TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

PROS AND CONS AND EXAMPLES

Group 1
 DEMOCRACY
 REPUBLIC
 COMMUNISM
Group 2
 MONARCHY
 DICTATORSHIP
 THEOCRACY
Group 3
QUARTER 2 MODULE 1: STATE AND NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. describe the different forms of state and non-state institutions.
2. differentiate the functions of state and non-state institutions.
3. appraise the state and non-state institutions in relation to personal development and
societal progress.
(BACKGROUND) INSTITUTIONS
There are different models of social institutions used in different countries nowadays,
most of which are inspired by the long history of their country while others are
influenced by other nations. There are two major types of state or social institutions: the
communist, based on command economy; and the democracy, based on capitalist
economy (Panopio 1995).
Most communist countries, like the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR),
and North Korea, are governed by their respective governments alone. They do not
allow private companies or individuals to do business in their land; thus, the people
have no opportunity to choose because the government decide what is best for their
own citizens (Panopio 1995).
However, democracy is a kind of government based on capitalism where the
government provides the major industries but allows private entities or individuals to
produce goods and services for the people; thus, citizens are given much freedom to
choose for themselves (Panopio 1995).
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS, STATE INSTITUTIONS
Certain organizations help keep these basic institutions in place. Politically, the Armed
Forces of the Philippines (AFP) helps the government maintain peace and order
throughout its territory. The Local Government Units (LGU) is created to cater the needs
of the local barangays or communities. The Department of Education (DepEd) ensures
the quality of education based on the needs and norms the society. The different
branches of the government create, implement, and interpret the laws we use as guide
for our conduct. These organized, political bodies are called state institutions.
Government-controlled state institutions fulfil the wishes of the Philippine State: public
service and public control. For example, the government may declare martial law in a
troubled area, and the AFP makes sure that this is strictly followed, whether the people
like it or not (De Leon 2008).
NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS
Ideally, in a democratic country, major industries must be under the control of the state,
like banks, petroleum, transportation, and communication because they are vital in the
economy of the country. However, in the recent years, the said industries are being sold
to private entities to carry away the burden from its operation and maintenance. Today,
private corporations headed by executives controls the major industries in the country
with very minimum government supervision, most of these are petroleum (Shell, Caltex
and Petron), telecommunication (Smart, Globe and PLDT), transportation (Cebu Pacific
and Philippine Air Lines), etc. These entities significantly affect the lives of the people
either directly or indirectly (Baleña 2016).
Meanwhile, corporations based on profit (ABS-CBN, GMA 7 and PTV 5) manage most
television networks in the country. They are duty bound to serve the public by giving
current news and information but more so entertainment to attract viewers. The more
viewers a station has, the more product advertisements coming in, and thus the profit
comes along. This is why television networks in the country are becoming antagonistic
as shown in their publicity ratings.
Moreover, if you wish to have a car but do not have the enough money to buy, one can
find a bank that offers car loan arrangements. If one wishes to own a business but
hesitant to fail, he or she may consider the stock market and be a shareholder in a
corporation. If a worker wants a better compensation, he or she may join and be part of
a trade union. These are just some examples of non-state institutions: non-
governmental organizations operating to satisfy many of our short-term and long-term,
small-scale and large-scale, and tangible and intangible
demands (De Leon 2008). Non-state institutions include the following: banks,
corporations, trade unions, cooperatives, development agencies, civil organizations,
and transnational advocacy groups.
1. Banks help us keep our money, avail different kinds of loan, and exchange
currencies. The accumulated money of the bank is invested to some projects to gain
profit; this is how banks pay their workers and depositors' interest depending on the
agreed terms.
Moreover, banks help the country by providing financial assistance to those
entrepreneurs who wanted to create or expand their business. By doing so, they also
provide job opportunities among local citizens.
Although there are state and non-state banks in the country, both types serve their
respective purposes. Yet, most depositors choose state banks because the government
itself backs it up, thus the possibility of bankruptcy is very small. On the other hand,
corporations or group of individuals manages non- state banks. Although ensured by the
government through the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, it is but only to a minimum extent.
Like in the case of certain banks, when a bank declares bankruptcy, each depositor
could only receive only a portion of their deposit (Contreras et al. 2016). Examples of
banks include the Bank of the Philippine Islands, Metrobank, and Rizal Commercial
Banking Corporation (RCBC).
2. A corporation is owned by a group of people, but has a separate legal identity (the
owners of a corporation are not responsible for its own debts).
Corporations offer stocks (determines level of ownership), as well as bonds (allows one
to earn interest). These generate large amounts of capital, which is needed for growth
(Contreras et al. 2016). Some well-known corporations are San Miguel Corporation,
Accenture, and Shell. Since a corporation is associated with various industries, it needs
a huge work force to run and operate. This provides job opportunities to number of
workers in the country and thus lessen the problem of poverty.
3. Trade unions. There are some entrepreneurs who are only after for profit, and they
tend to maximize working hours and minimize wages as much as possible. This is
where the trade union steps in. They look after the well-being of the workers.
Collectively, they raise issues such as low salary, lack of compensation, etc. to the
management that sometimes ends up with work "stoppage" or strike until the demands
of both sides are met. (Contreras et al. 2016).
Trade unions are created to protect the labor force of the country. Workers are essential
to the creation of goods and services for the citizenry. In the Philippines, the Trade
Union Congress of the Philippines has the largest membership.
4. Cooperatives are made up of people with common interest who agreed to work
together for easy, safe, and affordable access to commodities, loans, and other
services. They are created to help and empower one another with a minimum help from
the government (Contreras et al. 2016). Farmers' cooperatives and teachers'
cooperatives are common examples.
5. Development agencies promote progress by engaging in projects, policy- making,
and dialogue (Contreras et al. 2016). Some countries with active agencies in the
Philippines are Japan (JICA), Canada (CIDA), and U.S.A. (USAID). Those providing
financial assistance include the Asian Development Bank (ADB).
Development agencies works as a bank that provides financial assistance to important
projects. The creation of bridge that connects one province to another, or road
construction that helps ordinary farmers transport their products may be put into reality
through the help of these agencies.
6. Civil organizations include academic institutions, research teams, mass media,
religious organizations, and people's organizations. They provide facts about the life's
various realities to influence policy-making (Contreras et al. 2016).
These organizations are created to expose the conditions of the marginalized sector of
the society by using mass media as its platform as they raise critical issues to the
government.
7. Transnational advocacy groups influence the government to take action on matters
commonly neglected. A group maybe a national or an international organization that
promotes and advocates progress and development related to particular issues of the
society. (Contreras, et al., 2016). Greenpeace and Human Rights Watch are some
examples.

