Personification

If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects,

we deal with personification , for example:
Snow speaks to the people.
It is falling above in the glooming sunlight.
Its white sparkling voice echoes as it falls through the air.;
or the house whispers in D.Lawrence’s famous story “the Rocking-horse
Winner” –”I hate our house for whispering” An unspoken phrase "There must
be more money! There must be more money!" whispered throughout the
house”; the sunflowers move in the room as in the poem below:

Two sunflowers
Move in the Yellow room.

“Ah,William, we’re weary of weather “

said the sunflowers, shining with dew.
“Our traveling habits have tired us.
Can you give us a room with a view?”

They arranged themselves at the window

And counted the steps of the sun,

and they both took root in the carpet

where the topaz tortoises run.

The passage explains personification as a type of metaphor in which inanimate objects are given human
characteristics. Examples include snow being described as speaking, a house whispering in D.H.
Lawrence’s “The Rocking-Horse Winner”, and sunflowers talking and moving in a poem. These examples
illustrate how lifeless objects or elements of nature are portrayed with human emotions, actions, or
voices to create vivid, imaginative descriptions.

Metonymy is a stylistic device in which a thing or concept is not called

by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with
that thing or concept. Both metaphor and metonymy involve the substitution
of one term for another. They may be used in place of another. However, the
two figures of speech work very differently.

Metonymy works by the contiguity (association) between two concepts,

whereas

metaphor works by the similarity between them. When people use

metonymy, they do not typically wish to transfer qualities from one referent
to another as they do with metaphor. In metaphor, this substitution is
based on similarity, while in metonymy, the substitution is

based on contiguity.

Summary of the Passage on Metonymy:

Metonymy is a figure of speech where something is referred to by the name of something closely
associated with it, rather than by its actual name. While both metonymy and metaphor involve
substitution, they differ in how they relate concepts: metaphor is based on similarity, whereas
metonymy relies on association or contiguity. Metonymy does not aim to transfer qualities
from one thing to another, unlike metaphor, which does.

Consider the following examples:

Metaphor example: That man is a pig (using pig instead of unhygienic

person. An unhygienic person is like a pig, but there is no contiguity
between the two).

Metonymy example: The White House supports the bill (using White
House instead of President. The President is not like the White House, but
there is contiguity between them).

The pen is mightier than the sword. Pen and sword represent
publishing and military force, respectively.

Nixon bombed Hanoi.

Nixon stands for the armed forces that Nixon controlled.

Consider the following example:

Waitress 1: The ham-sandwich at table 11 wants the bill.

Waitress 2: OK. I'll get it.

Waiter: Are you the fish?

Customer: No, my husband's the fish.

The type of metonymy - namely, the one, which is based on the relations
between a part and the whole - is often viewed independently as
synecdoche.
We need some new faces around here. (The understanding of a reference to
the face as standing for the whole person ) The passage provides examples to
highlight the difference between metaphor and metonymy. A metaphor is based on similarity
(e.g., "That man is a pig" equates an unhygienic man with a pig). In contrast, metonymy is based
on association or contiguity (e.g., "The White House supports the bill" uses "White House" to
represent the President). Other examples include "The pen is mightier than the sword" and
"Nixon bombed Hanoi," where the object or person mentioned stands for something related.

It also introduces synecdoche, a specific type of metonymy where a part represents the whole
(e.g., “new faces” meaning new people, or calling a customer “the ham-sandwich” to refer to
what they ordered). These figures of speech show how language uses indirect references to
convey meaning vividly and efficiently.

Irony

The types of irony

Irony is a stylistic device in which the contextual evaluative meaning of a

word is directly

opposite to its dictionary meaning. The effect of irony lies in the striking
disparity between what is said and what is meant. This is achieved through
the intentional interplay of two meanings, which are in opposition to each
other.

Striking disparity-თვალში საცემი შეუსაბამობა.

So, like many other stylistic devices, irony does not exist outside the
context. “That’s certainly a good idea!” could be taken as a compliment or

as an insult. The contextual factors that accompany the utterance of a

statement play a major role in how that statement will be interpreted.
Consider the following utterance: in the case of Irony the utterance of a
statement play a major role.

My mother is a mouse.

Without any contextual cues, it would be impossible for a listener to arrive

at the speaker's intended meaning. There are, for example, several possible
metaphorical interpretations for this statement; it could be uttered, for
example, by a son at a costume party to explain his parent's appearance; it
could also be used to invoke the attributes we stereotypically apply to mice –
that is, the speaker's mother is timid, shy, or extremely quiet.

