Barbarims and Foreignisms

In the vocabulary of the English Language there is a considerable layer of words

called barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin and the term “barbarism”
describes a word as incorrect and non-standard. Barbarisms bear the appearance of
a borrowing and are felt as alien to the native language.
Despite the fact that barbarisms are regarded as non-standard words – unpolished
and rude, they are also treated as words which have already become facts of the
English language. They are a historical category. Etymologically this term is rooted
in barbaros, the babbling outsider unable to speak Greek.
The greater part of barbarisms was borrowed into English from French ( protege ; a
propos). Many foreign words which were used in literary English to express a
concept non-existent in English reality, have little by little entered the class of
words named barbarisms and they have gradually lost their foreign peculiarities,
and have merged with the native English stock of word.
However, some words retain their foreign appearance and most of them have
corresponding English synonyms:
e.g. chic [stylish];
bon mot [witty saying];
en passant [in passing].
Some words which were once barbarisms, but now they are lawful members of the
common literary word-stock of the language (for example, the words conscious,
retrograde, strenuous were words, which made fun as unnecessary borrowings from
the French. With the passing of time they have become common English literary
words. The same can be said of the words conscious, retrograde, strenuous).
conscious,- He was fully conscious during the operatio
retrograde,-უკუსვლა,რეგრესი The policy is a retrograde step for education.
strenuous ˈstren.ju.ə მძიმე ,დამქანცველი Climbing the mountain was a strenuous task.

We must draw difference between barbarisms and terminological

borrowings. Such words as solo, tenor, concerto and the like should also be
distinguished from barbarisms. They are terms. Terminological borrowings have no
synonyms; barbarisms, on the contrary, may have exact synonyms.
It is important to distinguish between barbarisms and foreign words proper.
Unlike barbarisms, foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes,
do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English
dictionaries. In printed works foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to
indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value.
Both foreign words and barbarisms are widely used in various styles of
language with various aims.
One of these functions is to supply local colour. In order to depict local
conditions of life, specific facts and events, customs and habits, special care is
taken to introduce into passage such language elements as will reflect the
environment. In “Vanity Fair” Thackeray takes the reader to a small German town.
By introducing several German words into his narrative, the author gives an indirect
description of the peculiarities of the German menu and the environment in general:
“The little boy, too, we observed, had a famous appetite, and consumed schinken,
and braten, and kartoffeln… The German words are italicized to show their alien
nature and at the same time their stylistic function in the passage.
Another function of barbarisms and foreign words is to build up the stylistic device
of characterization by direct speech or free indirect speech of a character in a
novel, story or play. The following lines may serve as an example:
“She looked at his clothes, said, “Don’t tell me!” and pressed his hand,”Annette
is prettee well. But the doctor say she can never have no more children. You knew
that?” Soames nodded. “it’s a pity. Mais la petite est adorable. Du café?”
Soames got away from her as soon as he could. She offended him – solid, matter-
of-fact, quick, clear – French. He could not bear her vowels, her “r”-s (J.Galsworthy,
The Forsyte Saga).
One more function of a foreignism is an “exactifying” function. For instance, The
English “farewell” is a formal word for parting and in fact means to part forever (like
Georgian (“მშვიდობით”). When French “au revoir” is used it has the meaning of
“see you soon again soon”.
“Let us not say farewell. But as French people say, au revoir!” (J Austen, Pride and
Prejudice).