GROUP 4
QUARTER 2 - MODULE 2: FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. define the meaning of education and its functions in the society
2. explain the types of system of education in the Philippine context
3. determine the similarities and differences of formal and nonformal education;
4. value the functions and significance of education in providing productive citizens
based on the existing provisions of law.

The Meaning of Education, Types, Functions and its Importance

The Meaning of Education
Education (ej-oo-key-shuhn], the act or process of imparting or acquiring general
knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of
preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life
(https://www.dictionary.com/browse/education). However, education, as a social
institution has a different meaning. Dr. William Little (2014) held that education is a
social institution through which a society's children are taught basic academic
knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms.
Furthermore, the word education is derived from the Latin word "educare" which means
"to train", "to rear or bring-up (a child)". Hence, it plays a significant role in transferring
culture and social norms among members of society, in the process of training and
various modalities of educating. It enables individual to flourish their personality to
withstand the culture and social systems. It will always remain as an essential support
pillar in our society.
Hence, Alvin Toffler, an American writer and futurist, is popularly quoted for having said
"The illiterate of the twenty-first century will not be those who cannot read and write, but
those who cannot learn, unlearn and relearn." This marks the highlights of the extensive
journey that occurs in the field of education.
The System of Education in the Philippines
There are two types of education in the Philippines: the formal and the nonformal.
Formal education refers to the standardized method of hierarchically structured and
progressive schooling that corresponds to the general notion of elementary and
secondary and tertiary level of education. Yet, only the primary and secondary level is
compulsory to the students.
In the educational system of the Philippines, the elementary and secondary level is
administered and supervised by the Department of Education. Elementary level is
composed of kindergarten and six (6) years of primary education. Whereas, the
secondary contains four (4) years of junior high school and two (2) years of senior high
school. Furthermore, the tertiary level is administered and supervised by the
Commission on Higher Education. The actual years spent in this level depends on the
curriculum of each course.
Nonetheless, the nonformal education refers to an educational activity carried outside
the structure of a formal education. According to UNESCO, non-formal education can
cover programmes contributing to adult and youth literacy and education for out-of-
school children, as well as programmes on life skills, work skills, and social or cultural
development. Thus, this type of education is basically flexible, learner-centered,
contextualized and requires learners to participate in every activity. Also, the age of
learners in this category is not a necessity. One example is the Alternative Learning
System or ALS overseen by the Department of Education. ALS Non-formal Education
happens outside the classroom, community-based, usually conducted at community
learning centers, barangay multi-purpose hall, libraries or at home, managed by ALS
learning facilitators, such as mobile teachers, district ALS Coordinators, instructional
managers at an agreed schedule and venue between the learners and facilitators.
(https://www.deped.gov.ph/k-to-12/inclusive-education/about- alternative-learning-
system/)
The Functions of Education and its Importance
Whether formal or nonformal, education addresses various needs of this society.
Education also provides a "productive citizenry", and makes the "self- actualization"
possible. Productive citizens are necessary for the improvement of the community.
However, self-actualization refers to the desire for self-fulfilment or the tendency of
human to become actualized in what he is potentially. Again, education takes a vital part
to achieve the self-actualization.
Education has different functions. This consists of socialization, transmission of culture,
social integration social placement, and social and cultural innovation and/or
preservation.
a) Socialization. Socialization is an essential ingredient in creating a society. Since
school is an agent of socialization, thus, education helps transform human in becoming
literate and recognize its function in the society. Through education as a means of
socialization, we also learn social norms, values and culture that are fortified by our