It is also possible, however, that the speaker intends to communicate that

his mother is resolute, outgoing, and sociable. In other words, the speaker
intends that utterance should be interpreted ironically. If the context
supports this interpretation (for example, if the listener is observing the
speaker's mother dancing on a table), then the statement will be understood
in the way it was intended. If the context is ambiguous or impoverished (e.g.,
the listener has never met the speaker's mother), then interpretation
becomes problematic.

Ambiguous-ორაზროვანი

Timid-მორცხვი

Irony must not be confused with humour, although they have very much in
common. The function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous
effect. In a sentence like that: “How clever of you my dear Miss Bingley to be
sure without knowing anything” the word “clever” conveys a sense opposite
to its literal signification.

Irony must not be confused with humour. Irony is a stylistic device where the intended
meaning of a word or phrase is the opposite of its dictionary meaning, creating a striking
disparity between what is said and what is meant. This contrast depends heavily on context,
which helps the listener interpret whether a statement is sincere or ironic. For example, the
sentence “My mother is a mouse” can have various interpretations based on context—it might be
metaphorical or ironic.

Irony should not be confused with humour, even though they often overlap. Irony can be used
for serious, sarcastic, or critical purposes, not just to provoke laughter. A clear example of irony
is when someone says “How clever of you” to imply the opposite—that the person is actually not
clever at all.

Types of irony

Verbal irony : when a speaker says one thing but means another, or
when a literal meaning is contrary to its intended effect.

A common example of this use of verbal irony is the scenario of a man

staring out a window looking at a miserably muddy rainy day and remarking,
"lovely day for a stroll." This remark is ironic because it expresses the
opposite of the circumstances. In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Mr.
Bennet refers to his son-in-law “My favourite son-in-law”, though he intends
to show that he strongly disapproves of him. William Shakespeare is well-
known for his use of verbal irony (sarcasm, which as we shall see below is a
type of a verbal irony). In the play "Julius Caesar," the character of Mark
Antony gives a speech at the funeral of Caesar that begins, "Friends,
countrymen, lend me your ears." In this speech, Mark Antony repeats the
phrase "honorable man" several times speaking of Brutus, whose actions
(murdering Caesar) have been anything but honorable. This repetition has
the effect of completely inverting its literal meaning. When Mark Antony
says: “Brutus is an honorable man,” he intends to show quite the contrary.

Verbal irony occurs when a speaker says one thing but means the opposite, creating a contrast
between literal words and intended meaning. For example, calling a rainy, miserable day a
“lovely day for a stroll” is ironic because the statement contradicts reality. In Pride and
Prejudice, Mr. Bennet’s reference to his disliked son-in-law as his “favourite” is another
example.

Verbal irony is often used for sarcasm or criticism, as seen in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar,
where Mark Antony repeatedly calls Brutus an “honorable man” while actually implying the
opposite—that Brutus’s actions were dishonorable. This technique emphasizes the speaker’s true
meaning through contradiction.

Sarcasm
The Latin 'sarcasmus," which stems from the Greek "sarkasmos" and
"sarkazein" which means literally "to bite the lips in rage."

Many forms of sarcasm can be so dependent on the tone of one's voice,

so using sarcasm in writing can be much harder to pick up on the page than
it is in dialogue. This did not stop writers, like Mark Twain and Jane Austen
(to name a few) from creating a reputation along with many masterworks
hinged on the appreciation of sarcasm through the art of the satirical novel.
Hinge on-რაიმეს ემყარება, რაიმეზეა დამოკიდებული

A fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue regarding the

relationship between
verbal irony and sarcasm. The latter is frequently misused as a synonym
for irony. Irony refers however to the literal meaning and the intended
meaning of the words uttered being
different, while sarcasm refers to the mocking intent of the utterance.
expressing meaning by using language or situations that imply the opposite of what is literally said or
expected.
It is possible to be ironic without being sarcastic, and to be sarcastic without
being ironic. The most vivid difference , probably, is ridicule. Ridicule is an
important aspect of sarcasm, but not verbal irony in general. By this account,
sarcasm is a particular kind of personal criticism leveled against a person or
group of persons that incorporates verbal irony. Sarcasm comes from the Latin
sarcasmus and Greek sarkasmos, meaning “to bite the lips in rage.” It often relies on tone of
voice, making it harder to detect in writing, though authors like Mark Twain and Jane Austen
successfully used it in satirical works.