Professional Terminology.
Term is a word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a particular
branch of science, technology, trade or the arts to convey a concept peculiar to this
particular activity.
Terms belong to the style of language of science. Most professions have
specialized vocabularies. People who work in those professions know, understand,
and use terms that may not be used by the general population. Also, words that
may have a certain meaning in one context may have a different meaning when
used by members of a certain profession. For example, members of the medical
profession and members of the construction or building profession both talk about
"joints." However, we know they are not talking about the same kind of joint!
Joint-სახსარი
Joint-ქანი,ნაპრალი
We might meet with some controversial problems in dealing with terminology.
The first is the puzzling question of whether a term loses its terminological
status when it comes into common usage. Many linguists strongly support
the idea that terms are only those words which have retained their
exclusiveness and are not known or recognized outside their specific sphere.
From this point of view, the words belonging to the medical sphere like “theatre”
(საოპერაციო) or “contact” (ინფექციის მატარებელი) are no longer medical terms as
long as they are in common usage. The same can be true of some diseases or
medicines. There is yet another point of view, according to which any terminological
system is supposed to include all the words and word-groups conveying concept
peculiar to a particular branch of knowledge, regardless of their exclusiveness.
According to contemporary researches, terminologies seem to obey the same rules
and laws as other vocabulary strata.
 The usage of terms is not confined to the scientific functional style. In fact,
terms can be used in different styles – belles-lettres style, publicistic style,
newspaper style, etc. when used in belles-lettres style, a term may acquire a
stylistic function. Summary – Main Ideas:
 When studying terminology, we encounter controversial issues, especially whether a
term loses its status when it enters common usage.
 Some linguists believe that only exclusive words that remain within a specific field
should be considered terms.
 For example, words like "theatre" (meaning operating room) and "contact" (as a
carrier of infection) were once medical terms, but are now widely used and no longer
seen as strictly medical.
 Another viewpoint argues that all words expressing concepts specific to a field,
regardless of how widely used they are, should be included in that field’s terminology.
 Modern research shows that terminologies follow the same rules as other vocabulary in
language.
 Terms are not limited to scientific texts; they can appear in literature, journalism,
and other styles, often taking on stylistic or expressive roles.

Informal Vocabulary: Colloquial Words; Slang ;Dialect words

Informal words and word-groups are traditionally divided into three

types: colloquial, slang and dialect words and word-groups.
Informal style is regarded as relaxed, free-and-easy, familiar and unpretentious. It
should be pointed out that the informal talk of educated people considerably
differs from that of the uneducated; the choice of words with adults is different
from the vocabulary of teenagers; people living in the provinces use regional words
and expressions. Consequently, the choice of words is determined in each
particular case not only by an informal (or formal) situation, but also by the
speaker’s educational and cultural background, age group, and his occupational and
regional characteristics.
Colloquial Words
Among the informal words, colloquialisms are the least exclusive: they are
used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide.
These are informal words that are used in everyday conversational speech both by
cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups. The sphere of communication
of literary colloquial words also includes the printed page, which shows that the
term “colloquial” is somewhat inaccurate.
Vast use of informal words is one of the prominent features of 20 th century English
and American literature. It is quite natural that informal words appear in
dialogues in which they realistically reflect the speech of modern people.
“You’ re at some sort of technical college?” she said to Leo, not looking at him...
“Yes. I hate it though. I’m not good enough at maths. There’s a chap there just
down from Cambridge who puts us through it. I can’t keep up. Were you good at
maths?”
“I can’t cope with this stuff at all.”
However, in modern fiction informal words are not restricted to conversation
in their use, but frequently appear in descriptive passages as well. In this way, the
narrative is endowed with conversational features. The author creates an intimate,
warm, informal atmosphere, meeting his reader on the level of a friendly talk,
especially when the narrative verges upon non-personal direct speech.
Let us deal with some more examples of literary colloquial words. “Pal” and
“chum” are colloquial equivalents of friend; “girl”, when used colloquially, denotes a
woman of any age; “bite” and “snack” stand for meal; “hi”, “hello” are informal
greetings; “so long” - a form of parting; start, go on, finish and be through are also
literary colloquialisms, to have a crush on smb. is a colloquial equivalent of to be
in love.
A considerable number of shortenings are found among words of this type. E.g.
pram, exam, fridge, flu, movie.
Verbs with post-positional adverbs are also numerous among colloqualisms:
put up, put over, make up, make out, turn up, turn in, etc.
Literary colloquial words are to be distinguished from familiar colloquial
and low colloquial.
A borderline between the literary and familiar colloquial is not always
clearly marked. The circle of speakers using familiar colloquial is limited:
these words are mostly used by the young and semi-educated. This
vocabulary group closely verges on slang and has something of its coarse
flavor. Summary:
The line between literary and familiar colloquial language is often unclear.
Familiar colloquial words are mainly used by young or semi-educated speakers and are close
to slang, sometimes sharing its rude or coarse tone.