teachers, our textbooks, and our classmates as well.
b) Transmission of Culture. Through socialization in school (teachers to learners, and
learner to learner), the transmission of culture is at the highest possible. Through
education, human learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of
their culture.
c) Social Integration. As the saying goes "nations are built because of education", this is
because education portrays an important role to unify individuals by teaching the
common values and social norms.
d) Social Placement. It could be a cliché that "all other professions rooted from
teachers" though, it is indeed the reality. Education provides a social placement for
everyone. It prepares us for the later station of our lives, and, to buy the necessities of
life. Now, this makes sense to "productive citizenry" and "self- actualization".
Nonetheless, it is not a secret that education can change one's life. "Having education
in an area helps people think, feel, and behave in a way that contributes to their
success, and improves not only their personal satisfaction but also their community"
(cited from Al-Shuaibi, Abdulghani, The Importance of Education, 2014).

Legal Provisions of Education: Education as a Human Right

It is stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the UN website:
Article 26:
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.
Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher
education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to
the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall
promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious
groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of
peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.
In the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article 14:
Section 1: The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality
education at all levels, and shall take appropriate steps to make such education
accessible to all.
Section 2, Paragraph 2: The state shall establish and maintain a system of
free public education in the elementary and high school levels. Without limiting the
natural right of parents to rear their children, elementary education is compulsory for all
children of school age;
The right to education is fundamental. It is non-discriminatory. Everyone has the right to
education regardless of race, ethnicity, social origin, gender, political preferences or
disability. It is also a vital human right in exercising all the other human rights.
Furthermore, it stimulates independence and concession to produce significant
development benefits for the country. It is a powerful instrument for economically and
socially marginalized individuals away from poverty to become productive citizen of the
country. Since education is a human right, every individual has an equal opportunity to
participate in an education system.
GROUP 5
QUARTER 2 - MODULE 3: CONCEPT, CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMS OF
STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. identify the concept of stratification using a pyramid of social classes;
2. compare and contrast the characteristics of two forms of stratification systems using
a Venn diagram;
3. identify social mobility and social inequality in understanding stratification systems in
sociological perspectives; and
4. view stratification systems as a way for social mobility and a reason of social
inequality in the society.
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Have you ever wondered why people don't have the same status in life when they were
born? Why are there rich and poor people in the society? Have you ever thought this
idea wondering what if you were born rich? On the other hand, what if you were born
poor? What if the society is some kind of Utopia where everything is just perfect and
equal?
Yet, whatever social class one belongs to in a society, it is hope that one may find
reasons to still be grateful, and live a life that is full of opportunities.
The idea of rich and the poor may be too familiar to everyone. It can be seen in Pinoy
teleseryes or Korean dramas that you watched back then, and it can be seen in reality
just like in the society where you are belong. The activities that you encountered a while
ago introduced you to the new lesson which is about categorizing individuals or group of
people based on factors such as power, wealth and prestige. This is called Social
Classes and the layering of these social classes from higher to lower class is called
Social Stratification. Social stratification is defined as the hierarchical arrangement and
establishment of social categories that may evolve into social groups together with
statuses and their corresponding roles in the society (Cordero-McDonald, et al., 1995,
380). Let's take a look on the pyramid of social classes shown below:

Social stratification is divided into three social classes. At the top of the pyramid is
where the Upper Class. This class in the society is described by the sociologists as elite
individuals or group of people that are most prolific and successful in their respective
areas. These people may be stockholders and investors in very huge well-known
companies from different industries here and abroad. In the second activity earlier,
Henry Sy, Sr. and Lucio Tan, Sr. are both considered elite who belong to the upper class
of social stratification. According to the "List of 50 richest Filipinos in 2014" of Pinoy
Money Talk website (as cited by Lanuza and Raymundo 2016, 109), Henry Sy, Sr. and
his family had a net worth of $12.7 billion, while Lucio Tan, Sr. and his family had a net
worth of $6.1 billion. These people may own big companies and huge mansions here
and abroad, mingle with the same class, own fancy cars, and value wealthy heritage.
Dividing the upper class and lower class is the Middle Class. Middle class are mostly
professional individuals or groups of people like lawyers, doctors, managers, owners of
small businesses in the locality, and executives who work in the corporate world, etc.
They are able to meet both their needs and wants without even worrying about their
finances because of the job and salary they have. They live in spacious houses and
situated in best suburbs. Their income can afford them a comfortable lifestyle. They
value education the most since education to them is the most important measure of
social status.
Last but not the least, the lowest part of the pyramid of social classes is where the
Lower Class situated. These are the skilled and unskilled artisan, farm employees,
underemployed, and indigent families. Because of the given status in life, these people
lack revenue or income and educational training or background. Without the proper
education, some of them are jobless or have difficulty to find a job in order to make ends
meet. They also lack support network that could lift them up.
How did stratification system started? Remember the lesson about the earliest form of
human societies. According to the sociologists and anthropologists, in earliest societies,
people shared a common social standing: there was no social class back then.

As societies evolved and became more complex, it began to elevate some members of
the society through land acquisition and social status or social entitlement. In the
earliest civilization, there were kings and priests as the upper class, scribes, merchants
and artisans as the middle class, and slaves as the lower class.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS

Imagine two extremely wealthy people. One of them inherited their money. acquiring it
through the luck that comes with being born to parents or owners of immense amounts
of property and wealth, while the other person worked for what he/she had. That person
started at the bottom, and through years of hard work and strategic dealing in life was
able to build a business empire of their own.
Now, which one would you say deserves the wealth? Sociologically, the interesting
aspect isn't your answer to the question; it's the fact that different societies, in different
times and places, have different answers because the question of what it means to
deserve wealth, success, or power, is a matter of social stratification
Let's take a look at the different characteristics of social stratification, Social stratification
is:
1. Universal but variable. Social stratification is what we are talking about when we talk
about social inequality and social mobility. Society categorizes people and ranks them in
a hierarchy. Everything, from social status, prestige, to the kind of job one holds, or to
the chances of living in poverty, is affected by social stratification.
Stratification is universal but variable because it shows up in every society in the world,
but how exactly it looks like, how it divides and categorizes people, and what the
advantages or disadvantages are that come with that division - vary from society to
society.
2. Not a matter of individual differences. People are obviously different from each other,
so we might assume that stratification is just a kind of natural outcome of differences,
but in reality, it is not. We know we can see the effects of social stratification on people
regardless of their personal choices or traits. For example, children of wealthy families
are more likely to live longer and be healthier, to attend college, and to excel in school
as compared to children born into poverty. Moreover, they are more likely to be wealthy
themselves when they grow up.
3. Persists across generations. Stratification serves to categorize and rank members of
society across generations, resulting in different life chances. Yet generally, society
allows some degree of social mobility, or changes in the position within the social
hierarchy. People sometimes move upward or downward in social class, which is the
basic concept of social mobility.
4. A social beliefs. A society's cultural beliefs tell us how to categorize people, and they
define inequalities of a stratification system as being normal, or even fair. If people don't
believe that the system is right, it won't last. Beliefs are what make systems of social
stratification work and it is through these beliefs about social stratification that inform
what it means to deserve wealth, success, or power.