Sarcasm is often confused with verbal irony, but they are not the same. Verbal irony involves a
difference between what is said and what is meant, while sarcasm includes a mocking or
ridiculing intent. Sarcasm is a type of verbal irony, but with an added element of personal
criticism or ridicule.

For example, telling someone "Great idea!" when they choose a spiritual healer over a doctor for
cancer treatment is sarcastic because it mocks the decision. Sarcasm is also sometimes mistaken
for cynicism, which is a general negative or distrustful attitude toward life, though they are
different in meaning and use.

For example, a person reports to her friend that rather than going to a
medical doctor to treat her ovarian cancer, she has decided to see a spiritual
healer instead. In response her friend says sarcastically, "Great idea! I hear
they do fine work!" The friend could have also replied with any number of
ironic expressions that should not be labeled as sarcasm exactly. Sarcasm is
also regularly confused with cynicism, which in common use is seen as a
fundamental nihilistic attitude toward other people and life in general. The
term is frequently misused as a synonym for irony. In the example, a woman chooses
a spiritual healer over a medical doctor for cancer treatment, and her friend responds sarcastically,
“Great idea! I hear they do fine work!” This response mocks the decision, showing how sarcasm involves
ridicule and criticism. While sarcasm is a form of verbal irony, not all irony is sarcastic. Additionally,
sarcasm is often confused with cynicism, which reflects a deeply negative, distrustful view of people
and life. The term “sarcasm” is frequently misused as a synonym for irony, though they are distinct.

Situational irony is when the outcome of a situation is inconsistent with

what we expect would logically or normally occur, when the result of an
action is contrary to the desired or expected effect. An example of
situational irony would be if a thief’s house was broken into at the same
time he was robbing someone’s house; or if a man is laughing at the
misfortune of another even while the same misfortune, is happening to him.
Situational irony is most

Inconsistent-შეუთავსებელი, შეუსაბამო

Deliberate-წინასწარ ფიქრი
common type of irony in films. A key attribute of situational irony , most
commonly referred to as a, “surprise ending,” is diversion from the expected
outcome to the actual outcome of a movie. In literature situational irony
occurs when a reader or character expects one thing to happen, but
something entirely different happens. Writers use situational irony to make
their stories interesting or humorous, and sometimes to force their readers
to reexamine their own thoughts and values. Situational irony is closely
connected with so-called “Irony of fate” (cosmic irony).

The expression “irony of fate” stems from the notion that the gods (or the
Fates) are amusing themselves by toying with the minds of mortals with
deliberate ironic intent. Closely connected with situational irony, it arises
from sharp contrasts between reality and human ideals, or between human
intentions and actual results. The phrase "irony of fate" refers to the idea that gods or fate
deliberately play with humans by creating ironic situations. It is closely related to situational irony,
highlighting the contrast between expectations and reality, or between intentions and outcomes.

For example:

In O’Henry’s story The Gift Of The Magi, a young couple are too poor to
buy each other Christmas gifts. The wife cuts off her treasured hair to sell it
to a wig-maker for money to buy her husband a chain for his pocket watch.
She's shocked when she learns he had pawned his watch to buy her a set of
combs for her long, beautiful, prized hair. Situational irony occurs when the outcome
of a situation is the opposite of what is logically expected. For example, a thief’s house being
robbed while he’s robbing someone else, or someone laughing at another’s misfortune while
experiencing the same fate, are ironic because the results defy expectation.

This type of irony is common in films and literature, often appearing as a “surprise ending.”
It helps writers create interest, humor, or provoke deeper reflection in readers.

“Irony of fate” (or cosmic irony) is a related concept, suggesting that fate or the gods
deliberately create ironic outcomes. A classic example is O. Henry’s The Gift of the Magi, where
both spouses sacrifice their most valued possessions to buy gifts for each other—only to render
those gifts useless, highlighting the deep irony in their well-intentioned actions.