E.g. doc (for doctor), hi (for how do you do), ta-ta (for good-bye), goings-on (for
behaviour, usually with a negative connotation), to kid smb. (for tease, banter), to
pick up smb. (for make a quick and easy acquaintance), go on with you (for let me
alone), shut up (for keep silent), beat it (for go away).
Low colloquial is defined as uses characteristic of the speech of persons who
may be broadly described as uncultivated. This group is stocked with words of
illiterate English which do not present much interest for our purposes.
So far as colloquialisms are concerned, most students’ mistakes originate from
the ambiguousness of the term itself. Some students misunderstand the term
“colloquial” and accept it as a recommendation for wide usage (obviously mistaking
“colloquial” for “conversational”). This misconception may lead to most
embarrassing errors unless it is taken care of in the early stages of language study.
 The marker “colloquial” (as any stylistic marker) is not a recommendation
for unlimited usage but on the contrary, a sign of restricted usage. Especially
they should be restricted in compositions and reports. Such kind of
vocabulary can be presented and drilled in suitable contexts and situations,
mainly in dialogues. Summary:
 Low colloquial language refers to speech used by uncultivated or uneducated people
and includes many illiterate English words, which are not useful for academic study.
 Many student mistakes come from misunderstanding the term "colloquial", often
confusing it with "conversational" and thinking it implies general acceptability.
 In fact, the label “colloquial” is a stylistic marker indicating limited and context-
specific use, not a recommendation for broad usage.
 Colloquialisms should be avoided in formal writing (like essays or reports) and are best
learned through dialogues and suitable real-life contexts.

Slang
An interesting fact about the word slang is that it was originally a term for the
old French phrase "sale langue", which translated into English means "dirty
language". Slang is regarded as unconventional language. It is colloquial,
sometimes vulgar, and always innovative — nothing registers change in cultural
thought faster or more dramatically than slang. The circle of slang users is much
narrower than users of colloquialisms. It is mainly used by the young who try to
demonstrate their spiritual independence and defiance, or low-class people who
lack in education.
Slang is usually informal and spoken rather than formal and written, slang is not
the same as dialect, nor is it equal to swearing, although it may take on a vulgar
edge, and it almost always evokes negative attitudes. Characterized by its ability to
startle, slang falls below the "neutral register" of daily speech. It is considered to be
the language of a particular group. The “New English Dictionary” defines slang as
follows: the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable
character; language of a low and vulgar type; language of a highly colloquial type”.
Slang expressions can spread outside their original areas to become
commonly used, like "cool”. While some words eventually lose their status as
slang, others continue to be considered as such by most speakers. Summary:
 The word "slang" originally came from the French phrase "sale langue", meaning
"dirty language."
 Slang is a form of unconventional, informal, often vulgar language that is highly
innovative and reflects cultural change quickly.
 It is used by a smaller, more specific group than colloquialisms — often young people
seeking identity or less-educated individuals.
 Slang is usually spoken, not written, and is not the same as dialect or swearing,
though it may sound vulgar and carry negative connotations.
 It is a group-based language that falls below neutral speech in formality and is meant
to surprise or stand out.
  While some slang words (like “cool”) become mainstream, others remain slang in the
eyes of most speakers.
 The New English Dictionary defines slang as a low, vulgar, or highly colloquial
language used by disreputable or distinct groups.