GROUP 6
FORMS OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS
1. CLOSE SYSTEM OF STRATIFICATION
India's Caste System is probably one of the best-known forms of close system of
stratification. While it is a social system of decreasing importance, it still holds in parts of
rural India, and has a strong legacy across the country. The traditional caste system
contains four large divisions called Varnas. It consists of Brahmin, or priests and
academics in their native language, as placed at the top of the hierarchy; followed by
Khsatriya or the rulers (kings), warriors, and administrators; then Vaishya or merchants
and landowners; and last is the Shudra or the commoners, peasants and servants.

The system required endogamy - marriage within your own caste category. In everyday
life, the caste system determines whom one could interact with, and how, with systems
of social control, contact between lower and higher castes is restricted. This whole
system is based on a set of strong cultural and religious beliefs that living within your
own category is a moral and spiritual duty - the reason why gods are on the top of the
pyramid because caste system is governed by religious beliefs of Hinduism.
2. OPEN SYSTEM OF STRATIFICATION
Class System is one of the best examples of open system of stratification and is not
based solely on ascribed status at birth alone. Instead, it combines ascribed status and
personal achievement or achieved status in a way that allows some social mobility.
Statuses are not the same. We get different statuses in different ways and chances.
Some are ascribed statuses, which are assigned or given by the society or group based
on some fixed category, without regard to a person's abilities or performance. Examples
of ascribed status are sex, family background, race, and ethnic heritage or wealth. A
person did nothing to earn these statuses, nor has control over these characteristics
and had no opportunity or chance to choose family, sex, and race. On the other hand,
achieved statuses are earned by the individual. The following scenarios serve as
examples.
A poor teenager becomes an actress-singer after winning in a television contest. A
college graduate lands a good job because the quality of his or her performance
satisfied his or her employer. With achieved statuses, one establishes which statuses
he or she wants. Frequently, a person struggles and exerts more effort on others to get
hold of them. Class is the system of stratification we have in Philippine society. The
main difference between caste and class systems is that class systems are open, and
social mobility is not legally restricted to certain people. It is possible that through hard
work and perseverance, a citizen can move up the social hierarchy, and achieve a
higher-class standing. Instead of ancestry, lineage, or race being the key to social
division, the Philippine system of stratification has elements of meritocracy: a system in
which social mobility is based on personal merit and individual talents. Every Filipino's
dream is that anyone, no matter how poor, can "pull himself/herself up" and become
upwardly class mobile through hard work and perseverance.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
1. FUNCTIONALISM. At the beginning, we may think of social stratification as merely
only creating social inequality among groups of people. In some aspects of social life, it
is true. But social inequality brought by social stratification base from wealth, prestige,
and power of social groups, is indeed functional in the society according to Functionalist
Theory. Every social class has its purpose or role to play a part in the society. We can't
expect the owner of a certain business empire to do a construction works; but instead,
he will hire someone to do it for himself. The upper class, although they are getting
richer because they have the capacity to exploit natural and man-made resources
simply because they have the money. Their role in the society could create job
opportunities for other social classes below them. In fact, there are jobs not requiring a
college degree. In this sense, those who are not able to finish their studies can still be
hired. Those with college degree can be employed with a higher paid salary and good
position in a company.
2. CONFLICT THEORY. This sociological perspective is the opposite of the latter. Karl
Marx viewed social stratification as creation of inequality between the rich and the poor,
or the powerful versus the powerless. Let's say for example: The bourgeois capitalists
owning high-producing businesses or factories and hire people who work for them. They
can enjoy the luxury of life because they earn billions of money. However, proletariats
are the working class earned skimpy wages and experiencing isolation to the society.
The very essence of life is to enjoy it with loved ones. However, working class did not
experience this joy because they are isolated to do the labor for long hours each day to
earn money at the end of the month. Marx argued that proletariats were oppressed by
the money-hungry bourgeois.
3. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM. Symbolic interactionism view social stratification on
a micro level where individuals affect others whom they have interacted because of their
social class status. In most societies, people can only interact only to those with the
same social class status. For an instance, it is rare for a royal prince or princess to
marry a commoner because the commoner don't have the same class status as to royal
prince or princess. But now, there are royal marriages already break this tradition.
GROUP 7
QUARTER 2 - MODULE 4:
GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS AND SUGGESTIONS IN ADDRESSING SOCIAL
INEQUALITIES
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. explain government programs and initiative in addressing social inequalities;
2. discuss social inequality, problems it may create and things that we can do to lessen
the impact of social inequality.
3. suggest ways that could address social inequalities that you can identify within your
group or community by creating your own social class autobiography.