Verbal irony is distinguished from situational irony and dramatic irony

in that it is

produced intentionally by speakers. For instance, if a speaker exclaims, “I’m

not upset!” but reveals an upset emotional state through her voice while
truly trying to claim she's not upset, it would not be verbal irony by virtue of
its verbal manifestation (it would, however, be situational irony). But if the
same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate that she
was upset by claiming she was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This
distinction gets at an important aspect of verbal irony: speakers
communicate implied propositions that are intentionally contradictory to the
propositions contained in the words themselves. There are examples of
verbal irony that do not rely on saying the opposite of what one means, and
there are cases where all the traditional criteria of irony exist and the
utterance is not ironic.

Contradictory-წინააღმდეგობრივი Verbal irony is different from situational and

dramatic irony because it is intentional and created by the speaker. It occurs when someone
says something but means the opposite, deliberately communicating a message that contradicts
the literal words.

For example, if someone says “I’m not upset” but clearly shows they are, it’s only verbal irony if
they intentionally mean the opposite. If the contradiction is unintentional, it becomes
situational irony instead.

Verbal irony involves implied meanings that clash with spoken words, though not all cases
require saying the exact opposite. Also, not every statement that appears ironic meets the criteria
to truly be considered irony.

Dramatic irony is a disparity of expression and awareness: when words and

actions possess a significance that the listener or audience understands, but
the speaker or character does not; when the audience or the reader is aware
of something that a character does not know. For example, when Romeo
believes Juliet is dead, but the audience knows that she has only been given
a potion to sleep.

Thus, in drama it is a device of giving the spectator an item of information

that at least one of the characters in the narrative is unaware of (at least
consciously).
 For example: In Pygmalion, we know that Eliza is a woman of the street;
Higgins's family does not; In City Lights, we know that Charlie Chaplin’s
character is not a millionaire, but the blind flower girl does not; In Cyrano de
Bergerac, we know that Cyrano loves Roxane and that he is the real author
of the letters that Christian is writing to the young woman; Roxane is
unaware of this; In Oedipus, we know that Oedipus himself is the murderer
that he is seeking; Oedipus, Creon and Jocasta do not; In Othello, we know
that Desdemona has been faithful to Othello, but he doesn't. A special kind
of dramatic irony is tragic irony. Sophocles’ Oedipus the King provides a
classic example of tragic irony at its fullest. For another example may serve
W. Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet : when Romeo finds Juliet in a drugged
death-like sleep, he assumes her to be dead and kills himself. Upon
awakening to find her dead lover beside her, Juliet kills herself with his
dagger.

Another stylistic device which is often mistakenly considered that is used

to describe situations that are ironic is paradox. In fact, paradox is a
statement that seems to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense.
On closer examination it mostly reveals some truth and is a powerful
stimulating for the reflection.

”It is awfully hard work doing nothing”. (Oscar Wilde)

"Fashion is a form of ugliness so intolerable that we have to alter it every
six months."
"A man cannot be too careful in the choice of his enemies."
"I am not young enough to know everything."
"Seriousness is the only refuge of the shallow."
"Most people are other people. Their thoughts are someone else's opinions,
their lives a mimicry, their passions a quotation.
"There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book. Books are well
written or badly written."
"Experience...is simply the name we give our mistakes."
"Whenever people agree with me I always feel I must be wrong."
"The difference between literature and journalism is that journalism is
unreadable and literature is not read."
"I love acting. It is so much more real than life."
"Music makes one feel so romantic - at least it always gets on one's nerves
- which is the same thing nowadays."
"The public is wonderfully tolerant. It forgives everything except genius."
"Life is too important to be taken seriously."
"To be natural is such a very difficult pose to keep up."
"Patriotism is the virtue of the vicious."

Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or reader knows something that a character does not.
This gap in awareness creates tension and deeper meaning in the story. Classic examples include
Romeo and Juliet (the audience knows Juliet is alive, but Romeo does not) and Oedipus (the
audience knows Oedipus is the murderer, but he is unaware). Dramatic irony often highlights
tragic outcomes and emotional impact.

The passage also distinguishes paradox from irony. A paradox is a statement that seems self-
contradictory or absurd but reveals a deeper truth upon reflection. Examples include Oscar
Wilde’s witty remarks, such as “It is awfully hard work doing nothing” and “Life is too
important to be taken seriously.” Paradoxes provoke thought by challenging common sense and
exposing complexities in life and human nature.

Exercises for seminars and independent work

1.What is personification?

2.What is metonymy?

3.What is verbal irony? Illustrate your answer with examples.

4.What is situational irony? Illustrate your answer with examples.

5.Speak about dramatic irony. Illustrate your answer with examples.

