emotive. Logical attribution describes a quality inherent in the object
[white snow], while epithet describes quality which is not or partially
inherent to the object [heart-burning smile].
Classification of epithets
1. Semantically, epithets may be divided into two groups:a)
associated is a point to a feature, which is essential to the object;
they describe the idea which is to a certain extent inherent to the
concept of the object [Dark Forest - the idea of the colour]b)
unassociated are the attributes used to characterize the object by
adding a feature which is not inherent in it; it will surprise the
readers by unexpectedness and novelty; as a rule they are used to
describe humour [bread-and-butter letter, stock question].There is
no clear barrier between associated and unassociasted epithets.
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between these two notions
[restless sea].2. We distinguish figurative and non-figurative
epithets based on their figurative basis. Figurative epithets are
metaphorical [foxy fates], metonymical [Cold War, Golden Years],
ironical []3. From the structural point of view epithets can be simple,
compound [heart-burning smile], phrase [good-for-nothing boy],
sentence [he spoke in what-are-you-going-to-do-about-it manner].4.
Originally, epithets can be trite <expressive means of the
language> [dark forest, Cold War] and geniune <a stylistic device
which is always subjective, new, renders evaluation and modality, is
stronger than trite>. [a joyful mountain top - an epithet based on
metonymical periphrasis].5. From the point of view of distribution of
the epithets we distinguish transferred epithets which are originally
logical attributes and describe a state of a human being, but they be
referred to an animate objects [sleepless pillow]String of epithets
which gives a many-sided depiction of the object [rosy-cheecked,
aple-faced young woman.Original unassociated epithets are used in
belles-lettres style and poetry in abundance. In newspaper style we
can come across a lot of cases of phrase and sentence epithets.
Tried epithets are most powerful expressive means of the language
in abundance.
8. Peculiarities of the oxymoron
Oxumoron is a stylistic device based on the interrelation of primary
logical and emotional types of meanings. structural models:
* adjective + noun [sweet sorrow]
* verb + adverb [peopled desert]
It can be trite [awfully happy] and geniune [proud humidity]. It can
be used widely to create a humorous effect in advertising,
publicistic and belles-lettres style.
9. Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning “simple,” is a figure
of speech that employs an understatement by using double
negatives or, in other words, a positive statement expressed by
negating its opposite expressions.
The stylistic device of litotes is used to weaken the positive
characteristics of a thing or phenomenon. It is based upon
discrepancy between the syntactical form, which is negative and the
meaning which is positive. E.g. “She said it, but not impatiently” We
have here an assertion of a certain positive fact but its form is
negative. The obligatory presence of the particle “not” makes the
statement less categorical and conveys certain doubts of the
speaker as to the quality he mentions.
The structure of litotes is rather rigid: its first element is always the
negative particle “not” and its second element is, too, always
negative in meaning, if not in form.
If the second element of litotes is expressed by an adjective or
adverb, it has as a rule a negative affix.
If the form of a noun or a word-combination, presenting the second
component of litotes is not negative, its negative meaning is
implied.
The final result of litotes is always the assertion of a positive,
though weakened quality or characteristics.
e.g. She said it, but not impatiently.
10. Both litotes and meiosis are forms of understatement, and thus
have more specialized uses and forms.
Litotes: Litotes refers to the practice of negating something in order
to prove the opposite. Generally this means a situation in which the
thing denied is negative and the affirmed opposite is a positive
thing. For example: “It wasn’t bad.”
Meiosis: Meiosis differs from other forms of understatement due its
use of euphemism. Euphemism allows people to skirt around
unpleasant things while they talk or write, and minimize the
discomfort of talking about it. Meiosis employs this, though there
are also examples of meiosis in which a word connoting something
small is substituted for a large thing (for example, calling the
Atlantic Ocean “the pond”).