THE GOVERNMENT AND SOCIAL INEQUALITIES

The prevalence of social inequality in any society cannot be dismissed. In fact,
President Obama (2013) said inequality is "the defining challenge of our time." It has
been part of us and is ever growing and expanding as time goes by.

Social inequality can be describes as a state of social affairs in which there is difference
in opportunity, status and treatment among the member of a given society.

As Lee and Rawls (2010) assert it, it is more than just a case of geographic difference.
While persons from economically advantaged backgrounds have always gone to
college at higher rates than their less-privileged peers, these gaps have expanded since
the 1980s.
However pervasive these inequalities might be, though, it could still be addressed. The
government, having identified these inequalities, tries to formulate viable projects and
initiatives to support research on programs, policies, and practices that reduce
inequality in different sectors of the society. It extends to many areas like youth
development, reflecting disparities in arenas beyond education such as mental health,
criminal justice, and workforce development (Alegria, Vallas, and Pumariega 2010;
Fader, Kurlychek, and Morgan 2014; Schwartz, Ferguson, and Symonds 2010).

The cry of the minority (any small group in society that is different from the rest because
of their race, religion, or political beliefs, or a person who belongs to such a group) roots
from the desire to achieve social inclusion. Social inclusion is a fundamental principle of
social justice. It is the process of improving the terms for individuals and groups to take
part in society" and "the process of improving the ability, opportunity, and dignity of
people, disadvantaged on the basis of their identity, to take part in society" (World Bank,
2013, pp. 3-4).

In the Philippines, for instance, the gap between rich and poor regions widens
even more. To address this, the National Economic and Development Authority calls
for higher spending on infrastructure and social services.

In 2019, Socioeconomic Planning Undersecretary Adoracion Navarro said the inequality

in gross regional domestic product (GRDP) per capita, or the average income of people
in a region, has widened from 2009 to 2018, according to data from the Philippine
Statistics Authority.
The richest among all regions is the National Capital Region (NCR), where the GRDP
per capita as of 2018 stood at P253,893, a 40% jump from the P181,748 in 2009.
The poorest is the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), with its GRDP per
capita barely improving from P14,052 in 2009 to P14,657 in 2018.
This is just one of the many social inequalities identified by the government which are
either already addressed with existing programs or are still being studied for possible
formulation of viable projects.

GOVERNMENT INITIATED PROGRAMS

The following table shows some of the programs the government has developed to help
alleviate social inequalities in the country.

Despite these, although people recognize that no single program or project could
actually lead to major changes, the government should still assure that the measures it
is taking are toward approaches, programs, policies, and practices that work to reduce
prevailing inequality in the country.

What is Social Inequality?