Slangs mostly possess metaphoric meanings often with a course, mocking or

cynical colouring. Let us consider the following examples: mug (face), saucers
(eyes), trap (mouth), to leg (to walk). All these meanings are based on metaphor.
Dialect Words
Dialects are usually regional forms. It is a variety of a language which prevails in
a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase. The term
is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined
by other factors, such as social class. Sometimes in stories authors use dialects to
make a character stand out.
A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a
sociolect. Among functional styles, dialect words are usually found in
emotive prose and their use is rather confined. Prevail-ჭარბობს
 Dialects are regional varieties of a language, marked by unique vocabulary, pronunciation,
and phrases.
 While typically based on geography, dialects can also reflect social class.
 A social-class-based dialect is called a sociolect.
 Authors often use dialects in stories to highlight a character’s identity.
 In terms of functional styles, dialect words appear mainly in emotive prose and have limited
use.

Vulgar Words and Vulgarisms

Vulgarisms are expletives and swear words which are of an abusive
character,( like damn, bloody, hell, etc); So-called four-letter words the use
of which is banned in social intercourse. It should be mentioned that
vulgarisms paved their way in modern fiction. Their function is to express
strong emotions – anger, rage, annoyance, etc. Summary:
 Vulgarisms are abusive swear words (e.g., damn, bloody, hell) often considered
socially inappropriate.
 These include "four-letter words", which are generally banned in polite conversation.
 In modern fiction, vulgarisms are used to express strong emotions such as anger, rage,
or irritation.

1.Consider your answers to the following

1.Speak about formal and informal style.
2.What is characteristic to formal language?
3.What does the term “learned word” stand for?
4.Are learned words used only on printed page?
5.What essential qualities are characteristic to archaic words?
6.Why is not the basic vocabulary the concern of stylistic study?