6.What is sarcasm? What is its function in literature?

7.Is there any difference between irony and sarcasm?
9.What is most characteristic feature of a paradox? What stylistic function
can it fulfill in literature?

2.On your own paper, write the object being personified and the meaning of
the personification.

1. The wind sang her mournful song through the falling leaves.

2. The microwave timer told me it was time to turn my TV dinner.

3. The video camera observed the whole scene.

4.The strawberries seemed to sing, "Eat me first!"

5. The water beckoned invitingly to the hot swimmers.

6. The daffodils nodded their yellow heads at the walkers.

III. Indicate metonymies, state the type of relations between the object
named and the object implied, which they represent, pay attention to the
degree of their originality

1. She saw around her, clustered about the white tables, multitudes of
violently red lips, powdered cheeks, cold, hard eyes, self-possessed arrogant
faces, and insolent bosoms.

2. "Some remarkable pictures in this room, gentlemen. A Holbein, two Van

Dycks and if I am not mistaken, a Velasquez. I am interested in pictures."

3.He made his way through the perfume and conversation.

პერსონიფიკაცია, ანუ გაპიროვნება არის ლექსიკური სტილისტური ხერხი, რომელიც

გულისხმობს მსგავსებას სულიერ და უსლო ობიექტებს შორის: მაგალითად, როდესაც
თოვლი ელაპარაკება ადამიანს, ან როდესაც სახლი ჩურჩულებს: „მე მეტი ფული
მინდა“.

მეტონიმია არის ლექსიკური სტილისტური ხერხი, რომელშიც ამა თუ იმ საგნის,

ან მოვლენის სახელი შეცვლილია სხვა სახელით, რომელიც მასთან მჭიდრო
კავშირშია გარკვეული ასოციაციის საშუალებით. მაგალითად, „თეთრი სახლი
აცხადებს“ (ამ შემთხვევაში, „თეთრი სახლი“ ასოცირდება ამერიკის
პრეზიდენტთან.

ირონია არის ლექსიკური ხერხი, რომელშიც სიტყვის კონტექსტუალური მნიშვნელობა

საპირისპიროა მისი სალექსიკონო მნიშვნელობისა. ისევე როგორც, მრავალი სხვა
ლექსიკური ხერხი, ირონია არ არსებობს კონტექსტის გარეშე.

ირონიის ტიპები

ვერბალური ირონიის შემთხვევაში, მეტყველი სუბიექტი ამბობს სხვას და გულისხმობს

მის საპირისპიროს. მაგალითად, როდესაც ამინდი საშინელია და ამ დროს ვიტყვით:
„რა დიდებული ამინდია“. ამ როდესაც „იულიუს კეისარში“ მარკ ანტონიუსი
ამბობს“Brutus is an honorable man,” თუმცა მისი მიზანი საპირისპიროს ჩვენებაა.
სარკაზმი ირონიის ერთ-ერთი ტიპია, თუმცა ამ უკანასკნელისაგან განსხვავდება
დამცინავობით, დაცინვით (ridicule) და იგი უფრო „მწარეა“(bitter), ვიდრე
ირონია.

სიტუაციური ირონია გვაქვს მაშინ, როდესაც სიტუაციის შედეგი შეუთავსებელია

იმასთან, რასაც მოველით. სიტუაციური ირონიის კარგი მაგალითებია ო’ჰენრის
მოთხრობები.

დრამატული ირონიის შემთხვევაში, მსმენელმა ან მაყურებელმა იცის, თუ რა

ხდება, ხოლო მეტყველმა სუბიექტმა ან პერსონაჟმა ეს არ იცის. მაგალითად,
მკითხველმა იცის, რომ ჯულიეტას მხოლოდ სძინავს და გაიღვიძებს, მაგრამ
რომეომ ეს არ იცის და ამას მოჰყვება ტრაგედია.

პარადოქსი

პარადოქსი არის ურთიერთგამომრიცხავი განცხადების გაკეთება, რომელიც

მოკლებულია საღ აზრს, მაგრამ, ამასთანავე, ჭეშმარიტებას შეიცავს. მაგალითად,
როდესაც ო.უაილდი ამბობს, რომ „ყველაზე ძნელი არაფრის კეთებაა“. ეს ერთი მხრივ,
აბსურდული მტკიცებაა, ხოლო მეორე მხრივ, ჭეშმარიტება.