The best description of what social inequality is the uneven distribution of wealth in our
country, where few rich people had more, and the less fortunate people have less in life.
We often structure society by the way we divide people through different social classes.
Labeling the society as the upper class, middle class and the lower or working class.
These classes were often made on the basis of their jobs and income. One thing that
we know is that as they go up in a social ladder, they often have better access to
education, healthcare, and other services such as housing, electricity, technology, clean
water, and good nutrition.
One of the best examples of social inequality brought about by this structured are felt by
our minority group of people. They tend to have greater degree of inequality
experienced as manifested by their lower income, lower education opportunities, reduce
access to healthcare
Aside from our minorities, very poor people also experience greater social
disadvantages.
Social inequality was also very evident in gender to, we know that being female carries
with them certain disadvantages to social equality and that female always experience
differences in terms of pay from their work, and were not given equal opportunities to be
promoted to higher positions in a private company or public institutions
What will happen when we have high rates of social inequality?
People might feel that they are socially excluded and politically disempowered. This
feeling may potentially create a combination of things which can lead to civil unrest and
may tempt people to do criminal activities.
What can we do about social inequality?
The government has the main duty to wind down if they cannot make it even all these
forms of social inequalities. It is one of the most important functions they carried out.
Their scope of power involves the exercise of authority in the production, distribution,
and use of resources. This describes who gets what and under what circumstances.
Variety of government schemes to allow financial support or social support like such as
food stamps for individuals facing considerable hardships. They can try and identify and
remove barriers to healthcare and education for people facing hardships. They can
carry out further research into these vulnerable populations to help understand their
needs and try to figure out suitable interventions where they can make a difference into
lives of these people and allow them to integrate better to our and become productive
members of society.
Addressing social inequality was not the role of the government at all. Other people and
organizations may take initiative to come together to push for the advancement of their
common interests by means of collective actions. These organizations known as the
civil society organizations and non-governmental organizations are consider as non-
state, nonprofit, and voluntary organizations play an important role in addressing
problems of inequality. They were considered as the third sector of the society who work
side by side with government and business sectors. One example are the private and
business foundations and independent NGO's of Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
helping the poor in the developing and undeveloped countries. Red Cross Philippines
provides emergency relief, health needs and basic needs assistance of those who are
in need. Trade Union of the Philippines which provides help and legal assistance to our
working class who experiences injustices and maltreatment in the workplace.
Social inequality remains a problem and should be everybody's concern. Global peace
will not be possible for as long as problems arising from this inequality persisted. As
what Nelson Mandela of South Africa said and I quoted; "As long as poverty, injustice
and gross inequality persist in our world none of us can truly rest."
So make your move and do you share.

GROUP 8
FACTORS CAUSING SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE
(search on the internet)
GROUP 9
QUARTER 2 - MODULE 6: NEW CHALLENGES IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETIES
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. describe how human societies adapt to new challenges in the physical, social and
cultural environment.
2. analyze how human societies adapt to new challenges in global warming and climate
change.
3. identify the concepts of transnational migration and Overseas Filipino Workers
(OFWs) across the world.
4. value the importance of adaptation in the physical, social and cultural environment.

New Challenges Contemporary Societies: Human Adaptation and Social Change

"As human beings we do change, grow, adapt, perhaps even learn and become wiser."
- Wendy Carlos
A progressive society requires social change. However, there are challenges which we
must overcome in order to ensure this. With the society's development comes a new
challenge that everyone must face. Everyone must realize that responding to social,
political, and cultural change has a great impact to the society.
Many of the changes that people have experienced throughout the history come with
numerous challenges which must overcome. It is for this reason that people devised
various ways of dealing with social, political, and cultural change through involvement
and collective action. These actions are what we need in order to respond to the social,
political, and cultural changes that are happening.
Social change, in anthropology and sociology, refers to the modification of mechanisms,
means methods, or systems within the social structure, characterized by alterations in
social relationships, social order social symbols, social organizations, value system, or
rules of behaviour. Examples of social change include the industrial revolution, the
abolition of slavery, the civil rights movement and the women's suffrage movement, etc.
Cultural change could be seen in the practices, institutions, technology, societal laws,
ethos or mores (moral norms), manners, value systems, customs, traditions, habits,
beliefs, arts, music, and literatures. Some of the examples are changes in the manner of
choosing a spouse and adopting a new lifestyle.
Political Change, on the other hand, denotes alterations in the governmental aspect of a
society, such as changes in the administrative, executive, legislative, judicial, and
constitutional processes, systems, and structures. Examples are constitutional
amendments and the shift from presidential to parliamentary form of government.
Global Warming and Climate Change
Global warming is generally described as a gradual increase in the average
temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and its oceans. It is mainly caused heat being
trapped in the earth known as greenhouse effect. This environmental change is
irreversible, and later would permanently change the earth's climate. As such, climate
change becomes a global concern to every nation, especially to those highly
industrialized countries.
Greenhouse Gases and Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse Effect is the process wherein radiation from the earth's atmosphere warms
its surface to a temperature above what it would be in the absence of its atmosphere. It
is caused by greenhouse gases.
Effects of Climate Change
1. Rainfall patterns
2. Surface temperature and cyclones
3. Coastline Changes
4. Water level changes
5. Food productivity
6. Forest cover
7. Desertification of lands