Practical assignments
Task 1
1. Dead air An uncomfortable period of awkward silence that usually
occurs in a tense social setting;
1. Decorated pyramids describe the skirts in bad manner. Meiosis
3. The cases were groaning-hyperbole
4. to be a lioness – means extremely independent and ambitious
woman (simple, tribe)
In a rather leonine way – means that the person is strong and
brave as a lion (sustained, tribe)
5. The last atom of her—a very small piece of her,the last affair.
(sustained, tribe)
6. personification
7. phraseological fusion - epigraf
8. proverb
9. epigraf
10. periphrasis
11. hyperbole
12. epithet
13. a white elephant - originality. - describes the size and enigma of
the house. (Original metaphors are not registered in dictionaries.
they are created by the speaker's/writer's imagination and sound
fresh and unexpected)
14. Smile left her eyes - describes the sadness of the lady
15. cup of satisfaction - a sustained metaphor. We may call the
principal metaphor the central image of the sustained metaphor-
and the other words which bear reference to the central image—
contributory images. Thus in the example given the word cup (of
satisfaction) being a trite metaphor is revived by the following
contributory images: full, drop, contents, sprinkle. It is interesting to
note that the words conveying both the central image (the cup) and
the contributory images are used in two senses simultaneously:
direct and indirect. The second plane of utterance is maintained by
the key word—satisfaction. It is this word that helps us to decipher
the idea behind the sustained metaphor

Task 2
1. A concrete thing used instead of an abstract ?
2. The instrument the doer uses in performing the action instead of
the action
3. A container instead of the thing container
4. A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion.
5. the concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion
6. the creation instead of creator
7. Perfume and conversation – crowd ,people. Material instead of
the thing made if it
8. Crown – means (King or Queen) .A concrete thing used instead
of an abstract notion.
9Even the soul moving beneath the satin it catches the attention of anyone
who can be bothered to have even a brief look.
10.Earn their bread - this idiom means to make enough money for daily
life but not exactly bread.

Task 3

1. Pity could be no more. If there was nobody poor. This change

suggests that Blake wanted to emphasise that it is neither natural nor
accidental that some people are poor, but a consequence of human action,
indeed action by us, the same people who do the pitying.
2.photograph of the Kaiser hung it in the men-servants' lavatory - meaning
we can trace the contradiction between the said and implied.
3. charming lady – a bucket of mud
4. apart from splits based on – cohesive team
5. to set up a status with fair, cheap , easy method
6. stone does`nt gag
7. Conquers / annexes - calls Colonization
8. Christian principles- Mohammedanism
9. to produce humorous effect
10. to produce humorous effect/ to express very subtle, almost
imperceptible nuances of meaning

Task 4
1. A common noun is used instead of a proper name
2. The proper name of a person, who is famous for some reason, is
put for a person having the same feature.
3. In this case proper name of a person , who is famous for some
reasons , is put for a person having the same feature.
4In this case common nouns are used instead of proper name
5. no name given, can be any information that reader can imagine
7. Joes—proper name of a person ,who is famous for some
reason,is put for people who have the same feature.
8. Mr Mumble – the common nouns. It means that the speaker
doesn’t know the real name of person.
9.Mr. and Mrs.Average - common noun is used instead of proper name
10.Count something- common noun is used instead of a proper name

Task 5
1.figurative ,chain
2. greatest beauty—inverted epithets ,figurative
3. a dirty great fortune – inverted , figurative
4. the last person in the world—phrase epithets, affective
The wild , the daring the romantic Sally – chains, figurative
5. We have similes (such as).
Indecent, terrifying,humiliating screams – chains, figurative.
6. dreadful—affective ,single; most heedful- pairs, affective
7.mouse - like - pairs epithet , figurative
8.single epithets and pairs, affective
9. phrase epithet
10 emotive proper
11 figurative epithet
12 figurative
13. old-fashioned - phrase epithet
five-four-three-two-one-zero - chains (strings) of epithets
14. airy, fantastic and insubstantial - chains of epithets
15. jagged - inverted epithet
white and blue, black - single epithets

Task 6
1. crowded loneliness - oxymoron adjective + noun
2. awfully glad - oxymoron adverb + adjective
3 Zeugma ?
4 Oxymoron: fresh – dead
6. oxymoron -likeable man with ugly face
7. Adoring hatred—oxymoron
8. Mr. Pickwick and his portmanteau were thrown into – zeugma
9. Three weeks off and a ticket – zeugma
10. superbly unreadable – oxymoron

Task 7
1. Cliché
2.simile
3.simile
4. epithet
5. personification?
6. metaphor
7. epithets, phraseological unity
8. metaphor
9. epithets, mataphor
10 figurative epithet
11 antonomasia
12 euphemism ?
13. memorial, fantastic, monstrous, capricious, waving, mocking -
single epithets
Like the waving arms of a Hindu god - euphemism
14. calpurnia was all angles and bones - metonymy ( the instrument
the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the
doer himself.)
her hand was as wide as a bed slat and twice as hard - simile