1.Consider your answers to the following

1.What is barbarism?
2.In what way is it different from foreignism?
3.What are controversial problems connected with professional terminology?
4.What is characteristic to informal style? In what situations are they used?
5.Describe the types of informal words.
6.What is characteristic to colloquialisms?
7.What is a slang? What is the difference between colloquialisms and slang?
8.Why are dialect words used only in emotive prose?
4.Find formal and informal words and word-groups in the following
extract. Write out informal words and word-groups and decide
whether they are slangs or colloquialisms.
MRS. HIGGINS [at last, conversationally] Will it rain, do you think?
LIZA. The shallow depression in the west of these islands is likely to move
slowly in an easterly direction. There are no indications of any great change
in the barometrical situation.
FREDDY. Ha! ha! how awfully funny!
LIZA. What is wrong with that, young man? I bet I got it right.
FREDDY. Killing!
MRS. EYNSFORD HILL. I'm sure I hope it wont turn cold. Theres so much
influenza about. It runs right through our whole family regularly every spring.
LIZA [darkly] My aunt died of influenza: so they said.
MRS. EYNSFORD HILL [clicks her tongue sympathetically]!!!
LIZA [in the same tragic tone] But it's my belief they done the old woman in.
MRS. HIGGINS [puzzled] Done her in?
LIZA. Y-e-e-e-es, Lord love you! Why should she die of influenza? She come
through diphtheria right enough the year before. I saw her with my own
eyes. Fairly blue with it, she was. They all thought she was dead; but my
father he kept ladling gin down her throat til she came to so sudden that she
bit the bowl off the spoon.
MRS. EYNSFORD HILL [startled] Dear me!
LIZA [piling up the indictment] What call would a woman with that strength
in her have to die of influenza? What become of her new straw hat that
should have come to me? Somebody pinched it; and what I say is, them as
pinched it done her in.
MRS. EYNSFORD HILL. What does doing her in mean?
HIGGINS [hastily] Oh, thats the new small talk. To do a person in means to
kill them.
MRS. EYNSFORD HILL [to Eliza, horrified] You surely dont believe that your
aunt was killed?
LIZA. Do I not! Them she lived with would have killed her for a hat-pin, let
alone a hat.
MRS. EYNSFORD HILL. But it cant have been right for your father to pour
spirits down her throat like that. It might have killed her.
LIZA. Not her. Gin was mother's milk to her. Besides, he'd poured so much
down his own throat that he knew the good of it.
MRS. EYNSFORD HILL. Do you mean that he drank?
LIZA. Drank! My word! Something chronic.
MRS. EYNSFORD HILL. How dreadful for you!
LIZA. Not a bit. It never did him no harm what I could see. But then he did
not keep it up regular. [Cheerfully] On the burst, as you might say, from time
to time. And always more agreeable when he had a drop in. When he was
out of work, my mother used to give him fourpence and tell him to go out
and not come back until he'd drunk himself cheerful and loving-like. Theres
lots of women has to make their husbands drunk to make them fit to live
with. [Now quite at her ease] You see, it's like this. If a man has a bit of a
conscience, it always takes him when he's sober; and then it makes him low-
spirited. A drop of booze just takes that off and makes him happy. [To
Freddy, who is in convulsions of suppressed laughter] Here! what are you
sniggering at?
FREDDY. The new small talk. You do it so awfully well.
LIZA. If I was doing it proper, what was you laughing at? [To Higgins] Have I
said anything I oughtn’t?
MRS. HIGGINS [interposing] Not at all, Miss Doolittle.
LIZA. Well, that’s a mercy, anyhow. [Expansively] What I always say is—
HIGGINS [rising and looking at his watch] Ahem!
LIZA [looking round at him; taking the hint; and rising] Well: I must go. [They
all rise. Freddy goes to the door]. So pleased to have met you. Good-bye.
[She shakes hands with Mrs. Higgins].
MRS. HIGGINS. Good-bye.
LIZA. Good-bye, Colonel Pickering.
PICKERING. Good-bye, Miss Doolittle. [They shake hands].
LIZA [nodding to the others] Good-bye, all.
FREDDY [opening the door for her] Are you walking across the Park, Miss
Doolittle? If so—
LIZA. Walk! Not bloody likely. [Sensation]. I am going in a taxi. [She goes
out].
 1. Speak about formal and informal style:
o Formal style is used in official, academic, or professional settings; informal style
is casual and used in everyday conversations.
2. What is characteristic to formal language?
o Formal language uses complex sentence structures, precise vocabulary, and
avoids contractions or slang.
3. What does the term “learned word” stand for?
o “Learned words” are scholarly or bookish words often used in academic or
scientific texts.
4. Are learned words used only on printed page?
o No, they may also appear in formal speeches or lectures, though mostly found in
writing.
5. What essential qualities are characteristic to archaic words?
o Archaic words are outdated, rarely used in modern language, and often found in
historical or poetic texts.
6. Why is not the basic vocabulary the concern of stylistic study?
o Because basic vocabulary is neutral and universal, lacking stylistic coloring or
expressive function.

Part 2: Informal Language, Barbarisms, Slang, etc.

1. What is barbarism?
o A barbarism is a foreign word used in English speech or writing without being
fully adapted.
2. In what way is it different from foreignism?
o Barbarisms are partially integrated into the language; foreignisms are used to keep
their foreign identity, often in italics.
3. What are controversial problems connected with professional terminology?
o Overuse or misuse can confuse non-specialists; some terms may enter general
language, losing precision.
4. What is characteristic to informal style? In what situations is it used?
o It’s casual, uses contractions, slang, and is used in friendly or familiar settings.
5. Describe the types of informal words:
o Colloquialisms (casual expressions), slang (group-specific language), jargon
(professional terms), vulgarisms (offensive language), and dialect words.
What is characteristic to colloquialisms?  Colloquialisms (common informal words),
 Slang (group-specific and trendy expressions),
 Jargon (technical or profession-specific language),
 Vulgarisms (coarse or offensive terms),
 Dialect words (region-specific terms).
6.
o They are everyday, relaxed expressions used in informal conversation.
7. What is slang? What is the difference between colloquialisms and slang?
 oSlang is often group-specific, dynamic, and edgy; colloquialisms are general
informal words understood by most speakers.
8. Why are dialect words used only in emotive prose?
o They add local color, realism, and emotional tone but are not standard for formal
or neutral texts.