Ways to Address Global Warming

1. Current adaptation strategies Humans have to strategize in order to adapt to the
impacts of climate change. We can adapt through minimizing our carbon emission and
adopt a more environmental-friendly methods of living such as electric-based
transportation. However, adaptation alone is not expected to be able to cope with
environmental effects of climate change since some of the effects of global warming are
irreversible already.
2. Vulnerability of populations to climate change Human population is vulnerable to
climate change caused by different factors such as pollution, conflicts, or epidemics. We
can engage on sustainable development activities, such as reforestation, recycling and
the use of renewable resources to help
human societies reduce their vulnerability to climate change.
3. Mitigation and adaptation
Mitigation measures to reduce greenhouse gases emission can help to avoid, reduce or
delay impacts of climate change to ensure that the adaptation capacity of people is
maximize in its full efficiency.

Although the climate problem will not be solved without government responses, various
private sectors such as business corporations, advocacy groups, and other non-
governmental institutions are actively engaging to reduce the cause of climate problem
specifically global warming.
Accordingly, the private sectors are particularly important because climate policy is
shared responsibility between the public and private sectors of the society. The private
sector responses also called as private climate governance can be collaborated with
government responses.
Transnational Migration: Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)
Since the late 20th century, the rise of globalization has changed the concept of
migration. Improvements in transportation, communication, and financial systems have
made it easier for people to migrate to work in another country but still provide for their
families in their home countries by sending their earning home.
Transnational Migration is a global phenomenon that is mounting scope, complexity and
impact. Migration is both a cause and effect of broader development processes and an
intrinsic feature of our globalizing world.
Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)
Filipinos often have the mindset that when they work abroad, they would be able to
support and sustain the needs of the families away from poverty.
Overseas Filipino Workers is a term often used to refer to Filipino migrant workers,
people with Filipino citizenship who reside in another country for a limited period of
employment. OFW Immigrants go to other countries because of poverty. These people
migrate for economic purposes. Their primary goal is to earn much larger amount of
salary to support their families in their home country.
The sacrifices of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) make just to provide a better life for
their families earned them the title of the nation's bagong bayani (new heroes). In recent
years, the improvement of the economy often attributed to their remittances further
cemented their mark in the Philippines. According to the Philippine Overseas
Employment Administration (POEA), there were a total of 1,844,406 OFWs in 2015
1,437,875 land-based and 406,531 sca-based.

Empowering OFWS
Overseas Filipino Workers' (OFWs) face a lot of challenges as they seek a better
opportunity abroad. Because of difference in social and cultural structures of other
countries, OFWs are prone to violence manifested through labor exploitation, abuse of
employers, leading to some legal issues. Despite the difficulties faced by the OFWs,
they are persistently pursuing to work abroad to lift their families from poverty. Other
OFWs have chosen to work abroad for better salary, which the local employers could
not provide them. Still, there are OFWs who are forced to work abroad due to
underemployment caused by job mismatch in work opportunity and workers' skills in the
country. Nonetheless, there are few non-governmental organizations that continuously
provide support system to OFWs to protect their rights, and assist them to fulfil their
employment goals while working abroad.